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PDF Text
Text
Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
IZVRŠENJE NA
Sažetak
NEKRETNINAMA U
SVJETLU PROPISA
IZVRŠNOG,
ZEMLJIŠNOKNJIŽNOG I
STVARNOG PRAVA U
BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI
Mogućnost
izvršenja
na
izvršenikovom neupisanom pravu
na nekretnini uslovljena je pravilnim
razumijevanjem
definicije
nove
zakonske
načela
upisa.
Neusaglašenost
odredaba
materijalnog prava u pogledu dejstva
REAL ESTATE
uknjižbe i trenutka u kojem se stiče
ENFORCEMENT IN
pravo na nekretnini dovodi do
THE LIGHT OF
različitih
REGULATIONS OF
DISTRAINT LAW, LAND
REGISTRY LAW AND
pravnih
shvatanja
u
pravnoj teoriji, što može generirati
pojavu
neujednačene
prakse
u
primjeni prava. U radu je izvršena
analiza odredaba izvršnog, a u vezi s
PROPERTY LAW IN
odredbama
BOSNIA AND
stvarnog prava, koje predviđaju
HERZEGOVINA
mogućnost izvršenja na nekretnini
zemljišnoknjižnog
i
koja je u samostalnom posjedu
Prof. dr. Hamid Mutapčić
Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli
hamid.mutapcic@untz.ba
JEL klasifikacija: K11, K25
DOI: 10.14706/DOI21412
izvršenika, odnosno na nekretnini na
kojoj
izvršenik
ima
utvrđeno
vanknjižno pravo vlasništva.
Ključne
nekretnini,
riječi:
Izvršenje
Samostalan
na
posjed
nekretnine, Vanknjižno vlasništvo
23
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
Abstract
Key words: Enforcement on real
estate, Adverse possession of real
The possibility of distraint
on
the
enforcement
debtor's
estate,
Unregistered
right
of
ownership
unregistered right on real estate is
conditioned
by
a
correct
understanding of the new legal
definition of the principle of
registration. The inconsistency of
the provisions of substantive law
regarding the effect of registration
and the moment in which the right
on real estate is acquired leads to
different legal understandings in
legal theory, which can generate the
emergence of uneven practice in the
application
of
law. This
article
analyzes the provisions of Distraint
Law, and in connection with the
provisions of Land registry Law and
Property Law, which provide for the
possibility of enforcement on real
estate that is in the adverse
possession of the enforcement
debtor, or on the real estate on
which the debtor has established
unregistered right of ownership.
24
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
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Uvod
Unazad nekoliko decenija
zemljišnoknjižno stanje nekretnina u
Bosni i Hercegovini ne odgovara
stvarnom pravnom stanju. Često se
dešava
da
upisana
osoba
u
zemljišnoj knjizi nije stvarni vlasnik
iz razloga što ona nema i samostalan
posjed nekretnine, zbog čega je njen
upis samo formalnog karaktera.
Nesređeno zemljišnoknjižno stanje
generira pojavu različitih pravnih
shvatanja u vezi s postupcima u
kojima je predmet nekretnina koja je
u samostalnom posjedu trećeg lica.
Takva shvatanja doprinose pojavi
neujednačene prakse u primjeni
prava, čime se narušava načelo
pravne sigurnosti kao jedno od
temeljnih načela pravnog poretka
Bosne i Hercegovine.
prinudno
ostvarivanje
povjeriočevog
potraživanja
ostvaruje prodajom nekretnine koja
u zemljišnoj knjizi nije upisana u
korist izvršenika. Navedenu pravnu
mogućnost
jeste i izvršni postupak u kojem se
V. čl. 70. st. 2., a u vezi s čl. 37. Zakona o
izvršnom postupku FBiH – ZIP FBiH
(Službene novine FBiH 32/03), odnosno
34
odredbe
izvršnog prava.34 Međutim, pravilna
primjena ovih odredaba uslovljena je
pravilnim razumijevanjem odredaba
materijalnog prava koje propisuju
dejstvo uknjižbe i momenat u kojem
se stiču prava na nekretninama.
Osnovni preduslov za namirenje
povjerioca
iz
izvršenikovog
neupisanog prava na nekretnini jeste
da je on (izvršenik) stvarni titular
takvog prava, bez obzira da li je
njegovo
pravo
evidentirano
u
zemljišnoj knjizi ili ne. Svrha
izvršnog postupka jeste namirenje
dosuđenog potraživanja povjerioca
protiv osobe koja je u vjerodostojnoj
izvršnoj
Jedan od takvih postupaka
predviđaju
ispravi
označena
kao
dužnik, ali samo na način da se
sredstva osiguraju iz imovine na
Zakona o izvršnom postupku RS – ZIP RS
(Službeni glasnik RS 59/03, 85/03).
25
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
kojoj izvršenik ima ustanovljeno
propisima
koji
imperativno
pravo vlasništva.
zahtijevaju da stečena subjektivna
prava trebaju biti izraz slobodne
Specifični
način
volje pravnih subjekata. Stoga je za
evidentiranja nekretnina i prava na
pravilno
nekretninama, kao i momenat u
problema potrebno dovesti u vezu
kojem se stiče pravo vlasništva na
navedene odredbe izvršnog prava s
nekretnini, uslovljava pravilnost i
odredbama materijalnog prava koje
zakonitost
provedenog
predviđaju trenutak u kojem se stiče
postupka.
Odredbe
izvršnog
Zakona
razumijevanje
ovog
o
pravo vlasništva na nekretnini. Ovo
izvršnom postupku, koji ima status
iz razloga što su uslovi za promjenu
pravnog propisa lex specialis u
zemljišnoknjižnog stanja ispunjeni
ovakvim postupcima, dozvoljavaju
samo ukoliko je neupisani titular
izvršenje i na nekretnini koja je u
postao vlasnik nekretnine i bez
vanknjižnom vlasništvu izvršenika,
provedene uknjižbe.
ali samo pod uslovom da je, po
utvrđenju
prava,
U tom slučaju promjena
promjenu
zemljišnoknjižnog stanja u funkciji
zemljišnoknjižnog stanja.35 Pri tome
je neometanog postupka provedbe
je važno imati u vidu dvije pravno
izvršenja na nekretnini, prije svega
relevantne činjenice. Jedna se tiče
zbog upisa zabilježbe izvršenja kao
postojanja izvršenikovog prava na
jedne
neupisanoj nekretnini, što jasno
izvršnih radnji. Međutim, ukoliko
proizilazi iz navedenih odredaba
izvršenik nije ispunio sve materijalne
izvršnog
pretpostavke
ispunjen
izvšenikovog
uslov
prava.
za
Druga
pravno
od
zakonom
za
propisanih
sticanje
prava
relevantna činjenica u ovakvim
vlasništva na nekretnini, koja je u
postupcima u vezi je sa pravnim
njegovom samostalnom, odnosno
35
Ibid
26
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
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samostalnom
kvalifikovanom
izvršnog prava u vezi s predmetom
posjedu, onda bi nalog izvršnog
istraživanja, u radu su prezentirana
suda za upis prava vlasništva u korist
takva rješenja u kontekstu aktuelnog
izvršenika bio protivan dispozitivnoj
procesa reforme zemljišnoknjižnog
naravi pravnih propisa prema kojima
prava, a sve u cilju zauzimanja
se prava stiču voljom pravnih
ispravnog
subjekata.
mjerodavnog prava. Naročito se
stava
po
pitanju
ukazuje na ulogu i značaj načela
Promjena zemljišnoknjižnog
povjerenja za sveukupni proces
stanja po nalogu suda u takvim
reforme u ovoj oblasti, kao i na
okolnostima ne bi bila u gore
zakonsku poziciju ovog načela u
navedenoj funkciji, već prije svega u
novom stvarnom pravu, što je od
funkciji
izuzetnog
prava
konstituiranja
u
korist
stvarnog
samostalnog
značaja
razumijevanje
za
pravilno
nove
zakonske
posjednika nekretnine. U radu je
definicije načela upisa, odnosno za
izvršena analiza odredaba izvršnog
utvrđivanje
prava koje ukazuju na mogućnost
samostalni posjednici nekretnina
sprovođenja izvršenja na nekretnini
postaji vlasnici nekretnina.
trenutka
u
kojem
koja nije upisana u korist izvršenika,
te se ukazuje na okolnosti u kojima
su
ispunjene
pretpostavke
za
promjenu zemljišnoknjižnog stanja.
Obzirom
da
Mogućnost izvršenja na
izvršenikovom
neupisanom pravu
odredbe
zemljišnoknjižnog i stvarnog prava
predviđaju
različita
rješenja
u
Da bi se ostvarila svrha
pravosnažno okončanog postupka
pogledu uknjižbe i njenog dejstva,
kondemnatornom
presudom
što je od esencijalnog značaja za
situaciji
dužnik
pravilno razumijevanje odredaba
dobrovoljno
kada
izvršio
u
nije
dosuđenu
27
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
obavezu, neophodno je da se na
materijalne pretpostavke za konačno
osnovu prijedloga tražioca izvršenja
sticanje
sprovede izvršni postupak nad stvari
neupisanoj
koja je u vlasništvu izvršenika.
izvršenika ili ne.
Predmet
izvršenja
mogu
prava
vlasništva
nekretnini
u
na
korist
biti
pokretne i nepokretne stvari, kao i
Neujednačena
zakonska
subjektivna građanska prava koja
rješenja
materijalnog
prava
u
imaju imovinsku vrijednost.
pogledu uknjižbe i njenog dejstva,
generiraju pojavu različitih pravnih
Postupak
izvršenja
nad
sprovođenja
nekretninama
shvatanja, što može doprinijeti i
pojavi
neujednačene
prakse
u
uslovljen je specifičnim načinom
primjeni prava. Stoga se pitanje
evidentiranja nekretnina i prava na
utvrđivanja mjerodavnog prava u
nekretninama, jer se za nosioca
pogledu momenta u kojem se stiču
prava na nekretnini smatra da je to
prava na nekretninama nameće kao
ona osoba koja je upisana u
prethodno pitanje
zemljišnoj knjizi, odnosno u katastar
mogućnosti izvršenja na nekretnini
nepokretnosti.36 Međutim, stutus
koja nije upisana u korist izvršenika,
vlasnika nekretnine nerijetko ima i
o čemu ćemo više kazati u nastavku
ona osoba čije ime nije javno
ovog rada.
u kontekstu
evidentirano u nekoj od navedenih
formi upisa nekretnina. Za postupak
Ranije
stvarno
pravo
izvršenja vrlo je važno utvrditi da li
pružalo je mogućnost sticanja prava
su u vrijeme podnošenja prijedloga
na nekretnini i bez upisa u zemljišnu
za
izvršenje
ispunjene
sve
Stupanjem na snagu Zakona o premjeru i
katastru Republike Srpske (Službeni glasnik
Republike Srpske br. 6/12.) praktično se
ukida zemljišna knjiga na prostoru ovog
36
bosanskohercegovačkog entiteta, te se
prelazi na sistem jedinstvene evidencije
nekretnina.
28
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
knjigu,37
predmet
činjenicu da su zemljišne knjige u
izvršenja mogle biti i nekretnine koje
velikom broju slučajeva bile netačne
su
vlasništvu
i nepotpune, rješavajući pravne
izvršenika, odnosno nekretnine koje
sporove nastale usljed višestrukog
su u zemljišnoj knjizi bile upisane u
otuđenja iste nekretnine sudska
korist nekog drugog lica.38 Takođe i
praksa je permanentno negirala
ranija sudska praksa ima značajnu
primjenu pravila zemljišnoknjižnog
ulogu
prava i prednost uglavnom davala
u
tako
da
su
vanknjižnom
u
afirmaciji
kategorije
vanknjižnog vlasništva. Uvažavajući
vanknjižnim titularima.39
V. čl. 33. Zakon o svojinsko pravnim
odnosima – ZOSPO, Službeni list SFRJ br.
6/1980. i čl. 38. Zakona o vlasničko
pravnim odnosima - ZOVO, Službene
novine FBiH br. 6/98 i 29/03.
38 Najčešći vanknjižni način sticanja prava
vlasništva na nekretnini jeste dosjelost, pa
ćemo u nastavku ovaj način sticanja prava
koristiti kao primjer za rasvjetljavanje svih
nejasnoća u vezi sa problemom istraživanja
ovog rada. Shodno odredbama ranijeg
stvarnog prava, dosjeditelj je postajao
vlasnik nekretnine u trenutku ispunjenja
zakonom propisanih pretpostavki, a ne u
trenutku upisa u zemljišnu knjigu.
Eventualno provedeni upis proizvodio bi
samo
deklarativno
dejstvo.
Prema
odredbama novog zemljišnoknjižnog prava
za konačno sticanje prava dosjeditelja
potrebno je zatražiti i provedbu takvog
prava u zemljišnu knjigu. Ispunjenje
materijalnih pretpostavki predviđenih
stvarnim
pravom,
te
postojanje
pravosnažne odluke suda kojom je
utvrđeno pravo dosjeditelja, nije dovoljno
za sticanje prava vlasništva na nekretnini po
osnovu dosjelosti. Time je dosjelost kao
način sticanja prava u potpunosti
izjednačena sa derivativnim načinom
sticanja prava vlasništva na nekretnini. Bez
obzira da li je osnov upisa punovažan
ugovor ili pravosnažna sudska presuda,
samostalni posjednik postaće vlasnik
nekretnine tek u trenutku podnošenja
zahtjeva za upis. V. više (o tome): M.
Povlakić, Transformacija stvarnog prava u
BiH, Sarajevo, 2009, str. 98, M. Povlakić,
Reforma zemljišnoknjižnog prava kao dio
ukupne reforme građanskog prava, Zbornik
radova Aktualnosti građanskog i trgovačkog
zakonodavstva i pravne prakse, Mostar,
2003, str. 244.
39 „Samo pouzdanjem u zemljišnu knjigu i
upisom prava svojine na kupljenoj
nepokretnosti, kupac se ne može smatrati
jačim u pravu nasuprot ranijem sticaocu koji
nepokretnost drži u posedu, ako je prema
njemu nastupio osnov za sticanje prava
svojine održajem.“ (Odluka Vrhovnog suda
Srbije, Rev. 4740/92, navedeno prema S.
Vuković, Sudska praksa iz svojinskopravnih
odnosa, Beograd, 2003, Poslovni biro, str.
264.) „Lice koje ima pravni osnov sticanja i
posed nepokretnosti jače je u pravu od
zemljišno-knjižnog imaoca prava svojine.“
(Odluka Vrhovnog suda Vojvodine, Gž.
103/89, Ibid, str. 254.) „Kada se u sporu
pojavljuju dva prava na istoj nepokretnosti,
i to zemljišno-knjižno pravo i pravo koje
proizilazi iz presude, uvek je jači u pravu
37
29
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Navedena zakonska rješenja,
Kada je u pitanju mogućnost
kao i dominantna pravna shvatanja u
izvršenja
primjeni
neupisanom
prava,
značajno
su
na
izvršenikovom
pravu,
onda
je
doprinijela destabilizaciji zemljišne
potrebno imati u vidu dvije situacije
knjige i otežanom pravnom prometu
usljed kojih izvršenik stiče određena
nekretnina, što je uslovilo još veću
prava u pogledu nekretnine. U
pojavu sudskih sporova ove vrste. U
jednom slučaju radi se o vanknjižno
namjeri
stečenom
da
osigura
zakonske
pravu
vlasništva
na
pretpostavke za stabilnu i efikasnu
nekretnini, i to najčešće po osnovu
zemljišnu knjigu, usvajanjem zakona
redovne ili vanredne dosjelosti, dok
o zemljišnim knjigama entitetski
se u drugom slučaju radi o pravu
zakonodavci započeli su proces
pretpostavljenog vlasnika, koji je
reforme zemljišnoknjižnog prava.40
pribavio
samostalan
posjed
nekretnine po osnovu punovažno
zaključenog
onaj koji je u posedu imovine.“ (Odluka
Vrhovnog suda Srbije, Rev. 120/80, Ibid,
str. 257.) „Tužilac koji dokaže da ima pravni
osnov sticanja prava vlasništva na
nekretnini ima jače pravo od kasnijeg
nesavjesnog sticaoca koji je ishodio
uknjižbu prava vlasništva.“ (Odluka
Vrhovnog suda BiH, Rev. 618/86 od
18.06.1987. godine, Bilten sudske prakse
Vrhovnog suda BiH, br. 4/87, str. 15.)
„Kupac je dužan prilikom kupovine da
provjeri ne samo na osnovu uvida u
zemljišnu knjigu ko je vlasnik, nego i u
prirodi (na terenu) ko je u posjedu te
nekretnine.“ (Odluka Vrhovnog suda
Vojvodine, Rev. 272/89, navedeno prema
D. Stamenković, Priručnik za upise u
zemljišnu knjigu i katastar nepokretnosti,
Beograd, 1991, Savremena administracija,
str. 59.) „Kod kupovanja nepokretnosti nije
ugovora.
Postoje
dovoljno da se kupac osloni samo na
zemljišno-knjižno stanje, već je dužan da bi
bio savestan, da se interesuje i utvrdi ko i po
kom osnovu drži nepokretnost koja je
predmet kupoprodaje.“ (Odluka Vrhovnog
suda Jugoslavije, Rev. 266/68, od 19. 02.
1969., navedeno prema O. Stanković, M.
Orlić, Stvarno pravo, Beograd, 2001,
Nomos, str. 339.)
40
Aktuelni
proces
reforme
zemljišnoknjižnog prava, kao i iskazana
intencija zakonodavca u entitetskim
zakonima o zemljišnim knjigama, od
presudnog je značaja za pravilno
razumijevanja nove zakonske definicije
načela upisa, što je u vezi s mogućnošću
sprovođenja izvršenja na nekretnini koja je
u samostalnom posjedu izvršenika,
odnosno na nekretnini koja nije upisana u
korist izvršenika.
30
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
okolnosti u kojima će neupisani
U drugom slučaju izvršenik
titulari imati status vanknjižnog
ima
status
samo
samostalnog
vlasnika nekretnine, bez obzira na
kvalifikovanog posjednika, odnosno
postojeću
neusaglašenost
općih
pretpostavljenog
odredaba
materijalnog
prava.
nekretnine,
vlasnika
što
znači
Takođe, odredbe materijalnog prava
pretpostavke
predviđaju jedinstvena rješenja i u
zemljišnoknjižnog stanja u smislu
situaciji kada je samostalan posjed
odredbe člana 70. stav 2., a u vezi s
nekretnine pribavljen na osnovu
članom 37. ZIP FBiH/RS, nisu
punovažno zaključenog ugovora. Za
ispunjene. U nastavku ćemo kazati
svaku od tih situacija ispunjeni su
nešto
uslovi
okolnostima,
za
promjenu
zemljišnoknjižnog stanja.
za
da
više
prezentirati
promjenu
o
a
navedenim
zatim
zakonska
ćemo
rješenja
zemljišnoknjižnog i stvarnog prava
Međutim, da bi se mogao
sprovesti
postupak
izvršenja
potrebno je utvrditi pravni status
koja
tretiraju
vanknjižnog
mogućnost
sticanja
prava
vlasništva na nekretnini.
izvršenika u pogledu nekretnine koja
se nalazi u njegovom samostalnom
posjedu. U jednom slučaju izvršenik
ima status vanknjižnog vlasnika
nekretnine,
ali
samo
ako
su
pretpostavke za dosjelost ispunjene
prije stupanja na snagu novih
entitetskih zakona o zemljišnim
knjigama,
primjenjuje
načela
odnosno
zakonska
upisa
koju
ako
se
definicija
predviđaju
odredbe novog stvarnog prava.
Mogućnost izvršenja na
utvrđenom pravu
dosjeditelja koje nije
provedeno u zemljišnu
knjigu
Da bi sud dozvolio izvršenje
na nekoj nekretnini zahtijeva se da
izvršenik
bude
evidentiran
u
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zemljišnoj knjizi kao vlasnik te
utvrđujuća presuda iz koje proizilazi
nekretnine. Ovo iz razloga što se za
da je on već stekao pravo vlasništva
upisanu osobu pretpostavlja da je
na nekretnini po osnovu redovne ili
vlasnik nekretnine, ali i zbog upisa
vanredne dosjelosti.42 Napominjemo
zabilježbe izvršenja, kao jedne od
da su to okolnosti u kojima izvršenik
zakonom propisanih izvršnih radnji
ima nesporno vanknjižno pravo
usljed koje izvršenik stupa u poziciju
vlasništva na nekretnini koja u
založnog dužnika.
zemljišnoj knjizi nije upisana u
njegovu korist. Iako zakon ne
Shodno
odredbama
predviđa
mogućnost
upisa
izvršnog prava, sud će dozvoliti
izvršenikovog vanknjižnog prava
izvršenje i na nekretnini koja u
vlasništva po službenoj dužnosti, u
zemljišnoj knjizi nije upisana u korist
pravnoj teoriji postoji jedinstven
izvršenika, ali samo pod uslovom da
stav da će sud u takvoj situaciji
su
za
naložiti upis njegovog vanknjižnog
promjenu zemljišnoknjižnog stanja
prava, a zatim i upis zabilježbe
u njegovu korist,41 i to najčešće na
izvršenja.43
način
pravosnažna
zemljišnoknjižnog stanja nekretnine
V. čl. 70. st. 2., a u vezi s čl. 37. ZIP
FBiH/RS
42 Obzirom da zemljišnoknjižno i stvarno
pravo predviđaju različita rješenja u pogledu
uknjižbe kao zakonitog načina sticanja
prava vlasništva na nekretnini, mogućnost
sprovođenja izvršenja nad nekretninom
koja nije upisana u korist dosjeditelja, pri
čemu postoji pravosnažna presuda na
osnovu koje je utvrđeno da je on ispunio
pretpostavke za sticanje prava vlasništva po
osnovu redovne ili vanredne dosjelosti,
postoji samo u slučaju da se primjenjuje
zakonska definicija načela upisa koju
predviđaju odredbe stvarnog prava.
Takođe, takvu mogućnost predviđaju i
odredbe zemljišnoknjižnog prava, ali samo
ukoliko su pretpostavke za dosjelost
ispunjene prije stupanja na snagu novih
entitetskih zakona o zemljišnim knjigama.
O ovom problemu više ćemo kazati u
nastavku ovog rada.
43 V. S. Mulabdić, Građansko procesno
pravo, Grin, Gračanica 2010, str. 509., M.
Povlakić, Neuknjižene nekretnine kao
predmet osiguranja kredita u svjetlu novih
propisa izvršnog, zemljišnoknjižnog i
notarskog prava, Godišnjak Pravnog
fakulteta u Sarajevu L-2007, Sarajevo 2007,
str. 399.
41
ispunjene
da
pretpostavke
postoji
Promjena
32
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_____________________________
u takvim okolnostima u funkciji je
su
obezbjeđenja
formalnih
punovažno zaključen ugovor o
provođenje
prodaji nekretnine na osnovu kojeg
postupka izvršenja na nekretnini.
izvršenik može podnijeti zahtjev za
Da bi se obezbijedio upis zabilježbe
upis
izvršenja, kao jedne od zakonom
njegovu korist. Međutim, smatramo
propisanih
da u tom slučaju nisu ispunjene
pretpostavki
za
izvršnih
radnji,
i
u
slučaju
kada
pretpostavljenog
postoji
prava
neophodno je da nekretnina bude
materijalne
upisana u korist izvršenika. Stoga,
sprovođenje postupka izvršenja iz
nalog suda za provedbu neupisanog
razloga što u takvim okolnostima
prava u zemljišnu knjigu treba
izvršenik nema status vanknjižnog
shvatiti kao sprečavanje izvršenika
vlasnika na nekretnini.
da
zloupotrebom
prava
pretpostavke
u
za
i
nepodnošenjem zahtjeva za upis
„Kada
stvarni
onemogući provođenje postupka
zemljišnoknjižni vlasnik na osnovu
izvršenja na nekretnini koja je u
punovažnog pravnog posla otuđi
njegovom vanknjižnom vlasništvu.
nekretninu i dobrovoljno je preda u
samostalan posjed sticaocu koji iz
Mogućnost izvršenja na
pravu samostalnog
određenih razloga propusti da izvrši
uknjižbu svog prava vlasništva, onda
je sticalac stekao pretpostavljeno
kvalifikovanog
vlasništvo
posjednika
kvalifikovan posjed.“44 Kupac će
ili
samostalan
postati vlasnik nekretnine tek u
Uvjeti
za
promjenu
zemljišnoknjižnog stanja ispunjeni
S. Mulabdić, Sticanje prava vlasništva na
nekretnini polazeći od načela povjerenja u
44
trenutku podnošenja zahtjeva za
upis,
odnosno
nakon
proteka
istinitost i potpunost zemljišne knjige,
Pravna misao 7-8, Sarajevo 2007, str. 31.-32.
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zakonom utvrđenog vremena za
redovnu dosjelost. U prvom slučaju
radi se o derivativnom, a u drugom
o originarnom načinu sticanja prava.
Kategorija vanknjižnog
vlasništva u svjetlu
propisa
zemljišnoknjižnog i
Ukoliko bi sud, u cilju
sprovođenja
postupka
izvršenja,
stvarnog prava
naložio upis prava samostalnog
kvalifikovanog posjednika, onda bi
to bilo protivno dispozitivnoj naravi
pravnih propisa prema kojima se
pravo na nekretnini stiče isključivo
na osnovu zahtjeva zainteresiranog
lica. Smatramo da bi u takvoj situaciji
izvršni sud trebao odbaciti prijedlog
tražioca izvršenja kao nepotpun iz
razloga što je kao predmet izvršenja
predložena nekretnina koja nije u
vlasništvu
izvršenika.
U
tom
pogledu zemljišnoknjižno i stvarno
pravo
predviđaju
identična
rješenja.45
Kao što smo naveli u
prethodnom izlaganju,46 mogućnost
vanknjižnog
sticanja
prava
vlasništva na nekretnini predviđaju
samo
odredbe
stvarnog
prava.
Odredbe zemljišnoknjižnog prava
zahtijevaju
zemljišnu
provedbu
knjigu
kao
prava
u
dodatnu
materijalnu pretpostavku sticanja
stvarnog prava na nekretnini.
Slijedom toga, mogućnost
sprovođenja izvršenja na nekretnini
koja nije upisana u korist izvršenika,
a za koju postoji pravosnažna
utvrđujuća presuda iz koje proizilazi
V. čl. 5. Zakona o zemljišnim knjigama
FBiH – ZZK FBiH (Službene novine FBiH
br. 58/2002, 19/03 i 54/04) i Zakona o
zemljišnim knjigama RS – ZZK RS
(Službeni glasnik RS br. 74/02, 67/03,
46/04, 109/05 i 119/08), kao i čl. 53. st. 1.
45
Zakona o stvarnim pravima FBiH
(Službene novine FBiH, br. 66/2013) i
Zakona o stvarnim pravima RS (Službeni
glasnik Republike Srpske, br. 124/08,
58/09.).
46 V. fusnota 9., str. 6. ovog rada.
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da
je
dosjeditelj
pretpostavke
za
ispunio
sticanje
prava
mogućnost sticanja prava vlasništva
na
od
nevlasnika.47
intencija
zakonodavca
sprečavanje
mogućnosti
nekretnini
vlasništva po osnovu redovne ili
Osnovna
vanredne dosjelosti, postoji samo u
jeste
slučaju da se primjenjuje zakonska
vanknjižnog
definicija
vlasništva
načela
upisa
koju
sticanja
na
prava
nekretnini,
te
predviđaju odredbe stvarnog prava.
motiviranje neupisanih titulara, koji
O navedenom sukobu odredaba
su
zemljišnoknjižnog i stvarnog prava
vanknjižno sticanje prava vlasništva
više ćemo kazati u nastavku ovog
prije
rada.
zakona,48 da podnošenjem zahtjeva
ispunili
stupanja
pretpostavke
na
za
snagu
ovih
za upis doprinesu usaglašavanju
Mogućnost vanknjižnog
zemljišnoknjižnog i posjedovnog
stanja
sticanja prava vlasništva
nekretnina.
Ukoliko
su
pretpostavke za dosjelost ispunjene
na nekretnini prema
nakon stupanja na snagu ovih
zemljišnoknjižnom
zakona, onda Zakon zahtijeva i
uknjižbu kao dodatnu materijalnu
pravu
pretpostavku
sticanja
prava
vlasništva na nekretnini.49 Bez obzira
Stupanjem na snagu novih
entitetskih zakona o zemljišnim
knjigama započeo je proces reforme
zemljišnoknjižnog
najznačajnija
prava.
reformska
Među
rješenja
spadaju odredbe koje predviđaju
konstitutivno
47
48
dejstvo
upisa
V.čl. 5. i 9. ZZK FBiH/RS
V. čl. 89. st. 1. ZZK FBiH/RS
i
da li su pretpostavke za dosjelost,
koje predviđaju odredbe stvarnog
prava, ispunjene prije ili poslije
stupanja
na
snagu
zakona
o
zemljišnim knjigama, treća savjesna
lica, koja su pribavila nekretninu od
49
V. čl. 89. st. 2. ZZK FBiH/RS
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upisane osobe u zemljišnoj knjizi,
Imajući u vidu prezentirana
uživaju potpunu pravnu zaštitu. Iz
rješenja zemljišnoknjižnog prava,
prethodno navedenog može se
može se zaključiti da mogućnost
konstatovati
novo
sprovođenja izvršenja na nekretnini,
zemljišnoknjižno pravo ne predviđa
koja nije upisana u korist izvršenika,
mogućnost
sticanja
postoji samo u slučaju da je on
na
nekretnini.
ispunio pretpostavke za dosjelost
sticanje
vlasništva
prije stupanja na snagu Zakona o
osnovom dosjelosti izjednačeno sa
zemljišnim knjigama, te ako su,
sticanjem
osnovom
shodno odredbama izvršnog prava,
pravnog posla“,50 jer se za konačno
ispunjene pretpostavke za promjenu
sticanje prava pored samostalnog
zemljišnoknjižnog stanja, odnosno
posjeda
ako
prava
da
vanknjižnog
vlasništva
„Time
je
vlasništva
nekretnine
zahtijeva
i
postoji
pravosnažna
podnošenje zahtjeva za upis. Takođe
deklaratorna
možemo konstatovati da Zakon
utvrđeno takvo pravo dosjeditelja. U
predviđa i prelazno rješenje za prava
svakoj drugoj situaciji prijedlog
koja su stečena bez upisa prije
tražioca izvršenja trebao bi biti
njegovog stupanja na snagu. U tom
odbačen kao nepotpun iz razloga što
slučaju stečeno pravo vlasništva
izvršenik u pogledu predložene
ostaje na snazi, premda je i tada
nekretnine
poželjno zatražiti provedbu prava u
samostalnog, odnosno samostalnog
zemljišnu knjigu da bi se spriječilo
kvalifikovanog posjednika, a ne i
eventualno
(vanknjižnog) vlasnika nekretnine.
nastupanje
pravnih
presuda
ima
kojom
samo
je
status
učinaka načela povjerenja u korist
trećih savjesnih lica.
V. S. Mulabdić, Derivativni način sticanja
prava vlasništva na nekretnini, Domaća i
50
strana sudska praksa, Privredna štampa
d.o.o. Sarajevo, br. 78/18, str. 9.
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Mogućnost vanknjižnog
podnošenjem
zahtjeva
za
upis
konstituirati pravo na određenoj
sticanja prava vlasništva
nekretnini u svoju korist i time
na nekretnini prema
stvarnom pravu
osigurati
njegovo
djelovanje
prema
apsolutno
svim
trećim
licima.53
Jedan od osnovnih uzroka
nesređenog
stanja
zemljišnoknjižnog
nekretnina
jesu
rješenja
ranijeg stvarnog prava koja su
dopuštala
sticanje
prava
na
nekretninama i bez upisa u zemljišnu
knjigu.51 Upravo iz tog razloga u
novom zemljišnoknjižnom pravu
predviđeno je rješenje prema kojem
upis ima konstitutivno dejstvo. Da
bi osigurao provedbu neupisanih
prava na nekretninama u zemljišne
knjige
zakonodavac
predvidio
i
je
obavezu
takođe
upisa.52
Međutim, takvo zakonsko rješenje
nije prihvatljivo sa stanovišta pravne
nauke, jer pravni subjekti, shodno
načelu
samostalno
51
52
dispozicije,
odlučiti
trebaju
hoće
V. čl. 33. ZOSPO i čl. 38. ZOVO
V. čl. 8. ZZK FBiH/RS
li
Uvažavajući kritike pravne
nauke zakonodavac je u novom
stvarnom pravu odustao od rješenja
koje predviđa obavezu provedbe
vanknjižnih prava u zemljišne knjige,
ali
je
takođe
odustao
i
od
konstitutivnog dejstva upisa, te
predvidio rješenje koje je po svome
sadržaju identično rješenju koje je
postojalo
u
ranijem
stvarnom
pravu.54 Imajući u vidu aktuelni
proces reforme zemljišnoknjižnog
prava, ali i detektirane razloge
nesređenog
stanja
zemljišnoknjižnog
nekretnina,
teško
je
povjerovati da je cilj ovakvog
rješenja
prava
afirmacija
vanknjižnog
i
napuštanje
V. M. Povlakić, Novo zemljišnoknjižno
pravo u BiH, Pravni savjetnik br. 12/2003,
str. 47.
54 V. čl. 52. st. 1. ZSP FBiH/RS
53
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zemljišnoknjižnog
prometa
izvršenja
nekretnina, kao što je to bio slučaj u
izvršenja
ranijoj sudskoj praksi. Za potpuno
izvršni sud će po službenoj dužnosti
razumijevanje
naložiti
nove
zakonske
pokrene
na
postupak
takvoj
upis
nekretnini,
izvršenikovog
definicije načela upisa potrebno je
vanknjižnog prava vlasništva u
imati u vidu i druga zakonska
zemljišnu knjigu. To je upravo ona
rješenja, o čemu ćemo više govoriti
situacija na koju upućuje odredba
u nastavku ovog rada. Međutim,
člana 70. stav 2., a u vezi s odredbom
kada je u pitanju postupak izvršenja
člana 37. ZIP FBiH/RS.
na nekretnini koja nije upisana u
korist izvršenika, iz prezentiranog
Iz
zakonskog rješenja novog stvarnog
proizilazi
prava proizilazi da predmet izvršenja
zemljišnoknjižnog i stvarnog prava u
mogu biti i takve nekretnine. Ovo iz
pogledu uknjižbe kao zakonitog
razloga što neupisani izvršenik ima
načina sticanja prava vlasništva na
status
nekretnini nisu usaglašene. Utvrdili
vanknjižnog
vlasnika
nekretnine.
prethodnih
izlaganja
da
odredbe
smo da je momenat sticanja prava
Pravo
vlasništva
na
vlasništva
na
nekretnini
izuzetnog
značaja
za
od
proces
nekretnini stekao je u trenutku
sprovođenja izvršenja na nekretnini
ispunjenja
propisanih
koja nije upisana u korist izvršenika,
pretpostavki za redovnu, odnosno
jer predmet izvršenja može biti samo
vanrednu dosjelost. Eventualni upis
ona nekretnina koja je u njegovom
takvog
vlasništvu.
zakonom
prava
na
osnovu
Navedena
pravosnažne utvrđujuće presude
neusaglašenost
proizvodi
deklarativno
zemljišnoknjižnog i stvarnog prava
dejstvo. U slučaju da vanknjižni
generira pojavu različitih pravnih
samo
odredaba
titular propusti provedbu prava
utvrđenog odlukom suda, a tražilac
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shvatanja,55 što može doprinijeti i
problema i zauzimanje ispravnog
pojavi
stava
neujednačene
primjeni
prava,
jer
prakse
bi
u
sudovi
primjenom načela „lex specialis“,
po
pitanju
mjerodavnog
prava
primjene
od
velike
važnosti.
odnosno „lex posterior“ mogli dati
prednost jednom, odnosno drugom
zakonu.
Primjena odredaba
stvarnog prava kao
Nije nevažno da li će izvršni
sud prilikom razmatranja prijedloga
konačno rješenje
problema
o pokretanju izvršnog postupka,
kojim se izvršenikovo pravo na
nekretnini dokazuje pravosnažnom
odlukom suda, primijeniti odredbe
zemljišnoknjižnog ili stvarnog prava.
U prvom slučaju prijedlog tražioca
izvršenja trebao bi biti odbačen kao
nepotpun, jer je kao predmet
izvršenja predložena nekretnina koja
nije u vlasništvu izvršenika, dok bi u
drugom slučaju sud trebao prihvatiti
takav prijedlog iz razloga što
izvršenikovo
neupisano
pravo
vlasništva na nekretnini egzistira i
bez njegove provedbe u zemljišnu
Za zauzimanje ispravnog
stava po pitanju sukoba odredaba
zemljišnoknjižnog i stvarnog prava u
pogledu uknjižbe i njenog dejstva
neophodno je imati u vidu načelo
povjerenja kao novi originarni način
sticanja
prava
vlasništva
na
nekretnini, ulogu i značaj ovog
načela
u
procesu
zemljišnoknjižnog
reforme
prava,
kao
i
zakonsku poziciju ovog načela u
novim
stvarnim
entitetskim zakonima
pravima.
o
Pružanjem
pravne zaštite trećim savjesnim
knjigu. Stoga je rasvjetljavanje ovog
U pravnoj teoriji postoje shvatanja prema
kojima prednost treba dati odredbama
zemljišnoknjižnog prava iz razloga što
55
Zakon o zemljišnim knjigama u ovakvim
okolnostima ima status pravnog propisa
„lex specialis“. V. S. Mulabdić, str. 9.
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licima, koji su stekli pravo vlasništva
entitetskih
na nekretnini pouzdavajući se u
pravima,
sadržaj
oblike sticanja stvarnih prava na
zemljišne
knjige,
zakona
koje
o
stvarnim
tretiraju
zakonodavac reafirmira načelo upisa
nekretninama,
i
zakonodavac ukazao na negativne
naglašava
značaj
provedbe
neupisanih prava u zemljišne knjige,
pri
različite
čemu
je
posljedice njegove primjene.56
zbog čega mogućnost vanknjižnog
sticanja
prava
vlasništva
na
nekretnini gubi svoj praktični značaj.
Transformacijom
pravila
koje
je
pravnog
propisivalo
konstitutivno dejstvo uknjižbe i
Vanknjižni titulari ne uživaju
obavezu upisa u pravno pravilo koje
više sudsku zaštitu koju su imali u
predviđa
ranijoj
bi
vanknjižnog vlasništva koje će biti
osigurali svoja stečena prava na
konačno i sigurno tek nakon što se
nekretninama oni trebaju podnijeti
provede u zemljišnu knjigu, na isti
zahtjeve za njihovu provedbu u
način
zemljišne knjige. Upravo na takav
pretpostavke
način doprinosi se uspostavi stabilne
vanknjižno
i efikasne zemljišne knjige, što i jeste
nekretninama. Stoga je naglašena
osnovna intencija zakonodavca. Za
veza između načela povjerenja i
razliku od zemljišnoknjižnog, u
načela upisa u novom stvarnom
novom stvarnom pravu načelo
pravu od esencijalnog značaja za
povjerenja u zemljišnu knjigu ima
pravilno
puno veći značaj. Ovo načelo
zakonske definicije načela upisa i za
zastupljeno je u nekoliko odredaba
zauzimanje ispravnog stava po
V. čl. 43. st. 2., 47. st. 2. tač. 2., 52. st. 2.,
55. st. 1., 56. st. 1. i 2., 57., 202., 208., 211.,
230. st. 4., 271., 279. st. 4. i 306. st. 5. ZSP
FBiH i čl. 43. st. 2., 47. st. 2. tač. 2., 52. st.
2., 55. st. 1., 56. st. 1. i 2., 190., 196., 199.,
218. st. 4., 259., 267. st. 4. i 294. st. 5. ZSP
RS
56
sudskoj
praksi.
Da
mogućnost
osiguravaju
sticanja
se
za
stečenih
zakonske
provedbu
prava
razumijevanje
na
nove
40
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
pitanju kolizije odredaba stvarnog i
nekretninama. Iako je zakonodavac
zemljišnoknjižnog prava u pogledu
predvidio istu definiciju načela upisa
ovog načela.
kao i u ranijem stvarnom pravu i
time ponovo predvidio mogućnost
Može se zaključiti da je
stupanjem
snagu
sticanja
prava
na
novih
nekretnini, to ne znači da će
stvarnim
neupisani titulari uživati apsolutnu
pravima prestala da važi odredba
sudsku zaštitu u odnosu na kasnije
zemljišnoknjižnog prava koja je
sticaoce, kao što je to bio slučaj u
propisivala konstitutivno dejstvo
ranijoj sudskoj praksi. Pružanjem
upisa za pravo kod kojeg je pravni
pravne zaštite kasnijim sticaocima,
osnov sticanja pravosnažna odluka
koji su stekli pravo na nekretnini
suda. Takođe je derogirana i odredba
pouzdavajući se u sadržaj zemljišne
koja je propisivala obavezu upisa
knjige, pred vanknjižne titulare
vanknjižno
na
postavlja se dužnost odgovornijeg
nekretninama, pa je prepušteno
odnosa prema njihovim neupisanim
vanknjižnim
pod
pravima. Da bi bili sigurni u svoja
prijetnjom gubitka neupisanog prava
vanknjižno stečena prava oni trebaju
samostalno odlučuju o njegovoj
zatražiti
provedbi u zemljišnu knjigu.
zemljišnu
entitetskih
na
vanknjižnog
zakona
o
stečenih
prava
titularima
da
njihovu
provedbu
knjigu.
u
Shodno
dispozitivnoj naravi pravnih pravila
Poništenjem pravnih pravila
prema kojima stečena prava trebaju
o konstitutivnosti i obavezi upisa, te
biti izraz slobodne volje pravnih
davanjem većeg značaja načelu
subjekata, takav zahtjev treba i mora
povjerenja
knjigu,
biti samo rezultat samostalne odluke
zakonske
vanknjižnih titulara, što je jedini po
unapređenje
zakonu ispravan način za uspostavu
u
zemljišnu
obezbijeđene
pretpostavke
su
za
zemljišnoknjižnog
sistema
stabilne i efikasne zemljišne knjige.
evidentiranja nekretnina i prava na
41
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
Nakon što smo utvrdili
mjerodavno
pravo
u
pogledu
trenutka u kojem se stiče pravo na
utvrđenog
izvršenikovog
prava
vlasništva na nekretnini, kao i upis
zabilježbe izvršenja.
nekretnini, možemo zaključiti da ne
postoje
zakonske
smetnje
za
Zaključak
sprovođenje izvršenja na nekretnini
koja nije upisana u korist izvršenika.
Zakon
dopušta
sticanje
prava
vlasništva na nekretnini i bez
njegove
provedbe
u
zemljišnu
knjigu, što znači da je za pokretanje
postupka izvršenja na izvršenikovoj
neupisanoj nekretnini dovoljno da
tražilac
izvršenja
dostavi
pravosnažnu presudu kojom je
utvrđeno pravo vlasništva u korist
izvršenika kao dosjeditelja.
Stupanjem na snagu novih
entitetskih
zakona
o
stvarnim
pravima derogirana je odredba
zemljišnoknjižnog prava koja je
propisivala konstitutivno dejstvo
upisa za prava kod kojih je pravni
osnov sticanja pravosnažna odluka
suda. Iz toga proizilazi da će
dosjeditelj postati vlasnik nekretnine
u trenutku ispunjenja zakonom
propisanih pretpostavki, a ne u
trenutku podnošenja zahtjeva za
To su upravo okolnosti na
koje upućuju odredbe izvršnog
prava, iz kojih proizilazi da je
moguće izvršenje i na nekretnini
koja je u vanknjižnom vlasništvu
izvršenika, ali pod uslovom da su, po
utvrđenju
ispunjeni
izvršenikovog
uslovi
za
prava,
promjenu
zemljišnoknjižnog stanja. U takvim
okolnostima izvršni sud će po
službenoj dužnosti naložiti upis
upis.
Stoga,
predmet
izvršenja
može biti i nekretnina koja je u
vanknjižnom vlasništvu izvršenika,
ali samo ukoliko su ispunjene
pretpostavke
za
promjenu
zemljišnoknjižnog stanja, tj. ukoliko
tražilac izvršenja dokaže da je
pravosnažnom
odlukom
suda
42
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
utvrđeno
pravo
na
osnov njihova sticanja punovažan
nekretnini u korist izvršenika kao
pravni posao. Ukoliko bi izvršni sud
dosjeditelja. U takvim okolnostima
u takvim okolnostima ipak naložio
izvršni
upis
upis prava u korist izvršenika, onda
izvršenikovog prava u zemljišnu
bi to bilo protivno dispozitivnoj
knjigu.
upisa
naravi pravnih propisa prema kojima
vanknjižnog prava izvršenika u
se prava stiču voljom pravnih
funkciji je neometanog postupka
subjekata, jer bi takav nalog bio, prije
provedbe izvršenja na nekretnini,
svega,
prije svega zbog upisa zabilježbe
stvarnog prava u korist samostalnog
izvršenja kao jedne od zakonom
posjednika nekretnine. U takvim
propisanih izvršnih radnji.
okolnostima
sud
vlasništva
će
Navedeni
naložiti
način
u
funkciji
konstituiranja
izvršni
sud
treba
odbaciti prijedlog tražioca izvršenja
Pretpostavke za promjenu
kao nepotpun, jer izvršenik u
zemljišnoknjižnog stanja ispunjene
pogledu predložene nekretnine ima
su i u slučaju kada je sticalac pribavio
status samo samostalnog, odnosno
samostalan posjed nekretnine na
samostalnog
osnovu punovažnog kupoprodajnog
posjednika, a ne i (vanknjižnog)
ugovora, ili nekog drugog kauzalnog
vlasnika nekretnine.
kvalifikovanog
pravnog posla, u kojem postoji
saglasnost
vlasnika
za
prenos
prava.
zemljišnoknjižni
Međutim, u takvim okolnostima
promjena zemljišnoknjižnog stanja
isključivo je u dispoziciji sticaoca iz
razloga
što
odredbe
zemljišnoknjižnog i stvarnog prava
predviđaju konstitutivno dejstvo
upisa za prava kod kojih je pravni
43
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
Korištena literatura
zakonodavstva
i
pravne
prakse, Mostar, 2003.
-
Bilten
sudske
prakse
Vrhovnog suda BiH,
-
stvarnog
br.
D. Stamenković, Priručnik
-
nepokretnosti,
Savremena
administracija,
-
kao
-
i
sticanja
na
prava
nekretnini,
d.o.o. Sarajevo, br. 78/18.
-
S. Mulabdić, Sticanje prava
notarskog prava, Godišnjak
vlasništva
Pravnog fakulteta u Sarajevu
polazeći
L-2007, Sarajevo 2007.
povjerenja u istinitost i
M.
Povlakić,
M.
ukupne
reforme
S. Vuković, Sudska praksa iz
-
S.
Mulabdić,
procesno
radova
Gračanica 2010.
građanskog
i
odnosa,
Beograd, 2003.
građanskog prava, Zbornik
Aktualnosti
načela
svojinskopravnih
Reforma
zemljišnoknjižnog prava kao
dio
od
2007.
-
Povlakić,
nekretnini
Pravna misao 7-8, Sarajevo
BiH, Pravni savjetnik br.
12/2003.
na
potpunost zemljišne knjige,
Novo
zemljišnoknjižno pravo u
-
Derivativni
praksa, Privredna štampa
izvršnog,
zemljišnoknjižnog
Nomos,
Domaća i strana sudska
predmet
propisa
pravo,
Mulabdić,
vlasništva
osiguranja kredita u svjetlu
novih
S.
način
M. Povlakić, Neuknjižene
nekretnine
BiH,
Beograd 2001.
Beograd 1991.
-
u
O. Stanković, M. Orlić,
Stvarno
za upise u zemljišnu knjigu i
katastar
prava
Sarajevo, 2009.
4/87.
-
M. Povlakić, Transformacija
Građansko
pravo,
Grin,
trgovačkog
44
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
Legislativa
-
Zakon o stvarnim pravima
FBiH,
-
Službene
novine
-
-
Zakon o stvarnim pravima
RS,
FBiH 32/03.
Zakon o izvršnom postupku
RS, Službeni glasnik RS
novine
FBiH, br. 66/2013.
Zakon o izvršnom postupku
FBiH,
Službene
Službeni
Republike
Srpske,
glasnik
br.
124/08, 58/09.
59/03, 85/03.
-
Zakon o premjeru i katastru
Republike Srpske, Službeni
glasnik Republike Srpske br.
6/12.
-
Zakon o svojinsko pravnim
odnosima, Službeni list SFRJ
br. 6/1980.
-
Zakon o vlasničko pravnim
odnosima, Službene novine
FBiH br. 6/98 i 29/03.
-
Zakon
o
zemljišnim
knjigama FBiH, Službene
novine FBiH br. 58/2002,
19/03 i 54/04. Zakon o
zemljišnim
knjigama
RS,
Službeni glasnik RS br.
74/02,
67/03,
46/04,
109/05 i 119/08.
45
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Društveni ogledi
Author
Author
Centar za društvena istraživanja, Internacionalni Burč univerzitet
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
ISSN 2303-5706
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
International Burch University
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Izvršenje na nekretninama u svjetlu propisa izvršnog, zemljišnoknjižnog i stvarnog prava u Bosni i Hercegovini
Author
Author
Hamid Mutapčić
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Mogućnost izvršenja na izvršenikovom neupisanom pravu na nekretnini uslovljena je pravilnim razumijevanjem nove zakonske definicije načela upisa. Neusaglašenost odredaba materijalnog prava u pogledu dejstva uknjižbe i trenutka u kojem se stiče pravo na nekretnini dovodi do različitih pravnih shvatanja u pravnoj teoriji, što može generirati pojavu neujednačene prakse u primjeni prava. U radu je izvršena analiza odredaba izvršnog, a u vezi s odredbama zemljišnoknjižnog i stvarnog prava, koje predviđaju mogućnost izvršenja na nekretnini koja je u samostalnom posjedu izvršenika, odnosno na nekretnini na kojoj izvršenik ima utvrđeno vanknjižno pravo vlasništva.
Keywords
Keywords.
Izvršenje na nekretnini, Samostalan posjed nekretnine, Vanknjižno vlasništvo
DOI
Digital object identifier
10.14706/DOI21412
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cd92c15295520f4716e80d1409f1c7eb.pdf
523fc788c0162e32fc3f4f124eea5594
PDF Text
Text
Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
STJECANJA PRAVA
lica
VLASNIŠTVA
suprostavljenim
sa
vlastitim,
suvlasništvo
DOSJELOŠĆU NA
SUVLASNIČKOM DIJELU
NEKRETNINE
veoma
ponekad
interesima,
i
čini
zanimljivim, ali i
složenim
i
zahtjevnim
pravnim institutom. Posebno pitanje
u
pogledu
funkcionisanja
suvlasničkih zajednica, a koje se
ACQUISITION OF
postavilo u praksi, jeste pitanje
OWNERSHIP RIGHTS
mogućnosti sticanja prava vlasništva
BY USUCAPTION ON
dosjelošću jednog suvlasnika na
CO-OWNERSHIP SHARE
OF REAL PROPERTY
suvlasničkom
dijelu
drugog
suvlasnika. S tim u vezi, razmatrana
su osnovna pitanja prezentiranog
problema: uslovi za sticanje prava
Doc. dr. Esad Oruč
vlasništva dosjelošću, kao i posebno
Advokat i nastavnik na International
Burch University
pitanje
savjesnosti
sticaoca
u
konkretnom slučaju. Kroz analizu
esadoruc@gmail.com
domaće, ali i strane sudske prakse,
ukazano je i na postojanje različitih
JEL klasifikacija: K11, K25
DOI: 10.14706/DOI21411
stavova u pogledu pojedinih pitanja.
Pored navednog, u radu je ukazano i
na određene propuste u zakonskoj
Sažetak
regulaciji predmetnog pitanja, te su
predložena
Suvlasništvo
predstavlja
adekvatna
zakonska
rješenja de lege ferenda.
modalitet prava vlasništva sa više
subjekata. Upravo činjenica da u
Ključne
riječi:
dosjelost,
vršenju prava vlasništva na jednoj
suvlasništvo, idealni suvlasnički dio,
nepodijeljenoj stvari učestvuje više
vlasništvo
1
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
Abstract
pointed
out
the
existence
of
different stands regarding certain
Co-ownership is a multientity concept of ownership. The
fact that several parties with their
own, sometimes conflicting interests
participate in the exercise of the
right
of
ownership
over
one
indivisible property, makes coownership an interesting, but also a
very complex and demanding legal
questions. In addition to the above,
the
paper
points
out
certain
oversights in the legal regulation of
the issue, and proposes appropriate
legal solutions de lege ferenda.
Key
words:
ownership,
usucaption,
co-ownership
coshare,
ownership
institute. A special issue regarding
the functioning of co-ownership
communities, which has been raised
in practice, is the issue of the
possibility of acquiring property
rights by the co-ownership of one
co-owner on the co-ownership part
of another co-owner.
In this regard, the basic questions of
the
problem
introduced
were
considered as: the conditions for the
acquisition of property rights by
usucapion, as well as a question of
good faith of the acquirer in this
case. Through the analysis of
domestic and foreign case law, it was
2
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
Uvod
zajednica. U tom kontekstu mislimo
prevashodno
Suvlasništvo
na
sticanje
prava
predstavlja
(su)vlasništva dosjelošću, ali i na
modalitet prava vlasništva sa više
druge moguće oblike, kao što su:
subjekata. Upravo činjenica da u
sticanje
vršenju prava vlasništva na jednoj
zemljištu, nadziđivanjem, mješanjem
nepodijeljenoj stvari učestvuje više
stvari i drugim oblicima stjecanja
lica
prava
sa
vlastitim,
suprostavljenim
suvlasništvo
veoma
ponekad
interesima,
i
čini
zanimljivim, ali i
složenim
i
građenjem
suvlasništva
na
na
tuđem
osnovu
zakona, ali i sticanje suvlasništva na
osnovu odluke nadležnog organa.
zahtjevnim
Značaj
pravnim institutom.
ovih
imovinskih
zajednica je enorman. Mada u našoj
S obzirom da je regulisano
državi ne postoji tačan podataka o
velikim brojem zakonskih propisa
broju suvlasničkih zajednica, niti
materijalnog i procesnog prava,
postoji posebna evidencija o istim,
suvlasništvo predstavlja jedan od
sa sigurnošću možemo reći da koliko
najkompleksnijih pravnih instituta
god
sa aspekta njegove regulacije i
nasljedničkih zajednica, isto toliko je
sudskog
primjeni
i suvlasničkih zajednica. S obzirom
pomenutih pravnih izvora. Broj
na brojnost i činjenicu da se radi o
životnih situacija koje u konačnici
zakonskim
mogu
suvlasništva, te da u takvoj situaciji
tumačenja
rezultirati
u
nastankom
suvlasničkih zajednica je veliki.
Pored
sticanja
prava
suvlasništva na osnovu pravnog
posla, postoji čitav niz situacija koje
zakon reguliše, a koje u konačnici
vode
do
nastanka
suvlasničkih
je
bračnih,
načinima
odnosno
nastanka
upis u zemljišnu knjigu nema
konstitutivni,
već
deklaratorni
karakter, jasno je da od nivoa
adekvatne uređenosti ovih odnosa
proporcionalno zavisi i sigurnost
pravnog prometa.
3
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
Naime, najčešće se u slučaju
tržišna privreda, ali i svakodnevne
pomenutih suvlasničkih zajednica
životne situacije nameću. U takvim
događa da iste nisu propisno
situacijama seže se za rješenjima koja
evidentirane u zemljišnoknjižnim
nemaju odgovarajuću brzinu. Ovdje
registrima ili su sa druge strane upisi
prevashodno mislimo na ostavljanje
zastarjeli, odnosno nepotpuni. Sve
sudovima da kroz svoju normativnu
rezultira
djelatnost, odnosno sudsku praksu
nesređenosti
zemljišnih
knjiga, što narušava dejstvo načela
iznađu
odgovarajuća
povjerenja u zemljišne knjige.
Međutim, ta rješenja s razlogom nisu
uvijek
Posljedice po našu privredu
su,
slobodno
možemo
reći,
najbolja,
jer
rješenja.
postojeća
regulativa ne ostavlja dovoljno
prostora za inovativnija rješenja.
katastrofalne. Treća savjesna lica
nisu u dovoljnoj mjeri zaštićena jer
Mi ćemo se u ovom dijelu
još uvijek, bez obzira na sve, u
rada upravo posvetiti jednom veoma
faktičkom smislu, postoji obaveza ili
bitnom pitanju u funkcionisanju i
bolje
pravnoj
reći
potreba
istraživanja
regulaciji
suvlasničkih
želeći
prevashodno
vanknjižnog stanja nekretnina. Ovo
zajednica,
posljednje akcentira potrebu da se
prezentirati
traga i iznađu najbolja rješenja koja
svakodnevno postavljaju pred našu
će pomenute zajednice regulisati i
privredu i sudove, a zatim i ponuditi
time iste staviti u promet, ali i zaštiti
neka bolja rješenja. Naime, radi se o
interese trećih savjesnih lica koja su
pitanju stjecanja prava vlasništva
postupala u dobroj vjeri. Pored
dosjelošću i to na suvlasničkom
navedenog,
idealnom dijelu nekretnine.
postojeća
zakonska
dileme
koje
se
regulativa ovih instituta se ne čini
dovoljno
jasnom
Ponekad
zakoni
i
preciznom.
jednostavno
nemaju odgovora na izazove koje
4
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Opće pretpostavke za
Smatramo
napomenuti
stjecanje prava
prava vlasništva na nekretninama je i
osnovu
dosjelosti
(usucapia).1 Radi se o originarnom
načinu sticanja prava vlasništva, ali i
drugih stvarnih prava na osnovu
kvalifikovanog
neprekidnim
posjeda
vršenjem
i
njihovog
pravo
prestaje
činjenice da stari vlasnik nije izgubio
pravo zato što ga nije vršio nego
zato što je novi originarno stekao
vlasništvo, a općepoznato je da na
istoj stvari ne mogu u isto vrijeme
postojati dva isključiva vlasništva.2
Značaj
ovog
originarnog
Institut
vrlo
značajan
naročito
faktičke
pravnim sistemima u kojima postoje
je
instrument
pretvaranja
u
ne
vrijeme.
dosjelosti
vlasti
vlasništva
nevršenjem, već se polazi od
sadržaja kroz određeno, zakonom
propisano
prava
do povrede i negiranja načela da
Kao jedan od načina sticanja
na
sticanje
vlasništva dosjelošću ipak ne dolazi
vlasništva dosjelošću
sticanje
da
bitnim
pravnu,
posjeda
u
subjektivno pravo.
načina sticanja prava vlasništva
bilo
dolazi
koji
do
oblici
izražaja
u
nesklada
zemljišnoknjižnog i faktičkog stanja.
S obzirom na navedeno, suvišno je i
O institutu dosjelosti više vidi kod:
Simonetti P, Stjecanje prava vlasništva
primjenom ustanova dosjelosti i uzurpacije na na
nekretninama koje su bile u društvenom vlasništvu,
Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta u Rijeci, v. 29,
br. 1/2008; Brežanski J, "Dosjelost kao način
stjecanja stvarnih prava", Zbornik Pravnog
fakulteta Sveučilišta u Rijeci, 2/1999;
Žuvela M, Stjecanje prava vlasništva – posebno o
građenju na tuđem zemljištu i dosjelosti,
Zakonitost, br. 9–10/90; Simonetti P,
1
Prelazak nekretnina u društveno vlasništvo
protekom vremena, Zbornik Pravavnog
fakuklteta u Rijeci, v. 28, br. 1/2007, 1-37;
Popov D., Kvalifikovana državina u funkciji
sticanja prava svojine održajem, Zbornik radova
Pravnog fakulteta, Novi Sad. 2011;
45(1):109-125; Popov D, Pravna dejstva
državine, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta,
Novi Sad. 2006; 40(2):217-235;
2 M. Vedriš, M. Klarić, Osnove imovinskog
prava, IV izdanje, Pravni fakultet, Zagreb,
1983. godina, str. 193.
5
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govoriti o njegovom značaju u našoj
posjedovanja od deset godina za
državi. U stvari, dosjelost se nekada
nekrentine,4 odnosno 3 godine za
nameće i kao jedini izlaz za vrlo
pokretne stvari.5 Za slučaj stjecanja
komplikovana i neriješena pravna
prava vlasništva putem vanredne
pitanja,
dosjelosti, zahtjevi su nešto blaži u
a
posebno
kada
su
zemljišnoknjižni vlasnici nepoznati.
Naš pravni sistem, kao i
većina zemalja u okruženju poznaje
dvije vrste dosjelosti, redovnu i
vanrednu.3 Osnovna razlika između
ove dvije vrste dosjelosti je u
kvaliteti,
posjeda,
odnosno
te
kvalifikaciji
dužini
rokova
za
pokretne ili nepokretne stvari. Tako
se za stjecanje prava vlasništva
redovnom dosjelošću prema našem
važećem pravu traži da posjed bude
pogledu stepena kvalifikovanosti
posjeda, ali zakon u tom slučaju
propisuje duže vremenske rokove
posjedovanja.
Tako
samostalni
posjednik nekretnine, čiji je posjed
savjestan,
stječe
dosjelošću
vlasništvo na nekretnini protekom
dvadeset
godina
neprekidnog
posjedovanja,6 a na pokretnoj stvari
protekom šest godina savjesnog
posjeda.7
Dakle,
posjed mora imati
zakonit i savjestan, uz uslov da nije
određene kvalitete kako bi bio
pribavljen
ili
podoban osnov za sticanje prava
zloupotrebom povjerenja, te uz
vlasništva dosjelošću. Tako je posjed
uslov proteka neprekidnog vremena
zakonit ukoliko se zasniva na
Npr. hrvatsko, crnogorsko, srbijansko,
makednsko, slovensko pravo itd. Nadalje,
izraz vanredna dosjelost je u upotrebi i u
stranim zakonicima i pravnoj literaturi (npr.
Švajcarski i Grčki građanski zakonik itd.).
O. Stanković, M. Orlić, Stvarno pravo,
Beograd, 1998, str. 136. S druge strane, neka
strana zakonodavstva, kao što je slučaj sa
npr. njemačkim građanskim zakonikom, ne
poznaju instituciju redovne, nego samo
vanredne dosjelosti (Čl. 937. BGB-a).
Navedneo prema: Popov D, Sticanje prava
svojine održajem, Zbornik radova Pravnog
fakulteta u Novom Sadu, 3/2007, str. 197.
4 Čl. 58. st. 1. ZSPFBiH/RS
5 Čl. 116. st. 1. ZSPFBiH/RS
6 Čl. 58. st. 2. ZSPFBiH/RS
7 Čl. 116. st. 2. ZSPFBiH/RS
3
silom,
prijetnjom
6
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punovažnom pravnom osnovu (npr.
nesavjestan od časa kad mu je tužba
postoji kupoprodajni ugovor), te
dostavljena, što na odgovarajući
kako zakon kaže, ukoliko nije
način važi i kad je o pravu na posjed
pribavljen
ili
konačno odlučilo drugo nadležno
zloupotrebom povjerenja. Nadalje,
tijelo ili sud u nekom drugom
posjed
postupku.10
silom,
je
prevarom
savjestan
ukoliko
posjednik ne zna niti može znati da
stvar koju posjeduje nije njegova.
Savjesnost se uvijek pretpostavlja, te
onaj ko trvdi suprotno to mora i
dokazati.8
Kada
je
u
pitanju
savjesnost i istinitost posjeda pravne
osobe ona se prosuđuje prema
savjesnosti i postupanju one fizičke
osobe koja je za tu pravnu osobu
ovlaštena poduzimati radnje sticanja
ili izvršavanja posjeda, a osoba koje
imaju zakonskog zastupnika prema
savjesnosti i postupanju njihovog
zakonskog zastupnika.9 S druge
strane, ukoliko je u sporu o pravu na
posjed pravosnažno odlučeno da
pravo
na
posjedniku,
posjed
njegov
ne
pripada
je
posjed
Čl. 226. st. 1. i 2. ZSPFBiH, Čl. 312. st. 1 i
2. ZSP RS. Presuda Kantonalnog suda
Travnik, broj Gž-473/03 od 26.05.2004.
godine. Također vidi: VSRH Rev
1631/1989, od 24.10.1991. godine.
8
Vrijeme
potrebno
za
dosjelost počinje teći od dana kada
je
posjednik
stupio
u
posjed
nekretnine, a završava se istekom
posljednjeg dana vremena koje je
potrebno za dosjelost.11 U vrijeme
posjeda uračunava se i vrijeme, za
koje
su prethodnici sadašnjega
posjednika neprekidno posjedovali
stvar
kao
zakoniti
i
savjesni
samostalni posjednici, odnosno kao
savjesni
samostalni
posjednici.12
Uračunavanje vremena je moguće i
ako su posjednici različitog kvaliteta,
kada
se
vrijeme
za
koje
su
posjedovali prethodnici sadašnjeg
posjednika preračunava u vrijeme
Čl. 226. st. 3. i 4. ZSPFBiH, Čl. 312. st. 3.
i 4. ZSP RS.
10 Čl. 226. st. 5. ZSPFBiH, Čl. 312. st. 5 ZSP
RS.
11 Čl. 58. st. 3. ZSPFBiH/RS
12 Čl. 58. st. 4. ZSPFBiH/RS
9
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potrebno za dosjelost.13 Kada se radi
sticanja prava vlasništva dosjelošću
o nasljeđivanju, oboriva je zakonska
na idelanom dijelu nekretnine u
pretpostavka da nasljednik postaje
suvlasništvu. Broj mogućih životnih
savjesni
trenutka
situacija iz kojih ovo pitanje izvire je
otvaranja nasljedstva i u slučaju kad
veliki. Jedna od situacija je i kada
je ostavilac bio nesavjestan držalac,
neko lice kupi idealni dio ili na drugi
bez obzira kada je stekao faktičku
način stekne zakonit posjed, a da
posjednik
od
14
vlast na stvari. Što se tiče prekida
tom prilikom nije znao niti mogao
odnosno zastoja toka vremena
znati da lice od kojeg kupuje nije
dosjelosti, na odgovarajući se način
suvlasnik.
primjenjuju odredbe o prekidu,
odnosno zastoju toka rokova za
zastaru potraživanja iz ZOO.15
Stjecanje prava
vlasništva dosjelošću na
Ranija sudska praksa zauzela
je stav da suvlasnik ne može steći
pravo
vlasništva
suvlasničkom
suvlasnika.16
dosjelošću
dijelu
Međutim,
na
drugog
stajalište
novije domaće sudske prakse, ali i
idealnom suvlasničkom
prakse sudova regiona u pogledu
dijelu nekretnine od
ovog pitanja je da suvlasnik ipak
strane drugog
suvlasnika
U pravoj teoriji i praksi
može steći vlasništvo na cijeloj stvari
pod općim pretpostavkama, a to
znači da suvlasnik može steći pravo
vlasništva na suvlasničkom dijelu
postavilo se pitanje mogućnosti
Čl. 58. st. 5. ZSPFBiH/RS
Čl. 58. st. 6. ZSPFBiH/RS
15 Čl. 58. st. 7. ZSPFBiH/RS
16 Vrhovni sud Jugoslavije, Rev. br.
2594/61, od 07.02.1961. godine. Navedeno
13
14
prema: Lazarević D, Susvojina, zajednička
svojina i zaštita prava svojine, Poslovni biro,
Prvo izdanje, Beograd 2011, str. 85 fn: 262.
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drugog suvlasnika i dosjelošću.17 Na
već to može steći samo druga osoba koja
ovom stanovištu je i pravna nauka.18
nije suvlasnik stvari“.19
Ipak, domaća sudska nije u
Iznesenom
stavu,
osim
potpunosti jednoglasna u ovom
primjedbe da je u suprotnosti sa već
pitanju. Tako se veoma zanimljivim
citiranom
čini stav Općinskog suda u Zenici,
uključujući i sudsku praksu našeg
naknadno
od
Vrhovnog suda, kao i stavom pravne
Kantonalnog suda u Zenici, a koji
nauke, može se prigovoriti i sa još
glasi: „kako vlasnik ne može steći pravo
jednog osnova. Naime, kako je
vlasništva nad vlastitom stvari dosjelošću,
pomenuto, za stjecanje suvlasništva
tako isto ni suvlasnik ne može ni u kom
ne postoje neke posebne pravne
slučaju steći pravo suvlasništva dosjelošću
osnove različite od onih na temelju
na određenoj stvari, odnosno suvlasničkim
kojih se stječe pravo vlasništva.
dijelovima drugih suvlasnika na toj stvari,
Kako je prema ZSP FBiH/RS, kao i
prihvaćenog
i
sudskom
praksom,
starijim propisima, predviđeno da se
u pravnom prometu uzima da je
17„Suvlasnik
može steći pravo vlasništva
dosjelošću na suvlasničkom dijelu drugog
suvlansika pod općim uvjetima.“ Pravni
stav Kantonalnog suda u Sarajevu-Bilten
Kantonalnog suda u Sarajevu, broj 3/99,
str. 35, Isto tako VSBiH, Gž-704/73 od
19.11.1973. godine. Pravna misao, broj 56/1974, str. 73; Zbirka sudskih odluka,
1976, knjiga 1, sveska 1, str. 122, i VSBiH,
broj Gz-707/73 od 18.10.1973. godine –
Bilten VSBiH, broj 27/1974, str. 25.
„Zemljišnoknjižni suvlasnik može u parnici
tražiti da se presudom utvrdi da je pod
opštim
zakonskim
pretpostavkama
održajem stekao pravo vlasništva na
nekretninama koje su vanknjižnom diobom
pripale
pojedinim
zemljišnoknjižnim
suvlasnicima i da mu se srazmjerno tome
poveća suvlasnički dio (Čl. 28. st. 4.
ZOSPO).“ Pravni stav sjednice Građasnkoprivrednog
odjeljenja
VSBiH
od
26.02.1988. godine – Bilten VSBiH, broj
1/1988, odluka broj 120. Također vidi:
„Savjesni posjednici nekretnina koje je njihov
prednik kupio od suvlasnika stekli su pravo
vlasništva protekom vremena od dvadeset godina“
Vrhovni sud BiH Rev. 492/87 od 9. juna
1988. godine, Bilten VSBiH, broj 3/1988.
18 Stanković O, Orlić M, Stvarno pravo,
Nomos doo Beograd, 2001. godine, str. 157.
19 Presuda Općinskog suda u Zenici broj
034-0-P-06-001293 od 18.6.2009. godine.
Ovaj stav naknadno je potvrđen presudom
Kantonalnog suda u Zenici Broj: 004-0-Gž09-003500, od 25.05.2010. godine
9
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idealni dio stvari samostalna stvar, te
na
da sve što je određeno za stvar
savjesnosti,
vrijedi i za idealne dijelove (osim u
suvlasništvo kao takvo evidentirano
zakonom propisanim slučajevima),
u zemljišnoj knjizi. Tako se npr.
to se kao logičan zaključak i nameće
postavlja pitanje, da li je sticalac
mogućnost sticanja (su)vlasništva na
savjestan
idelanom dijelu nekretnine.
ostavinskih rješenja i izvršenog upisa
Dakle, s obzirom na to da za
stjecanje
prava
dosjelošću
nije
propisano,
zaključujemo da
navedeno
suvlasništva
ništa
pitanje
posebno
na
adekvatno
primjenjuju odredbe o stjecanju
idealnom
dijelu
je
naročito
unatoč
pitanje
kada
je
postojanju
u zemljišne knjige? Ovo pitanje ima
poseban praktični značaj iz razloga
što je najveći broj suvlasničkih
zajednica u kojima se i postavlja ovo
pitanje,
nastao
na
osnovu
praktični
značaj
nasljeđivanja.
prava vlasništva dosjelošću. Nadalje,
Dodatni
jasno je da će se u ovom slučaju
proističe iz činjenice nesređenosti
uvijek primjenjivati pravila vanredne
zemljišnoknjižnih
dosjelosti. Međutim, jasno je da se
posebno u ranijem periodu kada je
ne radi o jednostavnom, već o
uredna evidencija u zemljišnim
veoma složenom postupku u kojem
knjigama
je neophodno dokazati sve kvalitete
zapostavljena, a načelo povjerenja u
posjeda,
zemljišne knjige bilo zanemareno.
o
kojima
detaljnije
govorimo u nastavku rada.
Savjesnost suvlasnika
stjecatelja
evidencija,
bila
poprilično
Dakle, jasno je da u praksi postoji
veliki
broj
tzv.
„fiktivnih“
suvlasničkih zajednica, u kojima
formalni suvlasnici nisu ni svjesni
pomenutog pravnog odnosa.
Ono što je sporno kod
stjecanja prava vlasništva dosjelošću
U
konkretnom
slučaju,
postojanja ostavinskih rješenja i
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izvršenog upisa u zemljišne knjige,
ostavinskih rješenje ne čini posjed
sudska praksa stoji na stanovištu da
tužitelja
navedene činjenice same po sebi ne
savjesnost ili nesavjesnost posjeda je
govore o nesavjesnosti tužitelja.
faktičko pitanje koje sud rješava na
Tako će i pored navedenog sticalac
osnovu
relevantnih
okolnosti
biti savjestan ukoliko se on (kao i
svakog
konkretnog
slučaja.21
njegov prednik)
ponašao kao
Međutim, iako se savjesnot posjeda
vlasnik spornih nekretnina, a drugi
presumira, prema stajalištu sudske
suvlasnik/ci (niti njegovi prednici)
prakse
nikada nisu osporili ovo pravo
nesavjesnim.20
postoji
zakonska
presumpcija
savjesnog
posjeda,
vlasništva, iako je sticalac svoja
nesavjesnost
posjeda
vlasničko-pravna
ovlaštenja
dokazivati protivna stranka kad iz
manifestirao
naočigled.
navoda samog posjednika proizlazi
njima
Shodno navedenom, sama činjenica
“iako
Dakle,
ne
treba
da je njegov posjed nesavjestan.”22
upisa u zemljišne knjige na temelju
„Prednik tužitelja, kao i tužitelj na temelju
ove okolnosti su osnovano vjerovali da su
vlasnici, pa se tužiteljev propust da izvrši
uvid u zemljišne knjige istom ne može
stavljati nateret i činiti njegov posjed
nesavjesnim, jer se on kao i njegov prednik
duži niz godine i to više od 40 godine
ponašao kao vlasnik i jasno manifestira sva
vlasničko-pravna ovlaštenja, a sama
činjenica upisa u zemljišne knjige na temelju
ostavinskih rješenja ne čini posjed tužitelja
nesavjesnim. Prema tome, sama činjenica
upisa u zemljišne knjige na temelju
ostavinskih rješenja ne čini posjed tužitelja
nesavjesnim.“ Kantonalni sud u Travniku,
broj Gž 473/03, od 26.05.2004. godine Domaća i strana sudksa praksa, broj
14/2006, str. 37-38. Također vidi: „Sudska
praksa zauzela je stav da je pretpostavka
savjesnosti posjeda radi sticanja prava
20
vlasništva ispunjena ukoliko se vlasnik
nepokretne stvari apsolutno pasivno drži u
pogledu ostvarenja nekog prava koje izvire
iz prava vlasništva na toj stvari, a posjednik
te stvari iz takvog ponašanja vlasnika stvari
kroz vrijeme od 20 godina stekne uvjerenje
da ga realizacija tog prava ne interesuje i da
stvar drži kao savjestan posjednik.“ Vrhovni
sud RS, broj Rev 69/02 od 14.11.2003.
godine – Domaća i strana sudksa praksa,
broj 7/2005, str. 43-44; Bilten sudkse prakse
VS RS, broj 2004/I, odluka broj 32.
21 Medić D, Državina u pravu Republike
Srpske, Godišnjak Fakulteta pravnih nauka,
godina 2, broj 2, Banja Luka, jul 2012.
godine, str. 5-49
22 VSH, Rev 1953/1984. od 08.01.1985.
godine. Navedeno prema: Brežanski J, Još o
stjecanju vlasništva dosjelošću na nekretninama u
11
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Tako,
primjeni
nema
instituta
prostora
dosjelosti
u
pravo
vlasništva
nekretnini,
odnosno
na
cijeloj
u
obimu
situacijama kada suvlasnici znaju da
posjeda, a samim tim i suvlasničkom
nisu jedini vlasnici stvari (nisu
dijelu drugog suvlasnika.24 Postavlja
savjesni), što će uvijek biti u slučaju
se jedno generalno pitanje, šta
nasljednika,
zajedno
ukoliko je posjednik nakon proteka
prisustvovali ostavinskoj raspravi i
vremena potrebnog za sticanje prava
23
vlasništva saznao za druge vlasnike,
koji
su
koji su znali za druge nasljednike.
Međutim, ukoliko je jedan od
odnosno
sunasljednika
nesavjestan nakon proteka zakonski
držao
cijelu
nekretninu, a nakon njegove smrti
njegov
nasljednik
nastavi
preko 20 godina, tada će suvlasnik,
uz ispunjenje ostalih uslova, steći
društvenom vlasništvu, Zbornik Pravnog
fakulteta u Rijeci, v. 30, br. 1/2009, 611.
23 „Na osnovu utvrđenih činjenica prvostepeni sud
je zaključio da tužilac nije bio savjestan posjednik
spornih nekretnina , jer je znao da su sporne
nekretnine suvlasništvo na jednake dijelove kao
njihova djedovina.“ Vrhovni sud R Hrvatske,
Rev. 2106/90 od 07.11.1992. godine.
Također vidi i: „Samo pošteni posjednik može
steći pravo vlasništva dosjelošću, a takvim
posjednikom ne može se smatrati nasljednik u čijem
posjedu se nakon smrti ostavioca (oca) nalazi
nekretnina koja predstavlja ostavinsku imovinu, a
koji je znao da pored njega postoji i drugi nasljednik
(njegov brat), i da se taj drugi nasljednik nije
odrekao nasljedstva, niti mu je ustupio svoj idealni
dio, pa stoga na temelju takvog posjeda nije mogao
steći pravo vlasništva dosjelošću nannasljednom
dijelu tog drugog nasljendika, neovisno o duljini
trajanja tog posjeda, jer je znao da mu ne pripada
je
postao
utvrđenog vremena?
da
posjeduje i koristi cijelu nekretninu
ukoliko
Da li u takvoj situaciji on
gubi
osnov
za
sticanje
prava
vlasništva dosjelošću? I ovo pitanje
pravo na posjed cijele ostavinske mase.“
Županijski sud u Bjelovaru, Gž 527/09 od
15.10.2009. godine-odluka dostupna na:
www.iusinfo.hr (04.12.2020.) Također vidi:
„Tvrdnje revidenta koje se odnose na
stjecanja prava dosjelošću nisu osnovane.
Ovo iz razloga što su i prednik tuženika i
tuženik znali da sporna nekretnina
predstavlja zajedničku imovinu tužiteljice i
oca tuženika pa nisu bili savjesni posjednici.
Zbog navedenog nisu imali mogućnost
stjecanja prava vlasništva dosjelošću bez
obzira na vremensko trajanje posjeda
tuženika i njegovog pravnog prednika na
spornim nekretninama.” (VSRH, Rev2196/1991 od 23. decembra 1991.)
24 Lazarević D, Susvojina, zajednička svojina i
zaštita prava svojine, Poslovni biro, Prvo
izdanje, Beograd 2011, str. 86.
12
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nije eksplicitno regulisano zakonom,
Nadalje, postavlja se pitanje
tako da su odgovor na isto morali
da li savjesnost posjednika prestaje
dati sudovi kroz ustaljene postupke.
momentom saznanja da je drugi
S tim u vezi, naši sudovi, kao i sudovi
upisan u zemljišnu knjigu? Ovo
zemalja u okruženju su zauzeli stav
pitanje je od velikog značaja jer se
da činjenica što je posjednik postao
stjecalac o ovom pitanju upoznaje u
nesavjestan nakon proteka vremena
većini
potrebnog
prava
pripreme tužbe. Kao i većina drugih
vlasništva dosjelošću ne utiče na
pitanja, isto također nije eksplicitno
krajnji
regulisano određenim zakonskim
za
ishod
sticanje
sticanja
prava
slučajeva
u
momentu
vlasništva.25 Ovo iz razloga što se
članom.
vlasništvo putem dosjelosti stječe na
negativan odgovor na postavljeno
osnovu zakona i to momentom
pitanje, te se zauzima stav da
ispunjena
savjesnost posjednika ne prestaje
svih
propisanih
pretpostavki.
Sudska
praksa
daje
časom saznanja da je drugi upisan u
zemljišnu knjigu.26
Paragraf 1468. OGZ-a i načelno mišljenje
Proširene opšte sjednice Saveznog
vrhovnog suda Jugoslavije od 4. aprila 1960.
godine broj 3/60 ZSO V-1, 15. Također
vidi: „Međutim, ako se uzme u obzir
nepobitno utvrđena činjenica da posjed
tužilaca i njihovih prednika na spornim
nekretninama traje još od vremena prije
drugog svjetskog rata i da je do 1963.
godine, kada se tužiteljica počela obraćati
tuženim da izvrše diobu suvlasničkih
nekretnina, proteklo vrijeme duže od 20
godina, slijedi zaključak da su tuženi, u
smislu pravnih pravila imovinskog prava
modifikovanih u sudskoj praksi, već do tog
momenta (1963.godine), stekli pravo
vlasništva u spornim nekretninama putem
dosjelosti pa je zbog toga nebitno kada se
25
tužiteljica poslije toga obraćala tuženima
radi ostvarivanja svojih suvlasničkih prava.“
Vrhovni sud BiH, Rev. 488/87 od 9. juna
1988. godine –Bilten VSBiH, broj 3/1988
26 „Pravno shvaćanje suda prvog stupnja
kako je poštenje posjednika prestalo časom
kad je saznao da je netko drugi upisan u
zemljišne knjige nije pravilno. Sama
činjenica da je u zemljišnoj knjizi upisano
vlasništvo druge osobe, u konkretnom
slučaju općenarodna imovina, odnosno
Republika Hrvatska, ne znači nužno da je
posjednik nesavjestan, odnosno nepošten.
Nepoštenje posjeda treba dokazivati
(Vrhovni sud Republike Hrvatske, odluke
poslovni broj Rev 1519/09 od 23. ožujka
2011, Rev-x 76/14 od 21. listopada 2014., i
druge).” (Županijski sud u Zagrebu, Gž-
13
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Tužbe radi uknjižbe
prava vlasništva
stečenog dosjelošću na
idealnom dijelu
nekretnine
posjedovao kroz zakonom određeni
period. 27 Tako, savjesni posjednik
ne može tražiti pravo suvlasništva
cijele katastarske parcele već samo
pravo vlasništva na onaj dio koji je
posjedovao
najmanje
dvadeset
godina.28 U tom smislu, ukoliko su
Kada je u pitanju obim
ispunjene pretpostavke za stjecanje
sticanja prava vlasništva onda se radi
prava vlasništva dijela nekretnine
o primjeni pravila quantum possessum
dosjelošću, ne može se tražiti
tantum praescriptum, odnosno vlasnik
utvrđenje
stječe samo ono i onoliko koliko je
razmjerno utvrđenom omjeru u
prava
suvlasništva
odnosu na cijelu nekretninu.29 Ovo
5707/2018 od 2.07.2019. godine. U tom
pravcu vid ii: „Nepošten je posjednik koji
zna ili mora znati da nema pravo
(samostalno)
posjedovati
nekretninu.
Činjenica da je posjedovana nekretnina
upisana u zemljišnim knjigama na drugu
osobu ne čini sama po sebi posjed
nepoštenim, a do nepoštenja posjeda ne
dovodi ni propust posjednika da povjerava
stanje u zemljišnim knjigama. U konkretnoj
situaciji, kad je prednik tužitelja na temelju
kupoprodajnog ugovora bio upisan u
zemljišnim knjigama kao suvlasnik
nekretnina u ½ dijela, a koje nekretnine su
u postupku nove izmjere sukladno fizičkoj
diobi nekretnina upisane u posebne
posjedovne listove i raniji suvlasnici ih tako
i posjeduju, okolnost da je u zemljišnim
knjigama na temelju izjave jednog od ranijih
suvlasnika (M. G.) upisano suvlasništvo i na
onim nekretninama koje su u isključivom
posjedu drugog suvlasnika (T. B.), posjed T.
B. i njegovih sljednika ne čini nepoštenim.”
VSRH, Rev-x 76/14 od 21.10.2014. godine
27 Brežanski
J, Još o stjecanju vlasništva
dosjelošću na nekretninama u društvenom
vlasništvu, Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta u
Rijeci, v. 30, br. 1/2009, 603.
28 “Dosjelosti (održaj) je originaran način
sticanja
prava vlasništva pa savjesni
posjednik (uzukapient) ne može tražiti
pravo suvlasništva cijele katastarske parcele
već samo pravo vlasništva na onaj dio koji
je posjedovao preko dvadeset godina.”
Vrhovni sud BiH, Rev. 66/87 od
22.10.1987. godine – Bilten VSBiH broj
1/1988
29 “U postupku je utvrđeno da je tužiteljica
stekla sve pretpostavke za stjecanje prava
vlasništva dosjelošću točno određenog i
fizički omeđenog dijela sporne nekretnine a
ne prava suvlasništva u odnosu na cijelu
nekretninu. Tužiteljica je prvotno i imala
pravilno postavljen tužbeni zahtjev na
utvrđenje prava vlasništva točno određenog
14
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pitanje je naroičito bitno kod tzv.
omjer suvlasništva kroz proračun
tihih/ skrivenih dioba, koje su u
suvlasničkih omjera u zavisnosti od
našoj državi veoma često provođene
površine
putem
dogovora
posjedovala. Navedenim pitanjem se
njihovih
također bavila sudska praksa. Tako
prednika, i iste su imanentne upravo
je Vrhovni sud Hrvatske u predmetu
tzv.
broj VSRH Rev x - 1075/12 od 29.
usmenih
suvlasnika,
odnosno
„fiktivnim“
suvlasničkim
zajednicama.
nekretnine
koja
se
01. 2014. godine postavio značajan
stav da: „ukoliko se radi o stečenom
Upravo, navedeno pitanje je
u
praksi
dodatne
dijelu nekretnine koji faktično prema
postavljanja
materijalno pravnim pravilima koja su se
konkretnih tužbenih zahtjeva. Tako
primjenjivala u trenutku stjecanja već
se u praksi veoma često u tužbenim
predstavlja pojedinačno određenu stvar,
zahtjevima pogrešno traži utvrđenje
kao dopušten i određen treba prihvatiti i
prava suvlasništva, a ne isključivog
zahtjev vlasničke zaštite kojim se taj
prava vlasništva. Npr. ukoliko je lice
faktično odijeljeni dio precizno grafički
posjedovalo određeni fizički dio
individualizira prema skici lica mjesta.“
probleme
proizvelo
pravu vlasništva na fizički odijeljenom
prilikom
nekretnine kroz zakonom utvrđeni
rok,
veoma
često
tužbenim
U takvoj situaciji, „stjecatelj je
zahtjevima se tražilo da se utvrđuje
ovlašten zahtijevati provedbu parcelacije
dijela sporne nekretnine sukladno nalazu i
mišljenju vještaka geometra, ali je naknadno
preinačila tužbeni zahtjev i zatražila
utvrđenje prava suvlasništva u odnosu na
cijelu nekretninu razmjerno površini koju u
naravi uživa osobno i putem prednika preko
50 godina. Ovaj sud u cijelosti prihvaća
pravno stajalište drugostupanjskog suda da
u slučaju kada su ispunjene pretpostavke za
stjecanje prava vlasništva dijela nekretnine
dosjelošću, ne može se tražiti utvrđenje
prava suvlasništva razmjerno utvrđenom
omjeru u odnosu na cijelu nekretninu. U
ovom konkretnom slučaju nikada nije
egzistiralo pravo suvlasništva između
tužiteljice i tuženika odnosno njihovih
pravnih prednika, već naprotiv u postupku
je utvrđeno da je svaka strana bila u posjedu
i uživala točno fizički određen dio sporne
nekretnine.” Vrhovni sud R Hrvatske, Revx 995/13-2, od 24.01.2014. godine
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predmetnog zemljišta prema granicama
slučaju uveliko oslanja na već
stečenog prava vlasništva, te dalje time (ako
pomenuto načelo quantum possessum
su ispunjene i ostale pretpostavke) otpisom
tantum praescriptum.
nastale čestice u zemljišnim knjigama, upis
vlasništva na svoje ime, čime je odluka
provediva.“
Dakle,
taj geometrijski
odijeljeni dio faktično je individualiziran,
kao takav egzistira, pa u svakom slučaju
ne predstavlja suvlasnički dio nekretnine iz
koje je individualiziran. Suvlasništvo je
prestalo, te je prema materijalnopravnim
pravilima koja su se primjenjivala u
trenutku stjecanja, stečeno vlasništvo
geometrijski odijeljenog dijela koji faktično
već predstavlja pojedinačno određenu
stvar.”30 Predmetni stav se u svakom
Vidi: “Ispravno postavljen zahtjev trebao
bi glasiti u odnosu na zemljište koje shodno
odredbi čl. 5. st. 1. ZV može biti objektom
stvarnih prava (parcelacijom valjano
izdvojenu katastarsku česticu). Međutim,
ako se radi o stečenom pravu vlasništva na
fizički odijeljenom dijelu nekretnine koji
faktično prema materijalno pravnim
pravilima koja su se primjenjivala u trenutku
stjecanja već predstavlja pojedinačno
određenu stvar, kao dopušten i određen
treba prihvatiti i zahtjev vlasničke zaštite
kojim se taj faktično odijeljeni dio precizno
grafički individualizira prema skici lica
mjesta, odnosno kao u konkretnom slučaju
prema parcelacijskom elaboratu koji nije
potvrđen od strane nadležnog ureda za
katastar, ali koji jasno određuje predmet
30
Naredno praktično pitanje
koje se pojavljuje u odnosu na
predmetni slučaj jeste na koji način
će doći do izdvajanja posebnog ZK
izvadka. U konkretnom slučaju,
pravosnažna presuda kojom se
usvaja tužbeni zahtjev kojom je
tužitelj na osnovu dosjelosti stekao
isključivo
vlasništvo
zemljišne
čestice,
nekretnine,
će
biti
na
dijelu
odnosno
osnov
za
neophodnu parcelizaciju i kreiranje
prijavnog lista.31
vlasničke zaštite. Kod pravomoćno
prihvaćenog tužbenog zahtjeva, stjecatelj je
ovlašten zahtijevati provedbu parcelacije
predmetnog zemljišta prema granicama
stečenog prava vlasništva (pa i u
pretpostavkama iz odredbe čl. 161. st. 3. t.
3. Zakona o prostornom uređenju Narodne novine, broj 153/13), te dalje time
(ako su ispunjene i ostale pretpostavke)
otpisom nastale čestice u zemljišnim
knjigama (čl. 145. do 162. ZZK), upis
vlasništva na svoje ime (čl. 130. st. 1. ZV),
čime je odluka provediva.” VSRH Rev x 1075/12 od 29.01.2014. godine.
31 "Da bi dio postojeće nekretnine dobio
svojstvo pojedinačne nekretnine, odnosno
zemljišne čestice na kojoj se prema čl. 2.
Zakona o vlasništvu i drugim stvarnim
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Nadalje,
postavlja
se
Da li sud u konkretnom
praktično pitanje, u kojem momentu
primjeru može usvojiti tužbeni
moraju biti ispunjene pretpostavke
zahtjev na osnovu ispunjenosti
za
vlasništva
uslova za stjecanje prava vlasništva u
momentu
momentu
stjecanje
dosjelošću,
prava
da
li
u
zaključenja
glavne
podnošenja tužbe ili u momentu
rasprave. Naime, ovo pitanje je u
zaključenja
rasprave.
suprotnosti sa opštim načelom
Praktični značaj ovog pitanja je
parničnog postuka da sud cijeni
veliki, naročito u situacijama kada
ispunjenost uslova u momentu
tužitelj podnese tužbu za sticanje
zaključenja glavne rasprave. I ovo
prava vlasništva na osnovu redovne
pitanje je bilo predmetom raznih
dosjelosti, a tokom samog postupka
teorijskih i praktičnih rasprava.
se ispune i pretpostavke za sticanje
Zanimljiv
putem vanredne dosjelosti.
navedeno pitanje zauzeo je Vrhovni
glavne
sud
pravima može stjecati pravo vlasništva,
potrebno je da se provede parcelacija, sačini
prijavni list koji će biti propisno ovjeren od
strane nadležnog katastarskog ureda i tek
nakon toga u skladu s prijavnim listom
provede razvrgnuće, budući da se pravo
vlasništva može uknjižiti samo na
određenoj zemljišnoknjižnoj čestici ali ne i
na
fizički
određenom
dijelu
nekretnine.""Zaključak
sjednice
Građanskog odjela Županijskog suda u
Varaždinu od 06.10.2011. godinu. Također
vidi: “Mada parcelacija iz 2011. nije
provedena u zemljišnim knjigama, prema
shvaćanju ovog suda, ali i Vrhovnog suda
Republike Hrvatske (Rev-x 1075/12 od 29.
1. 2014.), tužitelj može zahtijevati utvrđenje
vlasništva
na
dijelu
postojeće
zemljišnoknjižne čestice, kao i trpljenje
takvog upisa u zemljišnoj knjizi nakon
RH
stav
na
u
odnosu
općoj
na
sjednici
parcelacije iste, ako dokaže kako je stekao
vlasništvo po jednom od zakonskih temelja.
Ovo shvaćanje se zasniva na mogućnosti da
se neka čestica potajnom diobom podijeli na
više faktički (materijalno) odijeljenih
dijelova koji faktično već predstavlja
pojedinačno određenu stvar - species (čl. 5.
st. 1. ZV). Ovaj geometrijski odijeljeni dio
faktično je individualiziran, kao takav
egzistira, pa više ne predstavlja suvlasnički
dio nekretnine iz koje je individualiziran. U
tom slučaju je suvlasništvo prestalo, makar
nije izvršena parcelacija čestice u zemljišnim
knjigama i katastru, te je prema materijalno
pravnim pravilima koja su se primjenjivala u
trenutku stjecanja, moguće steći vlasništvo
geometrijski odijeljenog dijela koji faktično
već predstavlja pojedinačno određenu
stvar.” Županijski sud u Zagrebu, Gž553/16 od 03.01.2017. godine
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građanskog odjeljenja, a koji glasi:
Zaključak
"Pretpostavke za stjecanje prava
vlasništva dosjelošću (kvaliteta i
trajanje
posjeda,
sposobnost
U radu je obrađeno pitanje
mogućnosti sticanja prava vlasništva
posjednika biti vlasnikom stvari, te
dosjelošću
sposobnost
nekretnine u suvlasništvu, te su
stvari
da
bude
u
na
idelanom
osnovna
dijelu
vlasništvu) moraju biti ispunjene u
prezentirana
stajališta
vrijeme podnošenja tužbe.„32
pravne nauke, ali i sudske prakse,
kako domaće, tako i prakse sudova u
Faktička
primjena
ovog
regionu.
Analizom
shvatanja znači da pretpostavke za
pozitivnih
stjecanje prava vlasništva dosjelošću
sudske prakse utvrdili smo različita
moraju
u
postupanja i različite stavove sudova
momentu utuženja. Do usvajanja
u pogledu ovog pitanja. U nastojanju
citiranog shvaćanja i u R Hrvatskoj
da iznađemo kvalitetnije rješenje, a
je postojala gotovo ustaljena praksa
na osnovu detaljne analize sudske
da su se pretpostavke za stjecanje
prakse, smatramo da je ispravniji
prava
dosjelošću
stav prema kojem je dopušteno
trenutku
sticanje vlasništva na suvlasničkom
biti
ispunjene
vlasništva
procjenjivale
već
prema
zaključenja glavne rasprave, iako je
postojala i praksa sudova u pravcu
novozauzetog stanovišta.33
zakonskih
relevantnih
propisa
i
udjelu na osnovu dosjelosti.
Naime,
suvlasništva
za
ne
stjecanje
postoje
neke
posebne pravne osnove različiti od
Pravno shvaćanje sjednice Građanskog
odjela Vrhovnog suda Republike Hrvatske
(1/19) od 14. februara 2019. godine.
33 Vidi: “U konkretnom slučaju pogrešan je
pravni pristup nižestupanjskih sudova koji u
vrijeme potrebno za dosjelost računaju i
32
vrijeme nakon podnošenja tužbe, pa do
zaključenja glavne rasprave u ovom
predmetu.” VSRH, Rev 458/14 od 7.
februara 2018. godine
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_____________________________
onih na temelju kojih se stječe pravo
stoji na stanovištu da navedene
vlasništva. Kako je prema ZSP
činjenice
FBiH/RS, kao i starijim propisima,
rješenja i izvršenog upisa u zemljišne
predviđeno da se u pravnom
knjige) ne govore o nesavjesnosti
prometu uzima da je idealni dio
tužitelja. Budući da je broj mogućih
stvari samostalna stvar, te da sve što
životnih situacija iz kojih ova pitanja
je određeno za stvar vrijedi i za
izviru je veliki, te s obzirom na
idealne dijelove (osim u zakonom
činjenicu postojanja neusaglašene
propisanim slučajevima), to se kao
sudske
logičan
sigurnosti
zaključak
i
nameće
(postojanje
prakse,a
ostavinskih
radi
pravnog
zaštite
prometa,
mogućnost sticanja (su)vlasništva na
neophodno je de lege ferenda regulisati
idelanom dijelu nekretnine. Dakle, s
ova
obzirom na to da za stjecanje prava
usvojenim stavovima sudske prakse.
pitanja
u skladu
sa
već
suvlasništva dosjelošću nije ništa
posebno propisano, zaključujemo da
na navedeno pitanje adekvatno
primjenjuju odredbe o stjecanju
prava vlasništva dosjelošću. Dodatni
problem
kod
stjecanja
prava
vlasništva dosjelošću na idealnom
dijelu tiče se pitanja savjesnosti,
naročito kada je suvlasništvo kao
takvo evidentirano u zemljišnoj
knjizi,
što
je
prema
našim
rezultatima zastupljeno u većini
slučajeva.
Rezultati
analiza
sudskih
odluka pokazuju da sudska praksa
19
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
Literatura
Stanković, M. Orlić, Stvarno
pravo, Beograd, 1998.
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Prelazak
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imovinskog prava, IV izdanje,
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na
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dosjelosti i uzurpacije na na
Fakulteta pravnih nauka,
nekretninama koje su bile u
godina 2, broj 2, Banja Luka,
društvenom vlasništvu, Zbornik
jul
Pravnog fakulteta u Rijeci, v.
2012.
godine,
O.
29, br. 1/2008
20
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
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Stanković
O,
Orlić
M,
Stvarno pravo, Nomos doo
Beograd, 2001. godine
-
− VSRH, Rev-2196/1991 od
23. decembra 1991.
− Načelno mišljenje Proširene
Žuvela M, Stjecanje prava
opšte
vlasništva – posebno o građenju
vrhovnog suda Jugoslavije
na tuđem zemljištu i dosjelosti,
od 4. aprila 1960. godine
Zakonitost, br. 9–10/90
broj 3/60 ZSO V-1, 15
sjednice
Saveznog
− Vrhovni sud BiH, Rev.
Sudska praksa:
488/87 od 9. juna 1988.
− Pravni stav Kantonalnog
suda
u
Sarajevu-Bilten
Kantonalnog
suda
u
stav
sjednice
− Vrhovni
sud
VSBiH
od
sud
broj
VSBiH, broj 1/1988, odluka
23.03.2011,
sud
BiH
Rev.
492/87 od 9. juna 1988.
godine, Bilten VSBiH, broj
− Presuda Kantonalnog suda u
Zenici Broj: 004-0-Gž-09godine
Rev.
br.
1519/09
sud
od
Jugoslavije,
2594/61,
od
07.02.1961. godine.
− VSBiH, broj Gz-707/73 od
18.10.1973. godine – Bilten
3/1988.
003500,
Rev
− Vrhovni
broj 120.
Republike
Hrvatske, odluke poslovni
26.02.1988. godine – Bilten
− Vrhovni
Republike
21. listopada 2014
− Vrhovni
Građasnko-privrednog
odjeljenja
3/1988
Hrvatske Rev-x 76/14 od
Sarajevu, broj 3/99,
− Pravni
godine –Bilten VSBiH, broj
od
25.05.2010.
VSBiH, broj 27/1974
− VSBiH,
Gž-704/73
od
19.11.1973. godine.
− VSH, Rev 1953/1984. od
08.01.1985. godine
21
�Društveni ogledi, decembar 2020.
_____________________________
− Vrhovni sud BiH, Rev.
− Vrhovni sud R Hrvatske,
66/87 od 22.10.1987. godine
Rev-x
– Bilten VSBiH broj 1/1988
24.01.2014. godine
− VSRH Rev 1631/1989, od
24.10.1991. godine.
2106/90
od
− VSRH Rev x - 1075/12 od
29.01.2014. godine.
− Vrhovni sud R Hrvatske,
Rev.
995/13-2,
od
07.11.1992. godine
− Županijski sud u Zagrebu,
Gž-553/16 od 03.01.2017.
godine
− Vrhovni sud RS, broj Rev
− Županijski sud u Zagrebu,
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od
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Zenici
RS, broj 2004/I, odluka broj
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32.
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22
�
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Title
A name given to the resource
Društveni ogledi
Author
Author
Centar za društvena istraživanja, Internacionalni Burč univerzitet
Keywords
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Article
PeerReviewed
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ISSN 2303-5706
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International Burch University
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Title
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Stjecanje prava vlasništva dosjelošću na suvlasničkom dijelu nekretnine
Author
Author
Esad Oruč
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Suvlasništvo predstavlja modalitet prava vlasništva sa više subjekata. Upravo činjenica da u vršenju prava vlasništva na jednoj nepodijeljenoj stvari učestvuje više lica sa vlastitim, ponekad i suprostavljenim interesima, čini suvlasništvo zanimljivim, ali i veoma složenim i zahtjevnim pravnim institutom. Posebno pitanje u pogledu funkcionisanja suvlasničkih zajednica, a koje se postavilo u praksi, jeste pitanje mogućnosti sticanja prava vlasništva dosjelošću jednog suvlasnika na suvlasničkom dijelu drugog suvlasnika. S tim u vezi, razmatrana su osnovna pitanja prezentiranog problema: uslovi za sticanje prava vlasništva dosjelošću, kao i posebno pitanje savjesnosti sticaoca u konkretnom slučaju. Kroz analizu domaće, ali i strane sudske prakse, ukazano je i na postojanje različitih stavova u pogledu pojedinih pitanja. Pored navednog, u radu je ukazano i na određene propuste u zakonskoj regulaciji predmetnog pitanja, te su predložena adekvatna zakonska rješenja de lege ferenda.
Keywords
Keywords.
usucaption, co-ownership, co-ownership share, ownership
DOI
Digital object identifier
10.14706/DOI21411
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7ddead26038654065181856ab84ba4fe.pdf
be010fee6487bae9252386b7eb311249
PDF Text
Text
Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3 (2), pp. 48-63, Winter 2020
Original research paper
ISSN 2566-4638
© International Burch University
Conceptualizing News Literacy
Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich, M.A
FH Burgenland, Austria
1819001202@fh-burgenland.at
Abstract: The nascent field of news literacy is often described as a
subset of media literacy. A review of international scholarship with
regard to news literacy conceptualizations confirms that there are
diverse and competing notions of its definition and purpose: while
the civic component of news literacy clearly distinguishes it from
media literacy and other new literacies, there is a noticeable divide
between journalism-driven and media literacy-derived approaches.
Qualitative data analysis was used to identify patterns in a subset of
approximately 120 examples of current English-language
international scholarship. By proposing three preliminary
taxonomic classifications of news literacy – protectionist versus
empowerment; skills versus knowledge; and levels of abstraction –
this conceptual paper provides orientation in the field.
Keywords: Literacy, media
literacy, news literacy,
taxonomy.
Article History
Submitted: 10 December 2020
Accepted: 10 January 2021
�Conceptualizing News Literacy
Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich
1. INTRODUCTION
Defining “news literacy” is a challenge when the definitions of both news and
literacy are in flux. Where “news” was once a valuable commodity gathered by
professional journalists and distributed regularly to mass audiences, it is now
ubiquitous, available 24-7, often free, and increasingly customized (Ashley,
2020). Today’s news consumers must be able to navigate an increasingly
complicated news ecosystem in order to find news they can trust. Similarly, the
meaning of “literacy” has also evolved. Since the 1970s, the scope of literacy
began to expand in education from the ability to read and write to become a
meaning-making activity that requires different skills for different types of media
messages: “Literacy today [...] is inevitably and necessarily multimedia literacy;
and to this extent, traditional forms of literacy teaching are no longer adequate”
(Buckingham, 2003, p. 35). Multiple new literacies have emerged in lockstep with
the development of digital technologies (Stordy, 2015), including not only media
and news literacy, but also computer, data, digital, economic, health, historical,
information, MIL (media and information literacy), new, scientific, and visual
literacy.
The term news literacy first emerged among journalism educators around
2006 (Fleming, 2017). News literacy has been characterized as a subset and
“crucial emerging field” of scholarship and education within the larger field of
media literacy (Mihailidis, 2012, xii-2). As a subfield of media literacy (Ashley,
Maksl, & Craft, 2013; Kendrick & Fullerton, 2019; Mihailidis, 2012; Palsa &
Ruokamo, 2015; Tully, Vraga, & Smithson, 2018) it has inherited to an extent the
same fruitless debate on definitions, scope, and aims that has plagued media
literacy since the early 1990s (Maksl, Craft, Ashley, & Miller, 2017). There is to
date no universally accepted formulation of news literacy. Its various
permutations include news literacy, news media literacy, critical news media literacy,
and critical news literacy. A recent paper co-published by a constellation of news
literacy scholars went so far as to claim that the “[current] state of the field is
chaotic ” (Vraga, Tully, Maksl, Craft, & Ashley, 2020, p. 13).
Yet even though “chaos” may be overstating the status quo, navigating
today’s news information environment has indeed become an increasingly
complex task. The key goals of media literacy education, such as enhancing
critical thinking skills (Silverblatt, 2004, 2014); analysis and evaluation
(Aufderheide, 1993; Hobbs, 2010); conscious processing of media messages
(Potter, 2004); and promoting civic agency (Mihailidis, 2019) may be applied
specifically to news content and news products. Whether such application allows
news literacy to emerge as a full-fledged, independent discipline may be beside
the point. Allowing for a degree of “semantic interoperability” with respect to
news literacy definitions would better reflect the diversity of news and news
consumers, as Malik et al. argue (2013, p. 9). The more important goal must surely
be to produce savvy and empowered readers and disseminators of various kinds
of media messages, including news.
49
�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
The purpose of this paper is to address the question of whether
meaningful classifications of news literacy definitions can be established at all.
Doing so may help clarify the current state of this cross-disciplinary field, but
also provide a framework for future scholarly work in this domain.
2. METHODOLOGY
This paper draws on a systematic literature review of news literacy which was
carried out in 2019. The literature review describes the current state of research
and identifies both scholarly and non-academic organizations and institutions
active in the field. While its theoretical focus lies on English-language scholarship
originating primarily in the US and UK, the review encompasses Englishlanguage scientific papers published by international scholars. Due to the nature
of the topic itself – news literacy –material published by non-academics such as
journalists, media commentators, educational outreach organizations and
programs has also been included in the literature review.
Searches were carried out on ERIC, SSCI, Google Scholar, ProQuest and
commercial search engines as well as on the theses and dissertation databases
OATD, BASE, and NDLTD. The literature review has been continually
augmented with works published since 2019, with particular effort devoted to
identifying new papers by scholars or practitioners already included in the
original literature review.
Using the full literature review as a base, an electronic search was carried
out during the months of August and September 2020 to identify whether, and
how often, the terms news literacy, news media literacy, critical news media literacy
and/or critical news literacy were used in the body of papers or published
materials. This step yielded approximately 120 peer-reviewed papers that used
one of the terms at least once. Several monographs and encyclopedia entries
published by scholars in the field were also identified. Occurrences of the terms
that were limited to citations or bibliographies were excluded for the purpose of
this study. Backward and forward searches of citations were carried out
selectively to ensure the completeness of the set. In a next step, qualitative data
analysis software tools were used to extract a collection of relevant terms and
concepts. These key operative words, including “skills,” “knowledge,” “civic,”
“democracy,” “act,” and “produce” (see also Table 1.) were counted, analyzed,
and used to identify possible relationships.
3. RESULTS
Of the approximately 120 works identified that use the term news literacy (or
variants thereof) in the body of the work, only 37 offer any type of specific
definition of the term itself. The rest – around 80 – use the term, but do not define
or otherwise elaborate on it. Instead, these papers often situate news literacy
50
�Conceptualizing News Literacy
Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich
within the existing media literacy landscape; it is characterized as one “strand”
in the “big tent” of media literacy education which embraces critical media
literacy as well as digital, information and visual literacies (RobbGrieco & Hobbs,
2013, p. 22). It is often described as a subset or outgrowth of media literacy which
applies the general media literacy principles of act, access, analyze, and create to
news-based texts (Ashley et al., 2013; Jones-Jang, Mortensen, & Liu, 2019;
Kamerer, 2013; Kartal, Yazgan, & Kincal, 2017; Kendrick & Fullerton, 2019;
Mihailidis, 2012; Notley & Dezuanni, 2019; Sivek, 2018). Toepfl (2014)
characterizes critical news literacy as part of the media literacy tradition, yet
emphasizes that its facets vary according to whether it is applied in countries
with democratic or non-democratic regimes. Others situate news literacy within
other related literacies such as digital media literacy (Dezuanni, Notley, & Corser,
2020) or information and digital literacies (CIVIX, 2020). Kendrick & Fullerton
(2019) point to the intersection of news literacy with civic literacy. Finally, news
literacy is occasionally offered as just one of many in a long list of literacies (Palsa
& Ruokamo, 2015; Stordy, 2015).
Of the 37 works that define news literacy, 21 propose original or own
definitions. The remainder cite previously published definitions forwarded by
other scholars or organizations. Twelve of the 21 original definitions are offered
by one or more scholars in the loose collective of Ashley, Craft, Maksl, Tully and
Vraga. Four definitions originate with or are directly associated with the Center
for News Literacy at Stony Brook University (Center for News Literacy, 2019),
and an additional five definitions are proposed by journalists, practitioners, or
educational organizations.
Malik et al. underscore that what sets news literacy apart from other
literacies is its “connection to civic engagement” (2013, p. 7). The US-based News
Literacy Project cites the promotion of “engaged participation in civic life” as the
ultimate aim of news literacy (2020, p. 5). The 21 original definitions and/or
statements of purpose located in this study tend to confirm this clear
differentiating characteristic: eighteen refer expressly to the civic and/or
democratic aspects.
Table 1. Occurrences of operative words in news literacy definitions and
statements of purpose
Term
Total
number
of
mentions
Ability, abilities
13
Act, active, action
9
Analyze, analysis
6
Assess
4
Attitude(s)
3
Civic
7
51
�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
Citizen,
citizenry,
citizenship
Create, creation
Credible, credibility
Critical, critically
Democracy, democratic
Empower, empowered
Engage,
engaged,
engagement
Evaluate
Fact, fact-based
Information
Informed
Knowledge,
knowledgeable
Meaningful
Mindful
Navigate
News consumer(s)
News consumption
News production
Productive
Skill, skills, skillset
Understand,
understanding
Verify, verification
13
5
4
20
11
8
16
6
3
18
7
13
1
2
1
3
9
15
1
16
16
2
Note: Key operative words counted in the group of 21 works proposing original or own news literacy
definitions and/or statements of purpose. Due to the small number of units of analysis, permutations of the
same word are grouped together. Only the first mention of the term is included in the count.
4. DISCUSSION
News literacy is still a young discipline with a relatively small yet rapidly
growing body of scholarly research. As its definition and purpose evolve, there
will likely be more material with which to create truly meaningful taxonomies.
Before delineating three possible modes of classification, it is useful to track the
evolution of definitions offered by one or more of the scholars who have coauthored multiple papers in the discipline since 2010: those belonging to the
aforementioned loose constellation of Ashley, Maksl, Craft, Tully and Vraga.
In 2010, Ashley, Poepsel and Willis employ the term media literacy in their
exploration of the ways in which knowledge of media ownership influences
opinions on print news credibility (2010). In “Developing a News Media Literacy
Scale” (2013), Ashley, Maksl and Craft describe news media literacy as a “subset of
52
�Conceptualizing News Literacy
Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich
the broader field of media literacy” without providing an explicit definition of
the term. Two years later, Maksl, Ashley and Craft again use news media literacy
(2015), describing it as an “emerging subfield” of media literacy. Ashley later
writes (2020, p. 50) that the authors deliberately used news media literacy in the
2015 study to underline their allegiance to the discipline’s roots in media literacy,
as opposed to journalism. The same authors employed news media literacy again
in “News Media Literacy and Political Engagement: What’s The connection?”
(Ashley, Maksl, & Craft, 2017). Yet in another paper published in the same year,
news literacy was the main term used in their evaluation of the Stony Brook
University curriculum (Maksl et al., 2017). They describe the overlap and
competition among different literacies, and describe news literacy in spatial
terms: “If a definition of news literacy is the destination, then the journey to reach
it passes through several other literacy neighborhoods” (2017, p. 229). Ashley
offers an autonomous definition for news literacy in the International Encyclopedia
of Journalism (2019b): “Starting from the premise that an informed citizenry is
central to democratic self‐governance, news literacy is comprised of the
knowledge, skills, and dispositions that news audiences need to successfully
engage with news media. [. . . ].” The most recent collective effort of the scholars
Vraga, Tully, Maksl, Craft and Ashley employs the term news literacy, which they
define as “Knowledge of the personal and social processes by which news is
produced, distributed, and consumed, and skills that allow users some control
over these processes” (2020, p. 15). In his 2020 monograph News Literacy and
Democracy, Ashley claims that news literacy “has emerged as a domain of its own”
and while distinct from media literacy, still belongs to its overarching realm
(2020, p. 17).
In addition to identifying how the term has developed thus far, patterns
may also be discerned in the 37 instances located for this study. These may be
elaborated in three preliminary modes of classification. The first is based on the
general protectionist and empowerment paradigms in the media literacy
education tradition (RobbGrieco & Hobbs, 2013, p. 2). A second draws on the
skills and knowledge-based framework developed by Potter (2004). A third
presents news literacy as one level of abstraction in a framework proposed by
Palsa & Ruokamo (2015). Each of the four permutations of the term (news literacy,
news media literacy, critical news media literacy, and critical news literacy) have been
merged in the creation of these classifications.
5. NEWS LITERACY PARADIGMS
The varying approaches to defining news literacy may be generally categorized
as fundamentally protectionist, or empowering (Mihailidis, 2012; RobbGrieco &
Hobbs, 2013). The protectionist paradigm presupposes a more “correct” way to
consume news and aims to cultivate appreciation of it (Fleming, 2014). It
encourages news consumers to think like journalists, and to employ the
traditional tools and techniques of the journalism trade (e.g. verification,
53
�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
consulting multiple sources, using an accuracy checklist etc.). In contrast, the
empowerment paradigm stems from the critical/cultural tradition in which the
individual not only interprets and deconstructs (news) media messages, but can
also actively contribute to message creation and dissemination. In news literacy,
the protectionist approach drills down on concrete news products and messages,
while the empowerment approach encourages contemplation of the wider
socioeconomic, cultural and institutional contexts. The protectionist paradigm is
most closely associated with proponents based in the United States, while the
empowerment paradigm is more global in scope (Fleming, 2017).
Origins
General stance
vis-à-vis media
Orientation
Desired actions
Geographic
sphere
Proponents
Table 2. News Literacy Paradigms
Protectionist Paradigm
Empowerment
Paradigm
Journalism, journalists, J-school
Critical/cultural
approach (“think like a journalist”)
approach
(based on media literacy
in US, media education
in UK)
Aims to mitigate potentially harmful
Encourages individual
media effects by cultivating
construction and
appreciation for certain media forms
negotiation of meaning
and messages
in all media forms
Content-oriented: examines and
Context-oriented:
evaluates specific news texts or news
considers the larger
products
socioeconomic, cultural,
institutional contexts
Skill cultivation: journalistic tools of
Ability to access,
fact-checking, verification, accuracy
analyze, create, reflect,
checklists, sourcing practices
act in all media
“American”
Global
Center for News Literacy at Stony
Brook University; News Literacy
Project (US); Poynter Institute; Radio
Television Digital News Association
(US); Howard Schneider (founder of
Stony Brook program)
Seth Ashley; Renee
Hobbs; Malik, Cortesi &
Gasser (2013); Paul
Mihailidis; Stephen D.
Reese
6. SKILLS VERSUS KNOWLEDGE-BASED APPROACH
The skills versus knowledge-based taxonomy follows Potter’s (2004)
classification of media literacy definitions. After counting explicit mentions of an
operative set of terms across all 37 definitions, four main areas of focus were
delineated: 1) “skills” (the related terms “abilities,” “competencies” were also
counted in this category); 2) “knowledge” (including “understanding,”
54
�Conceptualizing News Literacy
Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich
“comprehension”); 3) the combination of both “skills” and “knowledge.” This
study adds a fourth and crucial aspect, the “civic” component.
Table 3 classifies the original definitions according to the four areas. The
modest number of definitions (units of analysis) hinders the creation of
substantive classifications, yet a heightened emphasis on “skills” can be
discerned among the journalism-centric authors and organizations based in the
US (e.g. Center for News Literacy and its founder Schneider, the News Literacy
Project, Radio Television Digital News Association). Variations of “civic”
(“citizen,” “citizenship,” etc.) were included in eight definitions, thus
underscoring its centrality to the discipline. This aligns with Mihailidis, who
locates news literacy at the intersection of journalism, technology, and citizenship
(2012); and Malik et al., who stress that it is the “connection to civic engagement”
that sets news literacy apart from the other literacies (2013, p. 7). Appendix 1
offers verbatim excerpts of wording within each definitional focus area.
Table 3. News Literacy Definitional Focus
Definitional focus
Author(s)/Year
(listed in alphabetical order by author)
Focus on skills
Ashley et al. 2017
Center for News Literacy at Stony Brook
University (US)
Kajimoto & Fleming 2019
News Literacy Project (US)
Radio Television Digital News Association (US)
Schneider, Howard (Stony Brook University)
Focus on knowledge
Maksl et al. 2015
Reese 2012
RobbGrieco & Hobbs 2013
Focus on both skills
Ashley 2019
and knowledge
Ashley 2019a
Ashley 2020
Malik et al. 2013
Tully et al. 2018
Vraga et al. 2020
Mention of civic
Ashley 2019
component
Ashley 2019a
Ashley 2020
Kajimoto & Fleming 2019
Malik et al. 2013
Mihailidis 2012
News Literacy Project (US)
RobbGrieco & Hobbs 2013
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7. LEVEL OF ABSTRACTION FRAMEWORK
One thread identified in this study is a reluctance among scholars to insist on the
universality of any one news literacy definition. In their preference for semantic
flexibility, Malik et al. emphasize the importance of understanding the building
blocks of news literacy: what people need news for, how and why they seek out
news, and identifying how to help news consumers hone their skills in evaluating
and disseminating news (2013, pp. 8–9). Mihailidis has alluded to the lack of clear
definitional boundaries between news and media literacy. Yet rather than
limiting the concept from the outset, he suggests a more flexible approach that
enables “definitional rigor and fluency” to arise naturally in the course of
scholarship and pedagogy (2012, p. 3). Palsa & Ruokamo (2015) eschew
altogether any attempt to establish a global definition of media literacy,
proposing instead to recognize the legitimacy of multiliteracies and arrange these
on the basis of high, medium, and low levels of abstraction.
This more holistic view of literacies may indeed be of use when
considering news literacy. Adapting the Palsa & Ruokamo framework to this
end, media literacy – in this instance, the overall desired outcome of education –
is thus the highest level of abstraction. News literacy is situated in the middle,
and is employed as a targeted application of media literacy concepts to newsbased texts. At the lowest level of abstraction are literacies that feed into both
news and media literacy, such as headline literacy (Johnson, Paal, Waggoner, &
Bleier, 2020), which involves the ways in which news consumers identify and
evaluate the reliability of news headlines, particularly in social media-rich
information environments.
Table 4. Framework of abstraction for literacies (based on Palsa & Ruokamo, 2015)
High level of abstraction
Media literacy as desired outcome of educational efforts
Medium level of abstraction
News literacy as targeted application of media literacy concepts
Low level of abstraction
Headline literacy as highly specific and contextualized application of
news literacy concepts
8. CONCLUSION
This study underscores the current lack of any single, universally accepted
definition of news literacy in the English-language literature. Most scholarly
works included in this study apply the foundational definition of media literacy
to news-based texts instead of providing a new or original definition of news
literacy. Moreover, as a stand-alone discipline, news literacy competes not only
with media literacy, but with a range of other new or newish literacies, in
particular digital and information literacy. Yet news literacy is consistently
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Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich
distinguished from other literacies by way of its civic component. This study
suggests that among the relatively small group of scholars and practitioners that
employs the term, classification of conceptualizations may follow the
protectionist versus empowerment paradigm; a skills versus knowledge-based
approach; or within a framework of levels of abstraction. This classification could
serve as an initial taxonomic foundation which may be built upon as the
discipline develops.
A clear limitation of this study is the small number of extant original
definitions of news literacy. However, as the field matures and the corpus of
scholarly research expands, future researchers will have more material to draw
on in order to create more substantive classifications. The overall scope of
evaluation could be enlarged to include news literacy scholarship originating in
non-Anglo countries and explore the dimensions of the term in other languages.
The present rapid pace of publication in the field will likely continue as
researchers explore how news literacy is helping – or not helping – news
consumers navigate the complexities of news ecospheres, and whether news
literacy functions as a corrective to the scourge of “fake news” and
misinformation.
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Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
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APPENDIX 1.
News Literacy Definitional Focus as described in Table 3.
In alphabetical/chronological order for each category.
SKILL-BASED DEFINITIONS
Ashley et al.
"News media literacy takes the broad goals of media literacy—the ability to
access, analyze, evaluate, and create media [...] —and applies them to news
content specifically with a focus on the contexts of news production." (2017, p. 81)
Center for News Literacy at Stony Brook University
“News Literacy is the ability to use critical thinking skills to judge the reliability
and credibility of news reports, whether they come via print, television, radio,
the internet or social media.” (2019)
Kajimoto & Fleming
“News literacy is an emerging field within the disciplines of media literacy,
journalism education, information technology, and other related areas, although
there is no unified definition or consensus among researchers as to what exactly
the news literacy curriculum should entail. Its core mission is broadly recognized
as ‘citizen empowerment’ in that the critical-thinking skills necessary to the
evaluation of news reports and the ability to identify fact-based, quality
information encourage active participation and engagement among wellinformed citizens.” (2019)
News Literacy Project (US)
“News literacy is the ability to determine the credibility of news and other
content, to identify different types of information and to use the standards of
authoritative, fact-based journalism to discern credible sources and content from
misinformation and unreliable sources. Being more news-literate also means
recognizing the critical role of the First Amendment and a free press in a
democracy and interacting with news and other information in ways that
promote engaged participation in civic life.” (2020, p. 5)
Radio Television Digital News Association (US)
“News literacy is the acquisition of 21st-century, critical-thinking skills for
analyzing and judging the reliability of news and information, differentiating
among facts, opinions and assertions in the media we consume, create and
distribute.” (2020)
Schneider, Howard (Center for News Literacy at Stony Brook University)
“News literacy is the ability to decide for yourself whether the news reports you
receive, whether they come from television, the Internet, newspapers, or
magazines, whether those reports are reliable. And by reliable I mean whether
you can act on the information. Can you take an action? Can you reach a
conclusion? Can you make a judgment? Or is the information suspect or
insufficient – and how do you know?” (2019)
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KNOWLEDGE-BASED DEFINITIONS
Maksl et al.
“News media literacy is oriented toward understanding how and why people
engage with news media, how they make sense of what they consume, and how
individuals are affected by their own news consumption.” (2015, p. 29)
Reese, Stephen D.
“By news literacy I essentially mean an understanding of how news ‘works,’
including the underlying media and technological systems that support certain
meanings embedded in media ‘texts’ and the creative process that yields them [.
. . ]; [global] news literacy, then, means the ability to understand, ‘decode,’ and
create media with particular awareness of one’s social location within an
international context.” (2012, p. 65)
RobbGrieco & Hobbs
"This strand [of media literacy] helps learners understand and participate in the
roles and responsibilities that newsmakers, news consumers, news texts, and
news organizations play in a healthy society. Practitioners focus on key questions
of representation and reality, and of techniques used to construct messages in the
news.” (2013, p. 22)
BOTH SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE
Ashley (International Encyclopedia of Journalism Studies)
“Starting from the premise that an informed citizenry is central to democratic
self‐governance, news literacy is comprised of the knowledge, skills, and
dispositions that news audiences need to successfully engage with news media
[. . . ].” (2019b)
Ashley (International Encyclopedia of Media Literacy)
“[The] emerging field of news literacy includes the knowledge and skills
necessary for empowered audiences to engage with news media and civic life in
meaningful and productive ways.” (2019a)
Ashley
"News literacy is the critical evaluation of information content as well as the
contexts where it is produced and consumed. We can think of news literacy as
the set of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that a person brings to their personal
consumption of information and to their understanding of the structure of the
news media landscape.” (2020, p. 9)
Malik et al.
“News literacy is at the intersection of [media and information literacies], as news
is a type of information which can be delivered through the media. However, its
connection to civic engagement is what conceptually distinguishes it from other
information or media.” (2013, p. 7)
Tully et al.
"NML [news media literacy] [. . .] emphasizes the development of knowledge,
skills and a personal sense of control about media choices”; “[. . . ] NML, then,
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Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich
focuses on the necessary abilities relevant to becoming a critical news consumer."
(2018, 3-4)
Vraga et al.
News literacy is “knowledge of the personal and social processes by which news
is produced, distributed, and consumed, and skills that allow users some control
over these processes.” (2020, p. 15)
CIVIC COMPONENT (WHERE NOT ALREADY INCLUDED ABOVE)
Mihailidis
“The news literacy educational movement is premised on exploring how to best
prepare journalists and citizens for lives of active inquiry and participatory
citizenship in information societies worldwide.” (2012, p. 8)
63
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Journal of Education and Humanities
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Education and Humanities
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Conceptualizing News Literacy
Author
Author
Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The nascent field of news literacy is often described as a
subset of media literacy. A review of international scholarship with
regard to news literacy conceptualizations confirms that there are
diverse and competing notions of its definition and purpose: while
the civic component of news literacy clearly distinguishes it from
media literacy and other new literacies, there is a noticeable divide
between journalism-driven and media literacy-derived approaches.
Qualitative data analysis was used to identify patterns in a subset of
approximately 120 examples of current English-language
international scholarship. By proposing three preliminary
taxonomic classifications of news literacy – protectionist versus
empowerment; skills versus knowledge; and levels of abstraction –
this conceptual paper provides orientation in the field.
Keywords
Keywords.
iteracy, media
literacy, news literacy,
taxonomy.
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
2566-4638
DOI
Digital object identifier
10.14706/JEH2021324
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/93ad8e438ec751c94c2d0a3af49697f2.pdf
b743dfacd07d30b2dd135db34a79b93f
PDF Text
Text
Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3 (2), pp. 33-47, Winter 2020
Original research paper
ISSN 2566-4638
© International Burch University
Bosna i Hercegovina - država ili protektorat?
Dr. sci. Davor Trlin
Doc. dr. Esad Oruč
International Burch University
davor.trlin@ibu.edu.ba
esad.oruc@ibu.edu.ba
Abstract: In this paper, through the analysis of the normative framework for the
operation of these institutions, but also their activity, and the application of
international standards in BiH, we will try to find an answer to the question of
whether Bosnia and Herzegovina is a state or a protectorate. A lot has been
achieved through the implementation of the Dayton Agreement, but most of it was
due to the activity of the international community. According to the General
Framework Agreement for Peace, this activity does not envisage a protectorate.
However, especially in the first years of the functioning of post-Dayton Bosnia and
Herzegovina, many constitutional and legal theorists tried to define the legal
nature of Bosnia and Herzegovina's dependence on the international community
in certain elements (which later softened). The results showed no unambiguous
answer. In the last fifteen years, this issue has moved to the periphery of interest
in domestic and regional constitutional and legal science. But it seems the time to
re-establish it has come, especially in light of the announcement of changes in the
attitudes of key actors in the international community towards Bosnia and
Herzegovina. We are also interested in the issue related to this central research,
which is the degree of sovereignty of the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina inside
and outside, given the Dayton construct of the international community's
involvement in the constitutional and political system of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Sažetak: U ovom radu ćemo, kroz analizu normativnog okvira za djelovanje ovih
institucija, ali i njihov sam aktivitet, te aplikaciju međunarodnih standarda u BiH,
pokušati doći do odgovora na pitanje da li je Bosna i Hercegovina država ili
protektorat. Kroz implementaciju Daytonskog sporazuma se postiglo dosta, ali
većinom je zaslužan bio aktivitet međunarodne zajednice. Taja aktivitet ni, prema
Općem okvirnom sporazumu za mir, ne predviđa protektorat. Ipak, posebno u
prvim godinama funkcioniranja post-Daytonske Bosne i Hercegovine, brojni
ustavno-pravni teoretičari su pokušavali definirati pravnu prirodu odnosa
ovisnosti Bosne i Hercegovine prema međunarodnoj zajednici u određenim
elementima (koja se kasnije sve više ublažavala). Rezultati su pokazali da nema
jednoznačnog odgovora. Ovo pitanje je u posljednjih petnaest godina u domaćoj
ali i regionalnoj ustavno-pravnoj nauci prešlo na periferiju interesiranja. Ali, čini
se da je vrijeme da ga se ponovo postavi, posebno u svjetlu najave promjena
odnosa ključnih subjekata međunarodne zajednice prema Bosni i Hercegovini.
Takođe nas interesuje i pitanje koje je povezano s ovim centralnim istraživačkim,
a to je stepen suvereniteta države Bosne i Hercegovine unutra, ali i prema vani,
imajući u vidu Daytonski konstrukt uključenosti međunarodne zajednice u
ustavno-politički sistem Bosne i Hercegovine.
Keywords: Protectorate,
International Community,
High Representative, Peace
Implementation Council,
Bonn Powers.
Ključne riječi: Protektorat,
Međunarodna zajednica,
Visoki predstavnik, Vijeće za
implementaciju mira, Bonske
ovlasti.
Article History
Submitted: 30 October 2020
Accepted: 10 December 2020
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Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
1. UVOD
Ustavni sistem Bosne i Hercegovine je determiniran sporazumom za mir, koji je
postignut u Daytonu (Ohio, SAD) novembra 1995. godine, a formalno potpisan
u Parizu, decembra 1995. godine. Aneks 4 ovog sporazuma je Ustav Bosne i
Hercegovine. Prema Članu I tačka 2, Bosna i Hercegovina je demokratska država
koja funkcionira u skladu sa zakonom i na osnovu slobodnih i demokratskih
izbora. Iako ova odredba proklamuje koncept demokratije, Aneks 4 sadrži dosta
normi koje nisu u skladu sa demokratskim principima, ali je i antinomičan, tj.
određene njegove odredbe su međusobno nesaglasne (npr. proklamovan je
princip zabrane diskriminacije, ali istovremeno je pojedinim kategorijama
uvedeno nejednako aktivno i pasivno biračko pravo, odnosno postoji otvorena
ustavna diskriminacija). O donošenju ovog akta, ali i pojedinim njegovim
odredbama, te komparaciji ovog akta sa drugim aneksima sporazuma bitnim za
ovaj rad ćemo detaljnije pisati u slijedećim poglavljima.
2. POJAM PROTEKTORATA
Protektorat je jedan odnos ovisnosti jedne (slabije) države od druge (jače),
protektora. Klaić (1986), pod „protektorom (protekcijom) podrazumijeva: 1.
pokrovitelj, zaštitnik; 2.u međunarodnom pravu država koja preuzima nad
nekom zemljom protektorat. Protektorat- pokroviteljstvo, zaštićivanje, okrilje,
obrana uopće, a osobito: formalno pokroviteljstvo jače države nad slabijom;
faktički- pokroviteljstvo je oblik zavisnosti koji imperijalističke države nasilno
nameću drugim zemljama; 2. naziv ovako okupirane zemlje; isto i
protektorstvo.” Prema Ibleru (1987) nastaje na temelju međunarodnog ugovorai
kojim se odnos ovisnosti uređuje tako što se navode prava i dužnosti obiju strana
(s. 259). Iz ovog razloga se npr. ne može prihvatiti da je Čehoslovačka bila pod
protektoratom Trećeg Rajha, budući da između njih nije zaključen ugovor.
Protektirana oblast je uspostavljena jednostranim aktom okupacije, i postala je
dio „teritorije velikog njemačkog Rajha“. U Hoffmanovoj analizi (1987) navodi se
da se država zaštitnica ugovorom obavezuje da će štiti protektiranu državu od
agresije ili drugih oblika povrede prava zajamčenih međunarodnim pravom, te
od internog ugrožavanja, a država zaštitnica preuzima njene ovlasti u
međunarodnim odnosima (s. 1153).
Dvije su vrste protektorata: potpuni i ograničeni. Kod potpunog
protektorata država štićenica u potpunosti ugovorom o protektoratu stavlja
svoje aktivnost u nadležnost države zaštitnice, a kod ograničenog zadržava
poslovnu sposobnost, ali je ograničena naknadnim odobrenjem protektora. Seidl
i Hohenveldern (2006) navode da protektirani teritorij ne ulazi u državni teritorij
protektora, državljani zadržavaju svoja državljanstva, a ugovori koje protektor
zaključuje obavezuju protektiranu državu (s. 177). Neki pravni teoretičari među
oblike „složenih država“ ubrajaju i protektorat. Berislav Perić (1994) dijeli
složene države na: 1) protektorat, 2) unija (realna i personalna), 3) konfederacija,
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4) federacija (s. 103). Fuad Muhić (1998) smatra da su se kroz istoriju razvila dva
osnovna oblika složenih država – konfederacija i federacija (s. 104-107). Ovaj
autor navodi da su unije „oblici povezivanja država koji se nalaze na sredini
između konfederacije i federacije.“ – (s. 109). Dijeli ih na realne i personalne unije,
a kao vrstu personalne unije podrazumijeva protektorat: „Kao oblik državnog
uređenja, unije su u modernom dobu iščezle, i na njih donekle podsjećaju samo
veze nekih malih evropskih državica sa susjednim državama, koje za njih
obavljaju većinu najvažnijih poslova (veze San Marina sa Italijom, Monaka sa
Francuskom, Lihtenštajna sa Švajcaskom i Andore sa Španijom i Francuskom).
Takva veza naziva se protektoratom (štićeništvom)“ (s 109.).
Međutim, moderna pravna teorija kao ni međunarodno pravo ne smatraju
protektorat za oblik državnog uređenja već za odnos ovisnosti. Tako ih svrstava
Degan (2000), a ne među oblike država (s. 294-295). Najviše su protektori bili
Francuskaii i Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo Velike Britanije i Sjeverne Irskeiii.
Schweisfurth (2006) je dao detaljan pregled protektorata UK (s. 25.). Može se reći
da je klasičnih protektorata, kao odnosa dvije države (zaštitnice i štićenice) kroz
povijest nestalo i da su se oni transformirali u tzv. „Međunararodnu teritorijalnu
upravu“, institut međunarodne zajednice kojim ona osigurava međunarodni
pravni poredak. Protektorat nisu ni slučajevi kad se manja država služi većom za
obavljanje određenih poslova (primjer Lihtenštajna u odnosu sa Švicarskom ili
San Marina u odnosu sa Italijom), gdje države imaju autonomiju odlučivanja. To
npr. nije slučaj sa Monakomiv pa se može reći da je ispravna tvrdnja Seidla i
Hohenvelderna (2006) da je ovo jedan od rijetkih primjera (oslabljenog)
protektorata u savremenom društvu (s. 176.).
3. ULOGA EKSTERNOG FAKTORA U USTAVOTVORNOM DRŽAVNOM POSTUPKU
„Daytonski“ ustav nije jedini slučaj u ustavnoj istoriji da je ustav određene
države sačinjen uz pomoć i nadzor eksternog faktora. Tako su savezničke
okupacijske sile, nakon poraza Njemačke u Drugom svjetskom ratu, ukinule
Weimarski ustav, koji je bio na snazi u Njemačkoj od 1919. do 1945. godine. Na
snagu je, u Zapadnoj Njemačkoj“ stupio Temeljni zakon (23. 05. 1949. godine,
nakon što je odobren 08. 05. 1949. godine, u Bonnu (sve su Zemlje, osim Bavarske,
takođe potvrdile), te od, strane Saveznika Drugog Svjetskog rata 12. 05. 1949.
godine). Ovaj ustav je sada, uz određene amandmane, na snazi u Saveznoj
Republici Njemačkoj. Sačinili su ga, pod usmjeravanjem Zapadnih sila, 1948.
godine, ministri-predsjednici zapadnonjemačkih država, koji su formirali
Parlamentarno vijeće.
Takođe je Ustav Japana od 03. 05. 1947. godine, kojeg je, pod nadzorom
Vrhovnog komandanta Savezničkih snaga, Douglasa MacArthura, sačinio
određen broj državnih službenika i vojnog osoblja SAD. Nakon toga su japanski
pripadnici akademske zajednice pregledali i modificirali tekst, prije konačnog
usvajanja ustava od strane Nacionalnog dijeta, parlamenta Japana. Ustav od
1947. godine je zamijenio dotadašnji autoritarni sistem kvaziapsolutne
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monarhije, sa liberalnom demokratijom, a cilj učešća Saveznika je bio da se
suspregne militaristički nacionalizam japanske vlade.
4. SUVERENOST, MEĐUNARODNO PRAVO I USTAVNO PRAVO
Tri osnovna elementa državne organizacije su: stanovništvo, teritorija i
suverena vlast.
Prije nego što objasnimo sintagmu „suverena vlast“, trebamo prvo
objasniti šta zapravo znači termin „vlast“ i u čemu je to suštinska razlika između
moći i vlasti. Vlast je institucionalizovana i legitimizovana moć. Prema Viskoviću
(2006) „Vlast je nešto više od gole moći i prisile. To je prisila koja je legitimna ili
barem formalno zasnovana na običajnim i pravnim normama, tj. koja je po
mišljenju nekih ljudi opravdana kao „dobra“ ili se barem poziva na običaj i
pravo.“ (s. 19). Vlast znači da se tačno znaju hijerarhijski odnosi između onih koji
imaju vlast i onih koji je nemaju (tj. između nadređenih i podređenih) i da se ti
odnosi moraju poštovati. Razne su vrste vlasti, ako je moć određenih društvenih
subjekata zasnovana na pravnim normama. Tako postoje ekonomska vlast,
roditeljska vlast, državna vlast. Ova zadnja, državna vlast najviša je vlast u društvu.
Vrhovnost državne vlasti je element državne suverenosti. Državna suverenost se
manifestira dvojako:
1. kao unutrašnja suverenost (profesor Visković ju naziva „pravna vrhovnost“) i 2.
kao vanjska suverenost.
1. Unutrašnja suverenost državne vlasti znači da država ima isključivo pravo da
stvara najviše pravne akte. Državna vlast ima pravo izricati određene sankcije za
nepoštivanje dispozicija pravnih normi iz pravnih akata koje je donijela, i u tu
svrhu koristi prinudu. Ona je jedina organizacija u društvu koja ima monopol
legalne fizičke prinude. Perić (1994) navodi:„“Glede toga predložio bih da državu
treba šire definirati kao onu društvenu organizaciju koja ima: (1) VLAST, koja (a)
unutar državnih granica raspolaže NE monopolom prisile, nego NAJVEĆOM
prisilom, (b) u odnosu na druge države, dakle „prema vani“, nastupa kao
„jednak s jednakima“. Ova vlast, također, ima sljedeća obilježja: ona je društvena
organizacija, suverena, ona je i prisilna. Ima svoj: (2) TERITORIJ, (3)
STANOVNIŠTVO i (4) PRAVO, tj. PRAVNI POREDAK. Ukazujući na činjenicu
da državna vlast, ako hoće ostati državna, mora na svom teritoriju raspolagati
(ne monopolom fizičke prisile, jer to je nemoguće) n a j v e ć o m ili n a j j a č o m
p r i s i l o m. Nadalje, ako takva država izgubi i tu najjaču prisilu, ona bi prestala
biti državna vlast i njene bi izreke prestale biti pravo. Druga politička snaga, koja
bi u svoje ruke preuzela ili osvojila tu najveću i najjaču prisilu, time bi postala i
nova državna vlast.“ (s. 137). Država nije i jedina organizacija u društvu koja
stvara pravne norme. To su i brojni subjekti autonomnog prava (privredna
društva, vjerske organizacije, sindikati...). Moderno poimanje suverenosti je
nastalo zahvaljujući konceptima narodne suverenosti i pravne države. Ono je
dokinulo apsolutističko, feudalno poimanje suverenosti države o pravno
neograničenoj vlasti monarha.
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2. Vanjska suverenost državne vlasti znači da je državna vlast nezavisna u odnosu
na druge državne vlasti (tj. jednoj državi nijedna druga država ne može nametati
svoju volju). Ona je u međunarodnim odnosima ravnopravna sa drugim
državnim vlastima, bez obzira na sve razlike koje u modernom društvu
objektivno postoje između država. Ipak, postoje i određeni, istina, ne brojni
slučajevi pravne neravnopravnosti državnih vlasti u međunarodnoj zajednici i
međunarodnim odnosima. To se najbolje vidi na primjeru Vijeća sigurnosti, gdje
sile pobjednice Drugog svjetskog rata imaju pravo veta.
Suverenost državne vlasti u modernom društvu može biti veća ili manja.
Brojne su države u kojima se vode oružani sukobi i one koje su u specifičnim
odnosima ovisnosti o drugim državama, međunarodnim organizacijama ili čak
cijeloj međunarodnoj zajednici država.
Svaka država mora pribavljati sredstva kojim se osigurava materijalna
osnova za brojne zadatke koje država mora obavljati, ali i da bi mogla egzistirati.
Tim sredstvima se zadovoljavaju i objektivno postojeće potrebe u društvu
(prvenstveno ekonomsko-socijalne prirode), ali se i zadovoljavaju dobra
neophodna za reprodukciju ljudske vrste i same države.
Postavlja se pitanje da li šira decentralizacija unitarne države, odnosno
veće nadležnosti federalnih jedinica, znače i dijeljenje suverene državne vlasti
između oblika decentralizacije i unitarnih država, odnosno federalnih jedinica i
federacije? Teoretski, suverenost državne vlasti ne može biti podijeljena.
Suverenost državne vlasti je jedinstvena. Određena unitarna država ili federacija
može samo biti više ili manje suverena, ako je u unitarnoj državi oblicima
decentralizacije data široka autonomija – npr. kod zakonodavne decentralizacije,
odnosno ako u federativno uređenim državama federalne jedinice imaju brojne
nadležnosti i to one koje su u velikom broju federacija na saveznom nivou.
Zavisno od oblika državnog uređenja, uže političko-teritorijalne zajednice
mogu dobiti određena prava i dužnosti reguliranja finansijskih odnosa na svojoj
teritoriji. Tako, samo federalne jedinice, kao i sama federacija imaju finansijska
prava. To nije slučaj (izuzev kod zakonodavne decentralizacije), kod unitarnih
država. Dakle, kod unitarnih država, za razliku od federacija, samo centralna
vlast ima (puni) finansijski suverenitet. Kod Dautbašića (2004), u njegovom
udžbeniku, nalazimo da je kod unitarnih država postoje dva sistema regulisanja
odnosa između centralnih organa i decentralizovanih i lokalnih organacentralizovani i decentralizovani finansijski (fiskalni) suverenitet (s. 57). Kode
centralizovanog finansijskog suvereniteta, kakav je apliciran npr. u Francuskoj
Republici, centralne vlasti zakonom utvrđuju temeljne elemente fiskalnih
dažbina (npr. porezna osnovica), a decentralizovani organi i lokalni organi
svojim pravnim aktima dalje razrađuju i reguliraju ove dažbine. Decentralizirani
finansijski suverenitet (npr. primijenjen u Ujedinjenom Kraljevstvu Velike
Britanije i Sjeverne Irske), znači da decentralizovani i lokalni organi vlasti imaju
široke ovlasti u pogledu reguliranja finansijskih (i uže, fiskalnih) odnosa, dok
centralni organi samo kontroliraju cjelokupni finansijski i fiskalni sistem unitarne
države. Kod federacija postoje i vertikalno i horizontalno raspoređivanje potreba
i prihoda, tj. raspoređivanje između federacije i federalnih jedinica i
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javnopravnih kolektiviteta, i horizontalno raspoređivanje potreba i prihoda, tj
raspoređivanje između javnopravnih kolektiviteta istog stepena. Profesor
Dautbašić (2004) navodi da se vertikalno raspoređivanje prihoda vršilo, a i sada
se vrši, po nekim od sljedećih sistema: sistem učešća, konkurentni sistem, sistem
odvajanja, sistem povezivanja (zajednica), sistem jednoobraznosti, kombinirani
sistem, te da postoje dva metoda za primjenu sistema separacije, sistema
zajednice i mješovitog (kombiniranog) sistema: automatski (utvrđuje se fiksna
kvota prihoda za nosioce finansiranja) i diskrecioni (koji se sastoji od
pojedinačnog odlučivanja o raspoređivanju prihoda u ovisnosti o vrsti i obimu
potreba) (s. 58-62).
Još treba napomenuti da je svaka državna vlast titular javnih subjektivnih
prava. Ona se nazivaju državnim javnim subjektivnim pravima. Dihotomija
javnih subjektivnih prava je, inače, na individualna javna subjektivna prava i
državna javna subjektivna prava. Otajagić (2005) piše o državnim javnim
subjektivnim pravima, te objašnjava da se ona nalaze u ustavnom, upravnom i
procesnom pravu, i prema svom objektu, dijele se na: 1. čisto lična državna prava,
odnosno prava na svoju radnju (npr. pravo na krivičnu sankciju utvrđenu
krivičnim zakonima); 2. prava države na tuđu radnju neimovinskog karaktera
(npr. pravo na vojnu službu pojedinaca); 3. prava na tuđu radnju imovinske
prirode (npr. pravo države na određivanje i naplatu poreza) i 4. čisto imovinska
državna prava (npr. pravo na slobodnu trgovinsku zonu u drugoj državi na
osnovu ugovora) (s 78 i 79). Kod unitarnih decentralizovanih država ne postoji,
izuzev kod zakonodavne decentralizacije, pojava da su oblici decentralizacije
titulari ovih državnih javnih subjektivnih prava. Rijetke su federacije koje na
centralnom nivou nemaju mnogo državnih javnih subjektivnih prava, a da ih
suprotno, federalne jedinice imaju više nego savezna vlast.
5. MEĐUNARODNO UGOVARANJE USTAVA: SLUČAJ BIH
Kod Sokola i Smerdela (1998) nalazimo da je Daytonski mirovni sporazum
sklopljen između predsjednika Republike Hrvatske, Republike Bosne i
Hercegovine i Savezne Republike Jugoslavije, uz sudjelovanje predstavnika
konstitutivnih naroda u BiH, te uz aktivno sudjelovanje američkih dužnosnika (s
297). Ovim sporazumom je okončan oružani sukob ali su se i postavili temelji za
organizaciju državne vlasti BiH. Potpisan je u Parizu 14. 12. 1995. godine, kao
Opći okvirni sporazum za mir. Opće odredbe Sporazuma, potpisali su, za
Republiku BiH, Alija Izetbegović, za Republiku Hrvatsku, Franjo Tuđman, za
Saveznu Republiku Jugoslaviju, Slobodan Milošević. Kao svjedoci, Sporazum su
potpisali predstavnici EU, Francuske Republike, Savezne Republike Njemačke,
Ruske Federacije, Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva Britanije i Sjeverne Irske i Sjedinjenih
Američkih Država. Ovaj dokument ima 11 članova, te isto toliko aneksa. Kod
Bakotića su navedeni Aneksi (1998): Aneks 1-A - Sporazum o vojnim aspektima
mirovnog rješenja, Aneks 1-B - Sporazum o regionalnoj stabilizaciji, Aneks 2 Sporazum o granici među entitetima i srodnim pitanjima, Aneks 3 - Sporazum o
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izborima, Aneks 4 - Ustav, Aneks 5 - Sporazum o arbitraži, Aneks 6 - Sporazum
o pravima čovjeka, Aneks 7 - Sporazum o izbjeglicama i prognanicima, Aneks 8
- Sporazum o komisiji za očuvanje nacionalnih spomenika, Aneks 9 - Sporazum
o javnim poduzećima Bosne i Hercegovine, Aneks 10 - Sporazum o provedbi
civilnih aspekata, Aneks 11 - Sporazum o međunarodnim operativnim
policijskim snagama (s. 6). Pored ovih 11 aneksa, koji uređuju detaljnije obaveze
za njegovu realizaciju, postoje još dva opća dodatka – Sporazum o parafiranju i
Završnu izjavu sudionika u posrednim mirovnim pregovorima u BiH.
Sporazumom nijedna strana nije stekla pravo nad Bosnom i Hercegovinom.
Kada je riječ o centralnom istraživačkom pitanju ovog rada, treba napomenuti da
su se strane obavezale prihvatiti aranžmane koji se odnose na civilnu
implementaciju sporazuma, tj. OHR i Visokog predstavnika. Aneksom 10,
potpisnici „zahtijevaju imenovanje visokog predstavnika, koji će biti imenovan u
skladu sa relevantnim rezolucijama Savjeta bezbjednosti UN“, takođe je Visokom
predstavniku u mandat dato i tumačenje Sporazuma. Na osnovu ovog aneksa,
uspostavljen je Ured Visokog predstavnika.
6. DA LI JE BOSNA I HERCEGOVINA PROTEKTORAT: TEORIJA I NORMA
Ideja o Bosni i Hercegovini kao protektoratu se često spominjala tokom 1993.
godine u sklopu mirovnih pregovora i različituh prijedloga za prekid ratnih
sukoba i buduće organizacije države, a Andrassy, Bakotić i Vukas (2006) pisali
da se predlagala se čak i za pojedine dijelove Bosne i Hercegovine ili gradove (s.
111). Daytonski sporazum uspostavio je sistem uloge međunarodne zajednice u
funkcioniranju javnog sistema u BiH. Tako Aneks 3 (Sporazum o izborima),
zadužuje OSCE da uspostavi izborni sistem u BiH. Aneksom 7 (Sporazum o
izbjeglicama i prognanicima) poziva se UNHCR da pripremi plan repatrijacije i
povratka raseljenih osoba. Organizacija Ujedinjenih Nacija je, na osnovu
Sporazuma o Međunarodnim operativnim snagama, zadužena da organizira
policijske snage. Za ovaj rad najznačajniji je Aneks 10 koji predviđa instituciju
Visokog predstavnika čiji je, kako se navodi kod Sloan (1998) zadatak da
koordinira aktivnostima organizacija i agencija koje se uključene u projekat
civilnog aspekta mirovnog rješenja (s. 84). Prvi Visoki predstavnik bio je švedski
diplomat Carl Bildt, koji je za vrijeme svog mandata formirao Vijeće za provedbu
mira, koje je uključivalo 40 zemalja i 10 međunarodnih organizacija, s ciljem
koordinacije humanitarnih organizacija, Ujedinjenih nacija, UNHCR-a i OSCE-a.
Bosna i Hercegovina je bila podvrgnuta saradnji sa Haškim sudom za bivšu
Jugoslaviju (ICTY). Član IX. Ustava BiH je odredio: “Nijedna osoba koja izdržava
kaznu što ju je izrekao Međunarodni sud za bivšu Jugoslaviju i nijedna osoba
protiv koje je taj sud podigao optužnicu, a koja se nije pokorila nalogu da izađe
preda nj, ne može se kandidirati ni biti imenovana ili birana ili na koji drugi način
postavljena na bilo koju javnu funkciju na području Bosne i Hercegovine.” Ovo
se ne može smatrati ograničenjem suvereniteta u okviru protektorata
međunarodne zajednice, nego naprosto obavezom države koja je proistekla iz
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članstva u Ujedinjenim Nacijama. U prilog tome ide i činjenica da su i Hrvatska,
te Srbija i Crna Gora imale jednaku obavezu saradnje sa istim međunarodnim
forumom.
Smatramo da se može prihvatiti Maslin (2000) da je Opći okvirni
sporazum za mir, ugovorni odnos kojim bi se mogao zasnovati odnos
protektorata (s. 8). Međutim, njime se on nije zasnovao niti proglasio (a takođe
ni neki drugi oblik ovisnosti, npr. starateljstvo).v Protektirani odnos nije reguliran
ni u jednom od ugovorenih odnosa i ovo je vjerovatno i ključni argument za
osporovanje teze da je Bosna i Hercegovina protektorat (Dautbašić 1998, 51 ).
Nema države kao subjekta međunarodnog prava koja stupa u funkciju
protektora niti se vidi izražena volja Bosne i Hercegovine da slobodu u
odlučivanju podvrgne ograničavanju od strane druge države. Da Bosna i
Hercegovina nije protektorat posebno se vidi i iz činjenice da su državni organi
Bosne i Hercegovine vanjsku suverenost od početka post-Daytonske ere imali u
potpunom kapacitetu, a država je svoj međunarodnopravni subjektivitet
koristila bez ikakvih ograničenja kakva su imale protektirane države (Maslin
2000, 6). Ostalo je da ispitamo da li je unutrašnja suverenost ograničena, što ćemo
učiniti u redovima koji slijede.
Iz brojnih normativnih rješenja može se zaključiti da Bosna i Hercegovina
nije protektorat. Tako, Ustav BiH u članu I ističe kontinuitet Republike Bosne i
Hercegovine koja nastavlja pravno postojanje prema međunarodnom pravu kao
država, uz prilagodbu unutrašnjeg uređenja prema predviđenim odredbama
Sporazuma. Bosna i Hercegovina ostaje članica Ujedinjenih nacija, te može tražiti
članstvo u organizacijama unutar sistema Ujedinjenih nacija i drugim
međunarodnim organizacijama. Takođe, prema članu VII/2 Ustava BiH, ostaje
ili postaje strankom međunarodnih sporazuma nabrojenih u Prilogu I Ustava.vi
U prilog tezi da Bosna i Hercegovina nije protektorat idu i određene nadležnosti
Predsjedništva BiH, i to: samostalno vođenje vanjske politike, imenovanje
ambasadora i drugih međunarodnih predstavnika Bosne i Hercegovine,
predstavljanje Bosne i Hercegovinu u međunarodnim i evropskim
organizacijama i ustanovama, te mogućnost traženja članstva u organizacijama i
ustanovama kojih Bosna i Hercegovina nije članica. Iz ovoga se može zaključiti
da Bosna i Hercegovina nije ni protektorat potpunog oblika.
Osnovi tvrdnji zastupnika ideje da Bosna i Hercegovina jeste protektorat,
nalaze se u pojedinim odredbama Ustava, a posebno Aneksa 10, koji sadrži
Sporazum o provedbi civilnih aspekata mirovnog rješenja. Kada je riječ o Ustavu,
u navedenom smislu, relevantne su odredbe koje uređuju izbor i imenovanje
sudaca Ustavnog suda BiH. Tri suda Ustavnog suda (od ukupno devet) bira
predsjednik Evropskog suda za ljudska prava, a oni ne smiju biti državljani
Bosne i Hercegovine ni susjednih država. Prvog guvernera Centralne banke, koji
također nije smio biti državljanin Bosne i Hercegovine niti neke susjedne države,
imenovao je Međunarodni monetarni fond, a Ustav BiH je propisao i da
Guverner može imati odlučujući glas u slučaju neriješenog ishoda glasanja (Član
VII.2 Ustava BiH.).
40
�Bosna i Hercegovina - država ili protektorat?
Davor Trlin & Esad Oruč
Kod Bakotića (1998) se može izvršiti uvid da je ključni razlog zašto su
pojedini autori tvrdili da je Bosna i Hercegovina protektorat je pravni položaj
Visokog predstavnika u ustavnom sistemu BiH, a posebno njegovo konačno
pravo u pogledu tumačenja Sporazuma o provedbi civilnih aspekata mirovnog
rješenja (s. 148). Treba napomenuti da se rješenja koja se tiču Visokog
predstavnika, mogu dovesti u suprotnost sa Aneksom 4, koji propisuje da su
građani i konstitutivni narodi i Ostali u Bosni i Hercegovini suvereni. Drugi
razlog je bio angažman međunarodne zajednice u vidu Međunarodnih
operativnih policijskih snaga Ujedinjenih nacija (IPTF) zbog implementacije
programa pomoći u cijeloj Bosni i Hercegovini. IPTF je nastao nakon što su
Republika Bosna i Hergecovina, Federacija Bosne i Hercegovine i Republika
Srpska, zaključili Sporazum o međunarodnim oružanim snagama, na osnovu
kojeg su zahtijevali da Vijeće sigurnosti UN pokrene operaciju UNCIVPOL, tj. da
uspostavi vid UN policije sa ciljem povećanja međunarodnog mira i sigurnosti,
podržavanjem država članica u konfliktu, post-konfliktnim i drugim kriznim
situacijama. Cilj je bio realizirati efektivnu, efikasnu, reprezentativnu,
odgovarajuću i odgovornu policijsku službu koja služi i štiti populaciju. IPTF je
bio autonoman u obavljanju poslova, a njihovim aktivnostima koordinirao je
Visoki predstavnik, koji je izdavao upute Povjereniku na čelu IPTF-a. Između
ostalog, pomoć IPTF-a se sastojala u obučavanju osoblja za osiguranje primjene
prava te procjenu prijetnji javnom poretku, te savjetovanje u pogledu sposobnosti
službi za osiguranje primjene prava da se nose s takvim prijetnjama.
Od 1998. godine, visoki predstavnik međunarodne zajednice je dobio
prošireni mandat, pa je mogao sam donositi odluke koje ustavni organi ne mogu
donijeti. Ovo, kao i prisustvo SFOR-a je opredijelilo pojedine autore, poput
Sokola i Smerdela (1998), da zauzmu stav da je Bosna i Hercegovine protektorat
(s. 299). Koncem 1997. godine, Vijeće za provedbu mira u BiH u Bonnu
jednostavno „pozdravlja odluku Visokog predstavnika da koristi svoje široke
ovlasti“, a što uključuje ovlast smjenjivanja izabranih dužnosnika, nametanja i
ukidanja zakona u Bosni i Hercegovini, kao i drugih nedefiniranih mjera koje on
smatra nužnima. Zbog ovakve formulacije, tj. načelnog odobravanja preuzimanja
ovih ovlasti od strane Visokog predstavnika na ovoj konferenciji, one se danas
zovu Bonskima. Visoki predstavnik je imao autonomiju u korištenju „Bonskih
ovlasti“; države potpisnice i države svjedoci Daytonskog sporazuma nisu imale
nikakvu ulogu. Visoki predstavnik, nikome nije davao argumente, obrazloženja
za donesene odluke. Pojedini autori, poput Pehara (2012) su smatrali da za njih i
nije bilo moguće podastrijeti jasne, razumljive i opće valjane razloge (s 3-9).
Visoki predstavnik u implementaciji ovih ovlasti preuzeo tri državne funkcijezakonodavnu, izvršnu i sudsku. Odluke mu po pravnoj prirodi najviše liče na
akte egzekutive, budući da su neposredno izvršive. Ovo je u kontradikciji sa
postojanjem Ustavnog suda BiH, ali i implementacija Schmittove ideje da čuvar
ustava treba biti predsjednik, tj. izvršna vlast (s. 211-253) (za razliku od Kelsena,
koji je tvrdio da to treba biti ustavni sud). Visoki predstavnik je ovlašten da
tumači Daytonski sporazum u cijelosti, pa i odredbi koje se tiču samog sebe, tj.
on ima ovlast tumačenja svojih ovlasti. Njegov legitimitet izvodi se „odozdo“, tj.
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�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
iz građana Bosne i Hercegovine, ali i „odozgo“, jer on treba da djeluje po
uputama Upravnog odbora Vijeća za provedbu mira (PIC-a).vii
7. AKTIVITET MEĐUNARODNE ZAJEDNICE PREMA DRŽAVNIM ORGANIMA BIH
Decembra 1995. godine je Vijeće sigurnosti Ujedinjenih nacija ovlastilo države
članice da u roku od godine dana uspostave međunarodne implementacijske
snage (IFOR) sa mandatom da nadziru i podupiru provedbu odredbi Sporazuma
o vojnim aspektima mirovnog rješenja i Sporazuma o regionalnoj stabilizaciji, te
djeluju u skladu sa glavom VII Povelje Ujedinjenih nacija. Prema Lerotiću (2004),
provedbu sporazuma trebale su jamčiti snage NATO-a od 60.000 vojnika (s. 138).
Lapaš (2004) navodi da je IFOR, sastavljen od kopnenih, zračnih i pomorskih
snaga NATO-a, (s. 217) je zamijenio UNPROFOR, a kasnije su snage IFOR-a
zamijenile Stabilizacijske snage (SFOR). Aneks 10 se vrlo teško provodio.
Prisustvo međunarodne zajednice se opravdavalo nedovoljnim stepenom
demokratičnosti lokalnih lidera, i to OHR-a za provedbu postavljenih
demokratskih ciljeva, a ITA-e za tržišnu ekonomiju i slobodu medija (Wilde 2001,
601).
Iako je „bonski“ mandat evidentno nedemokratski, korišten je više puta u
toku evolucije društveno-političkog sistema post-Daytonske BiH. U početku su
visoki predstavnici snažno koristili „bonske“ ovlasti, i to kroz cijeli period svog
mandata. Ilustrativan je primjer nametanja amandmana na Ustav F BiH, koji je
Visoki predstavnik Wolfgang Petrisch izveo pred kraj mandata, u aprilu 2002.
godine, a na osnovu odluke Ustavnog suda F BiH iz jula 2000. godine. Visoki
predstavnik Valentin Inzcko je 2011. godine suspendirao Odluku Središnjeg
izbornog povjerenstva, tijela koje je među najvažnijim u institucionalnodemokratskom sistemu. Visoki predstavnik Schwarz-Schilling je 2007. godine
donio odluku da je nevažeća odluka Ustavnog suda BiH u kojoj je utvrđeno da
su smjene ili zabrane rada političkih dužnosnika u BiH od strane Visokih
predstavnika, kršenje temeljnih političkih prava tih dužnosnika. Na ovaj način se
dovodila u pitanje i vladavina prava u BiH. Takođe se onemogućilo da su sva tri
kulturna segmenta u BiH, postojanje i funkcionisanjem institucije Visokog
predstavnika, onemogućene da kroz neposredni dijalog dođu do rješenja (O
stavovima Visokog predstavnika Carlosa Westendropa u: D’Amato 1999,). Istina,
dešavalo se i da se izbjegne djelovanje Visokog predstavnika. Republika Srpska
je uspjela blokirati Lajčakovu odluku od 19. oktobra 2007. godine o promjeni
etničkih kvota potrebnih za ulaganje veta u Vijeću ministara i Parlamentu BiH.
Milorad Dodik je 2011. godine uspio zaobići Visokog predstavnika Valentina
Inzka i postići dogovor s visokom predstavnicom EU za vanjske poslove i
sigurnosnu politiku, Catherine Ashton, o potrebi reformiranja pravosudnih
organa na nivou BiH.
Aktivitetom Visokog predstavnika formirane su brojne institucije na
državnom nivou (uspostavljeno Visoko sudsko i tužilačko vijeće BiH,
uspostavljeni Sud BiH i Tužilaštvo BiH), te prenesene nadležnosti sa entiteta na
42
�Bosna i Hercegovina - država ili protektorat?
Davor Trlin & Esad Oruč
nivo Bosne i Hercegovine. Od 2000.-2006. godine došlo je do obimne izmjene
ustavnog uređenja BiH, bez ijedne intervencije u sam Ustav BiH, ali su zato
izvršene izmjene entitetskih i kantonalnih ustava, a brojni zakoni su stupilli na
snagu. Ovdje je međunarodna zajednica imala odlučujuću ulogu, putem Ureda
Visokog predstavnika. Od 2006. godine su domaće politične snage sve više i više
preuzimale ulogu u legislativi. Nakon ovog perioda se generalno smanjivala
intervencija međunarodne zajednice u pravni sistem BiH, a region je generalno
bio manje u fokusu također. Neki su sektori javnog sistema reformisani bez
nametanja rješenja od Visokog predstavnika (odbrana, uspostavljanje sistema
indirektnog oporezivanja, itd.).
Ključna godina za promjenu uloge Visokog predstavnika u političkoj
praksi bila je 2006. godina. Prvo je, nakon isteka mandata Paddyja Ashdowna,viii
Upravni Odbor Vijeća za provedbu mira, donio odluku o pripremi zatvaranja
Ureda visokog predstavnika, odnosno o prestanku važenja „bonskoga
mandata“. Nakon toga je došlo do neusvajanja tzv. „Aprilskog paketa“ ustavnih
reformi. PIC je Odluku o pripremi za zatvaranje Ureda visokog predstavnika,
odnosno o prestanku važenja „bonskog mandata“ donio 23. 06. 2006. godine. Ova
je odluka obrazložena činjenicom da je vrijeme da BiH preuzme odgovornost za
vlastitu sudbinu. Istovremeno je BiH iz faze implementacije Daytona ušla u fazu
„euro-atlantskih integracija“. U februaru 2007. Upravni odbor PIC-a odgađa tu
odluku, a mandat Visokog predstavnika je produžen za nešto više od godinu
dana (do juna 2008.). Samo je Rusija izdvojila mišljenje u komunikeu o podršci
djelovanja Visokog predstavnika pod „bonskim ovlastima“. Vremenom je
konsenzus o primjeni „bonskih ovlasti“ iščezao.
Politički direktori Upravnog odbora Vijeća za provedbu mira su na sastanku u
Bruxellessu 26. i 27. 02. 2008. godine utvrdili slijedeće zahtjeve koje organi BiH
trebaju ispuniti prije zatvaranja OHR-a, a koje su organi Bosne i Hercegovine već
prethodno prihvatili:
- Prihvatljivo i održivo rješenje pitanja raspodjele imovine između države i
drugih razina vlasti;
- Prihvatljivo i održivo rješenje za vojnu imovinu;
- Potpuna provedba Konačne odluke za Brčko;
- Fiskalna održivost (promovirana putem Sporazuma o utvrđivanju stalne
metodologije za utvrđivanje koeficijenata za raspodjelu sredstava UINOa i osnivanje Nacionalnog fiskalnog vijeća); i
- Zaživljavanje vladavine prava (demonstrirano putem usvajanja Državne
strategije za ratne zločine, donošenjem Zakona o strancima i azilu i
usvajanjem Državne strategije za reformu sektora pravosuđa).
Pored ovih ciljeva, Upravni odbor Vijeća za provedbu mira je također utvrdio
dva uvjeta koje treba ispuniti prije zatvaranja OHR-a:
- Potpisivanje SSP-a; i
- Pozitivna procjena situacije u BiH od strane Upravnog odbora Vijeća za
provedbu mira utemeljena na punom poštivanju Daytonskog mirovnog
sporazuma.
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�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
Upravni odbor Vijeća za provedbu mira je redovno na svojim sastancima
od 2008. godine vršio uvid u pomake ostvarene u pogledu realiziranja programa
(tzv. 5+2). OHR je konstatovao da, iako su u nekim oblastima ostvareni pomaci,
zbog neslaganja domaćih političkih elita, postoje zastoji u realizaciji programa.
Nakon ovog perioda je Visoki predstavnik prestao sa intervencijama u
pravni sistem BiH. Pehar (2014) smatra da se ovo, pored težnje o samostalnom
razvoju bosanskohercegovačke demokratije, vjerovatno desilo i zbog nastojanja
da se na globalnom planu spriječe konfrontacije između Ruske Federacije i SAD,
te između SAD i Evropske unije.
8. ZAKLJUČAK
Protektorat nije institut savremenog međunarodnog i unutrašnjeg prava. Danas
su rijetke situacije u kojima samo jedna država obnaša ulogu države zaštitnice.
Umjesto protektorata u ulozi zaštitnika određene države u posljednih četrdeset
godina se javlja međunarodna zajednica kroz tzv. međunarodnu teritorijalnu
upravu. Daytonski mirovni sporazum ne predviđa protektorat i vrlo je precizan
u određivanju uloge Visokog predstavnika, kada mu propisuje da je dužan da
„pomaže naporima koje strane ulažu“, da „nadgleda“ i „koordinira“. Uloga
međunarodne zajednice je, uz neke druge faktore, bila segment ograničenja
unutrašnjeg suvereniteta Bosne i Hercegovine, iako je, paradoksalno, mnogo
učinila u formiranju državnih organa i sprovođenju izbora. Ostali su drugi
faktori koji ometaju da Bosna i Hercegovina ima pun unutrašnji kapacitet na
svom teritoriju, a to su prvenstveno djelovanje pojedinih političkih elita, ali
izvedbeni oblik federalizma, koji su manifestuje kroz manjak ekonomskih
funkcija BiH te generalno državnih javnih subjektivnih prava (oba koncepta su
predstavljena u poglavlju 4). Stiče se dojam da je strategija izlaska međunarodne
zajednice iz ustavnog i političkog sistema Bosne i Hercegovine bila da se ne
oktroiraju demokratske vrijednosti, već da njen politički sloj i njeni građani,
moraju da ih nauče, a za to treba vremena. Nastojalo se i vremenom ograničene
ovlasti Visokog predstavnika rijetko koristiti kako bi se državljanima Bosne i
Hercegovine dala prilika da sami upravljaju svojom sudbinom. Smanjivala se
ovisnost Bosne i Hercegovine od međunarodne zajednice. „Klasičnim“
protektoratom bi ova ovisnost bila još i veća, a spriječila bi samoodrživost
bosanskohercegovačkog društva. Vježbe iz demokratije su svaki slijedeći izbori,
koji se odavno odvijaju bez međunarodne zajednice. Međunarodna zajednice želi
pustiti političkim elitama da se dogovore oko novog Ustava. Takođe, ne miješa
se u proces odvajanja ekonomije i pravosuđa od politike, što se odvija veoma
sporo. Iz svega se vidi da se trenutno i da će se u budućnosti uloga međunarodne
zajednice svoditi na to da usmjerava i pomaže. Nejasno je da li će Visoki
predstavnik u budućnosti nametati određene ključne zakone (ekonomske
reforme, povratak izbjeglica, nova radna mjesta...), ako većina članova
parlamenata ne bude spremna da ih donese. Najavljeno je npr. nametanje Zakona
o negiranju genocida. U intervjuu za njemački TAZ, Visoki predstavnik Valentin
44
�Bosna i Hercegovina - država ili protektorat?
Davor Trlin & Esad Oruč
Inzko je nedavno izjavio kako tzv. princip pod nazivom „ownership” (princip
preuzimanja odgovornosti od strane domaćih političara) nije bio uspješan u
BiH. Pojasnio je i da je OHR imao dvije faze: „robusnu fazu koja je trajala 12
godina i koja je donijela čuda – zajedničku graničnu policiju, šest dodatnih
ministarstava na razini cijele države, zajedničko Ministarstvo odbrane pri čemu
je od tri vojske postala jedna kao i zajedničku valutu – konvertibilnu marku koja
je postala stabilna.”. Nakon ovog je nastupila druga faza suzdržavanja od
primjene Bonskih ovlasti, a Inzko smatra i da bi sada trebala uslijediti „treća faza
u kojoj bismo morali ponoviti neke elemente iz prve faze, inače ćemo izgubiti još
15 godina”. Bosna i Hercegovine evidentno može funkcionisati i bez velikog
uplitanja međunarodne zajednice, ali je njen put prema Evro-Atlantskim
integracijama onda jako spor. Djeluje da se procesi poput: jačanja nadležnosti
BiH, deblokada institucija i reforma pravosuđa, ne mogu adekvatno izvesti bez
međunarodne zajednice. To nas ipak ne dovodi do zaključka da je BiH
protektorat, što ona nije, ni prema teorijskom pojmu ovog odnosa ovisnosti, ali i
prema Daytonskom sporazumu. Činjenica je da taj odnos još uvijek ne postoji u
Teoriji države i prava, Međunarodnom pravu i Ustavnom pravu. Najbliži je
odnosu međunarodne uprave, ali nije ni to. Kada pravnici nešto ne mogu
definisati nazovu to sui generis (poseban oblik). Tako bismo i mi, do neke
adekvatnije terminologije, nazvali odnos ovisnosti BiH prema međunarodnoj
zajednici, koji postoji i prema pravnim rješenjima, ali i npr. prema odnosu prema
MMF-u, nazvali „poseban oblik odnosa ovisnosti sui generis“.
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Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
LITERATURA
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Zagrebu.
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nije značio pozitivni pomak za Bosnu I Hercegovinu: četiri refleksije. Očitanje sa
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i
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Usp. Rješenje Firera i Kancelara Rajha od 16. 03. 1939. godine, RGBI, I 1939 s. 485.
�Bosna i Hercegovina - država ili protektorat?
Davor Trlin & Esad Oruč
Najpoznatiji su oni nad Marokom (od 1912.- 1956. godine), i Tunisom (1881.-1956. godine).
Posljednji britanski protektorat je Brunei . 1959. je Brunei dobio samostalnost, ali su vanjski poslovi i
odbrana i dalje bili u nadležnosti Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva. 1983. godine je ugovorena puna nezavisnost, a
od 01. 01. 1984. godine, Brunei je samostalna država, koja je 1984. godine primljena u Ujedinjene nacije.
iv Na osnovu ugovora od 27. 07. 1919. godine, Francuska je imala uticaja na personalni sastav vlade Monaka.
Do današnjeg dana, francuska vlada ima odgovornost za odbranu Monaka, dok Monako ima samo male
policijske snage i stražu palate. Ugovorom koji je potpisan 09. 11. 2005. u Parizu, Monako je dobio veću
autonomiju u međunarodnim odnosima, ali i dalje ima obavezu da se za najvažnija pitanja konsultira sa
Francuskom.
v Razlog je što bi takav odnos bio u suprotnosti sa članom 78. Povelje Ujedinjenih nacija i uslovima pod
kojima je BiH primljena u članstvo UN-a. Šire: Edin Šarčević, Ustav iz nužde, Rabic, Sarajevo, 2010., s. 332.
vi To su: Konvencija o sprečavanju i kažnjavanju zločina genocida iz 1948., Ženevske konvencije I-IV o zaštiti
žrtava rata iz 1949. sa Ženevskim protokolima I-II iz 1977., Konvencija o statusu izbjeglica iz 1951. s
Protokolom iz 1966., Konvencija o državljanstvu udatih žena iz 1957., Konvencija o smanjenju slučajeva bez
državljanstva iz 1961., Međunarodna konvencija o ukidanju svih oblika rasne diskriminacije iz 1965.,
Međunarodni pakt o ekonomskim, socijalnim i kulturnim pravima iz 1966., Međunarodni pakt o
građanskim i političkim pravima iz 1966. s fakultativnim protokolima iz 1966. i 1989., Konvencija o ukidanju
svih oblika diskriminacije žena iz 1979., Konvencija protiv mučenja i drugih okrutnih, nečovječnih ili
ponižavajućih postupaka ili kazni iz 1984., Evropska konvencija o sprečavanju mučenja i nečovječnih ili
ponižavajućih postupaka ili kazni iz 1987., Konvencija o pravima djeteta iz 1989., Međunarodna konvencija
o zaπtiti prava svih radnika migranata i članova njihovih obitelji iz 1990., Evropska povelja za regionalne ili
manjinske jezika iz 1992., Okvirna konvencija za zaštitu nacionalnih manjina iz 1994.
vii Ovo uključuje: Sjedinjene Američke Države, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo Velike Britanije i Sjeverne Irske
Njemačku, Francusku, Tursku (u ime Organizacije islamske konferencije), Rusku Federaciju, i
Predsjedništvo Evropske unije.
viii Riječ je o Visokom predstavniku koji je sa funkcije smijenio najviše dužnosnika u BiH (uključujući i
smjenu člana Predsjedništva BiH). Samo u 2004. godini je smijenio šezdeset dužnosnika Republike Srpske
zbog „nekooperativnosti u pronalaženju i hapšenju Radovana Karadžića“. Samo mjesec dana prije (juni) iste
godine, je Parlamentarna skupština Vijeća Evrope, pozdravila činjenicu smanjivanja broja intervencija
Visokog predstavnika u BiH, što je bila jedna indicija jačanja demokratije u BiH.
ii
iii
47
�
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Journal of Education and Humanities
Subject
The topic of the resource
Education and Humanities
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Bosna i Hercegovina - država ili protektorat?
Author
Author
Davor Trlin, Esad Oruč
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
U ovom radu ćemo, kroz analizu normativnog okvira za djelovanje ovih
institucija, ali i njihov sam aktivitet, te aplikaciju međunarodnih standarda u BiH,
pokušati doći do odgovora na pitanje da li je Bosna i Hercegovina država ili
protektorat. Kroz implementaciju Daytonskog sporazuma se postiglo dosta, ali
većinom je zaslužan bio aktivitet međunarodne zajednice. Taja aktivitet ni, prema
Općem okvirnom sporazumu za mir, ne predviđa protektorat. Ipak, posebno u
prvim godinama funkcioniranja post-Daytonske Bosne i Hercegovine, brojni
ustavno-pravni teoretičari su pokušavali definirati pravnu prirodu odnosa
ovisnosti Bosne i Hercegovine prema međunarodnoj zajednici u određenim
elementima (koja se kasnije sve više ublažavala). Rezultati su pokazali da nema
jednoznačnog odgovora. Ovo pitanje je u posljednjih petnaest godina u domaćoj
ali i regionalnoj ustavno-pravnoj nauci prešlo na periferiju interesiranja. Ali, čini
se da je vrijeme da ga se ponovo postavi, posebno u svjetlu najave promjena
odnosa ključnih subjekata međunarodne zajednice prema Bosni i Hercegovini.
Takođe nas interesuje i pitanje koje je povezano s ovim centralnim istraživačkim,
a to je stepen suvereniteta države Bosne i Hercegovine unutra, ali i prema vani,
imajući u vidu Daytonski konstrukt uključenosti međunarodne zajednice u
ustavno-politički sistem Bosne i Hercegovine. / In this paper, through the analysis of the normative framework for the
operation of these institutions, but also their activity, and the application of
international standards in BiH, we will try to find an answer to the question of
whether Bosnia and Herzegovina is a state or a protectorate. A lot has been
achieved through the implementation of the Dayton Agreement, but most of it was
due to the activity of the international community. According to the General
Framework Agreement for Peace, this activity does not envisage a protectorate.
However, especially in the first years of the functioning of post-Dayton Bosnia and
Herzegovina, many constitutional and legal theorists tried to define the legal
nature of Bosnia and Herzegovina's dependence on the international community
in certain elements (which later softened). The results showed no unambiguous
answer. In the last fifteen years, this issue has moved to the periphery of interest
in domestic and regional constitutional and legal science. But it seems the time to
re-establish it has come, especially in light of the announcement of changes in the
attitudes of key actors in the international community towards Bosnia and
Herzegovina. We are also interested in the issue related to this central research,
which is the degree of sovereignty of the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina inside
and outside, given the Dayton construct of the international community's
involvement in the constitutional and political system of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Keywords
Keywords.
Protektorat,
Međunarodna zajednica,
Visoki predstavnik, Vijeće za
implementaciju mira, Bonske
ovlasti. / Protectorate,
International Community,
High Representative, Peace
Implementation Council,
Bonn Powers.
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
2566-4638
DOI
Digital object identifier
10.14706/JEH2021323
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/12e3f17de9b0e90606d47caa6ad09f60.pdf
006c07311a567400a76719e99abf843c
PDF Text
Text
Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3 (2), pp. 23-32, Winter 2020
Original research paper
ISSN 2566-4638
© International Burch University
Colonizing the Mind: A Dialectic Approach to
Education and Language in Zitkala-Ša’s
American Indian Stories
Adisa Ahmetspahić, MA
University of Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina
ahmetspahicadisa1@gmail.com
Abstract: Mind colonization has been a burning issue in the last few
decades in the fields of science and humanities. It is argued that mind
colonization of the indigenous populations has been conducted via
education and language in the mission of ‘civilizing’ since education
and language carry culture specific sets of meaning, including
knowledge and truth which condition our perception of the world.
Zitkala-Ša is one of the earliest Native American authors and
activists who sought to subvert the epistemological hierarchy
imposed through mind colonization. Zitkala-Ša’s autobiographical
collection of short stories titled American Indian Stories (1921)
documents her boarding school experience and the acquisition of the
colonizer’s education and language. The present paper seeks to
address mind colonization through language and education on the
example of Zitkala-Ša’s American Indian Stories relying on a
number of theories and approaches. The paper also reflects on the
importance of Zitkala-Ša mastery of the colonizer’s language.
Keywords: Native
American, mind
colonization, education,
language, boarding schools
Article History
Submitted: 3 November 2020
Accepted: 28 December 2020
�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
1. INTRODUCTION
Native American self-determination and activism officially began with the
formation of the Red Power Movement in the 1960s. The Red Power Movement
emerged when the US Congress sought to abolish tribal organization by
relocating Native American communities off the reservations, thus enticing
assimilation. Cross-country protests, the seizure of Alcatraz Island and Wounded
Knee occupation were all part of Native American appeal for self-government
and self-redefinition caused by “the political and economic threats to indigenous
people, land, and sovereignty” (Coulombe, 2001, p. 34-35). Writers and scholars,
such as Vine Deloria Jr. with his book Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian
Manifesto (1969), also partook in the movement for the Native American cause.
Nevertheless, Native American activism had begun in the sixteenth, seventeenth,
and eighteenth centuries as evident in the speeches by Native American chiefs
who advocated Native American right to sovereigntyi.
Although frequently overlooked and neglected, the personage of ZitkalaŠa (original name: Gertrude Simmons Bonnin), a Yankton Sioux, is illustrious
both for her literary oeuvre and ardent activism which sought to promote the
rights of the Native American population and resist colonial binarities. ZitkalaŠa graduated from Quaker boarding school in Wabash, Indiana and Earlham
College in Richmond, Indiana. She obtained a diploma in teaching and
afterwards worked at the Pennsylvania Carlisle Indian Industrial School (Fisher,
1979, pp. v-xii).
As noted by Tadeusz Lewandowski in his study of Zitkala-Ša’s luminary
titled Red Bird, Red Power: The Life and Legacy of Zitkala-Ša (2016), Gertrude
Simmons Bonnin’s embracement of the name Zitkala-Ša (Red Bird) and her
zealous nature adumbrated the pan-Indian solidarity and the formation of Red
Power groups. Zitkala-Ša’s essays, public speeches, and establishment of the
National Council of American Indians in 1926 make her a predecessor to the midtwentieth century Native American (female) activism (Lewandowski, 2016, p.
14). In a similar vein, Mary A. Stout describes Zitkala-Ša’s literary opus as
follows: “Although she wrote as an American Indian and a female at a time when
few similar voices were being heard, she did not flinch, nor did she moderate her
voice” (303). Much of Zitkala-Ša’s life is known from her autobiographical stories
and essays collectively known as American Indian Stories (1921). This particular
work is deemed to be one of the earliest examples of unaided autobiographical
writing, i.e. without any mediators such as interpreters or editors. The stories and
essays are concerned with her Native American childhood, teenage years spent
at the boarding school in Carlisle, and her subsequent life and work (Fisher, 1979,
pp. v-vi).
American Indian Stories has been a frequent topic in the analyses of ZitkalaŠa’s and Native American biculturality and double consciousness as well as
boarding school experience. However, little attention has been paid to education
and language in American Indian Stories and no attention to education and
language as a mind colonizing weapon on the example of this short story
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�Colonizing the Mind: A Dialectic Approach to Education and Language in Zitkala-Ša’s
American Indian Stories
Adisa Ahmetspahić
collection. The present paper argues that education and language are some of the
most powerful armory in mind colonization. American Indian Stories shows that
both education and language carry culture specific sets of meaning, including
knowledge and truth which condition our perception of the world. Another
notable aspect of this short story collection is its discussion on how resettlement
and mind colonization work together towards the erasure of the colonized. It can
be inferred that Zitkala-Ša is one of the earliest Native American authors and
activists who sought to subvert the epistemological hierarchy imposed through
mind colonization. The paper takes a dialectic approach in its analysis, relying
on a number of differing theories and studies, including those by Homi Bhabha,
Michel Foucault, and Abdul JanMohamed, which speak of power/knowledge
relations in the (post-) colonial context and the reversal of these relations. The
contrariety of the theories is not discussed due to space constraints and the
thematic preoccupation of the paper. Therefore, the working of the theories
toward the idea of mind colonization is paid more heed.
2. COLONIZING THE MIND: EDUCATION AND THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN
AMERICAN INDIAN STORIES
Boarding schools are considered to be only one among a plethora of the
assimilation policies imposed upon the Native American population. The
inception of boarding schools is traced to 1860s when the Bureau of Indian Affairs
founded the first boarding school on the Yakima reservation. “Kill the Indian
Save the Man”, coined by Richard Henry Pratt who established Carlisle Indian
School, was the boarding schools’ raison d'être (“History and Culture”, n.d.).
Pratt’s motto is evocative of the Manichean understanding of the world as a series
of antagonistic structures, e.g. good-bad, light-dark. In the (post-) colonial
context, the term was used by JanMohamed in Manichean Aesthetics: The Politics
of Literature in Colonial Africa (1983) to denote the colonial relations in terms of
conflicting categories between the colonizer (‘good’, ‘civilized’) and the colonized
(‘bad’, ‘degenerate’):
The colonial world is a Manichean world. It is not enough for the settler to
delimit physically, that is to say with the help of the army and the police
force, the place of the native. As if to show the totalitarian character of
colonial exploitation the settler paints the native as a sort of quintessence
of evil …. The native is declared insensible to ethics; he represents not only
the absence of values, but also the negation of values. He is, let us dare
admit, the enemy of values, and in this sense he is the absolute evil. (as
cited in JanMohamed, 1983, p. 4)
Such understanding of the world endorses the legitimacy of colonial
claims for the usurpation of the land as well as the usurpation of the mind
conducted through boarding schools. However, both types of usurpation are
25
�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
tightly linked as argued by Teresa L. McCarty. Based on the US legal documents,
McCarty concludes that there is a link between education and land balkanization.
In 1887, Senator Henry Dawes formulated a policy known as The General
Allotment Act, or Dawes Act. The policy presented an appeal for the partition
“of reservation lands into 160 acre family parcels, with the surplus to be sold to
the whites.” (McCarty, 2013, pp. 51-52). Concurrently, a law requiring education
for all Native American children was passed. Parents who did not abide by this
law were imprisoned. In other words, sequential physical and mental larceny
would ensure a faster erasure of Native American cultures (McCarty, 2013, pp.
51-52).
According to John McLeod, “[c]olonialism uses educational institutions to
augment the perceived legitimacy and propriety of itself, as well as providing the
means by which colonial power can be maintained” (2000, p.140). Perceived
legitimacy of the colonizer originates from the perceived epistemological
hierarchy. According to Foucault, epistemological hierarchy is engendered by
power/knowledge relations, especially disciplinary power as the one practiced
at boarding schools, whereby power shapes knowledge to hew the purposes of
those who possess the power. Foucault further suggests that if knowledge
signifies and/or produces the truth and if knowledge is conditioned by power, it
follows that truth also is a protean notion conditioned by power:
‘Truth’ is to be understood as a system of ordered procedures for the
production, regulation, distribution, circulation and operation of
statements. ‘Truth’ is linked in a circular relation with systems of power
which produce and sustain it, and to effects of power which it induces and
which extend it. (Foucault, 1980, p.133)
Manifest Destiny is a fitting example of the above-mentioned
interpretation of truth as a concept strongly attached to “the forms of hegemony,
social, economic and cultural, within which it operates at the present time”
(Foucault, 1980, p.133). Apart from having been a justification for imperial and
colonial expansion, Manifest Destiny was a firm belief that the English nation
was chosen by God, on account of its supremacy in all aspects of life, to eradicate
what they deemed to be savage customs in the indigenous population. In the
words of Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o, the colonizers attempted to change “the mental
universe of the colonized” (1986, p.16) and to succumb the colonized to their
version of truth. As mentioned previously, education, which implies the
acquisition of the colonizer’s language in this context, is one of the methods of
mind colonization. The recruitment of Native American children for boarding
schools was mostly performed by Christian missionaries.
In 1632, Gabriel Sagard, a missionary, informed that Native American
languages are “defective in words for many things…like Trinity, Glory, paradise,
Hell, Church etc.” (as cited in Irwin,2002, p. 106). Sagard’s words reflect the
Eurocentric view of the world and Foucauldian notion of truth. Sagard as a
member of the colonizer’s race was able to postulate his knowledge of the world
26
�Colonizing the Mind: A Dialectic Approach to Education and Language in Zitkala-Ša’s
American Indian Stories
Adisa Ahmetspahić
as a fact. Zitkala-Ša’s first contact with the missionaries confirms Sagard’s
previously mentioned words. The missionaries seized the imagination of Native
American children by telling them stories of “a more beautiful country than
[Native American]” (Zitkala-Ša, 1979, p. 39), and a country
where grew red, red apples; and how we could reach out our hands and
pick all the red apples we could eat. I had never seen apples. I had never
tasted more than a dozen red apples in my life; and when I heard of the
orchards of the East, I was eager to roam among them. (Zitkala-Ša, 1979,
pp. 41-41)
The excerpts point to a patronizing perspective that compares worldviews
and favors one over the other as a fixed idea of truth which, as Foucault states,
“induces pleasure, forms knowledge, produces discourse” (Foucault, 1980,
p.119). The missionaries’ presentations of the country induced pleasure in the
minds of Zitkala-Ša and other Native American children since they pleaded with
their mothers to let them go with the missionaries. Simultaneously, the
missionaries formed knowledge and presented definite truths that places where
Native Americans resided were not beautiful, thus instilling epistemological
hierarchy in their minds and ultimately the genesis of the inferiority complex as
well as the prosperity of the superiority complex. JanMohamed argues that
“[s]uch claims, designed to rationalize and perpetuate the colonizer’s dominant
position, are not accurate appraisals of reality but rather projections of the
settler’s own anxieties and negative self-images” (1983, p. 3).
As presented further in the narrative, the children were subjected to strict
educational and dietary regimes. Upon their arrival, they had their clothes taken
away and soon after their hair cut. In the story titled “The Cutting of My Long
Hair”, Zitkala-Ša recounts the moment when her braids, cultural markers, were
cut off. Zitkala-Ša realized the gravity of the situation because “[their] mothers
had taught [them] that only unskilled warriors who were captured had their hair
shingled by the enemy. Among our people, short hair was worn by mourners,
and shingled hair by cowards” (Zitkala-Ša, 1979, p. 54). Without her braids, she
would also be considered a coward defeated in a different type of battle. Along
with the loss of hair, she felt the loss of her spirit which was invested in the Native
American system of beliefs.
The above-mentioned practices of haircutting and the imposition of the
colonizer’s attire would prove viable in the process of mind colonization. As an
adult Zitkala-Ša reflects back on Native American education in the light of the
attitude that such cruel treatment is a method of ‘civilizing’:
In this fashion many have passed idly through the Indian schools during
the last decade, afterward to boast of their charity to the North American
Indian. But few there are who have paused to question whether real life or
long-lasting death lies beneath this semblance of civilization. (Zitkala-Ša,
1979, p. 99)
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�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
Zitkala-Ša’s words speaking about death, a long-lasting one, hint at
genocide though a cultural one. George E. Tinker maintains that cultural
genocide
involves the destruction of those cultural structures of existence that give
people a sense of holistic and communal integrity. [...]Finally, it erodes a
people’s self-image as a whole people by attacking or belittling every
aspect of native culture. (1993, p. 6)
In addition to clothingii, which, in Tinker’s terms, constitutes cultural practices,
language is another structure that provides people with identity and a structure
frequently used in cultural genocide. For wa Thiong’o, language is the most
straightforward method of mind colonization since language carries cultures and
histories which in turn carry “the entire body of values by which we come to
perceive ourselves and our place in the world” (1986, p. 16). On a similar note,
Foucault perceives knowledge and language as inextricable concepts of the mind:
“It is in one and the same movement that the mind speaks and knows. [...] Hence
the possibility of writing a history of freedom and slavery based upon languages”
(Foucault, 2005, pp. 95-97). When translated into the world of colonialism,
Foucault’s argument would indicate that if the colonizer’s language is imposed
then the colonizer’s truth is imposed through it.
Rules against speaking Native American languages at boarding schools
were strict and punishments were severe. One of the Comissioners of Indian
Affairs, Hiram Price, explains the “No Indian Talk” rule: “The Indian child …
must be compelled to adopt the English language.” (as cited in McCarty, 2013,
pp. 52-53). John D.C. Attkins, another Commisioner, expounds the same: “There
is not an Indian pupil … who is permitted to study any other language than our
own” (as cited in McCarty, 2013, pp. 52-53).
The above-referenced insistence upon the acquistion of the English
language by the indigenous population has several interpretations. Tove
Skutnabb-Kangas and Robert Dunbar’s study Indigenous Children’s Education as
Linguistic Genocide and a Crime Against Humanity? A Global View (2010) highlights
linguicism, “linguistically argued racism”, as one of the leading arguments for
English language learning and a more subtle method of subduing minority
groups (p. 41). According to Skutnabb-Kangas and Dunbar, linguicism leads to
linguicide, the genocidal campaign against indigenous languages (2010, p. 40),
which concurs well with cultural genocide mentioned above. However, there is
a political dimension to it which argues for the augmentation of dominance. Bill
Ashcroft et al’s definition of language in the process of colonization is rooted in
the main tenets of power/knowledge relations introduced by Foucault as
outlined earlier in the paper. Ashcroft et al argue that language is “the medium
through which a hierarchical structure of power is perpetuated, and the
medium through which conceptions of ‘truth’, ‘order’, and ‘reality’ become
established” (2002, p. 7).
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�Colonizing the Mind: A Dialectic Approach to Education and Language in Zitkala-Ša’s
American Indian Stories
Adisa Ahmetspahić
Zitkala-Ša reverts the idea of power by excelling in the colonizer’s
language. Zitkala-Ša’s objective can be traced to her schooldays. It is mentioned
in the story collection that a series of language misunderstandings occurred at
school. The confusions resulted in severe beatings of the children and ignited
young Zitkala-Ša contempt of such an education: “Within a year I was able to
express myself somewhat in broken English. As soon as I comprehended a part
of what was said and done, a mischievous spirit of revenge possessed me”
(Zitkala-Ša, 1979, p. 59).Soon after, she began attending oratory competitions as
the college representative. In one of the competitions, Zitkala-Ša faced blatant
racism when
some college rowdies threw out a large white flag, with a drawing of a
most forlorn Indian girl on it. Under this they had printed in bold black
letters words that ridiculed the college that was represented by “squaw”.
(Zitkala-Ša, 1979, p. 79)
The rest of story has it that she won the competition and that“[t]he he evil
spirit laughed within [her] when the white flag dropped out of sight, and the
hands which hurled it hung limp in defeat” (Zitkala-Ša, 1979, 80). Despite her
momentary feelings of triumph, Zitkala-Ša is aware of how the education at
boarding schools altered her identity, as presented in “The Four Strage
Summers” story:
During this time I seemed to hang in the hearts of chaos, beyond the touch
or voice of human aid. My brother, being almost ten years my senior, did
not quite understand my feelings. My mother had never gone inside of a
school house and so she was not capable of comforting her daughter who
could read and write. Even nature seemed to have no place for me. I was
neither a wee girl nor a tall one; neither a wild Indian nor a tame one. This
deplorable situation was the effect of my brief course in the East, and the
unsatisfactory “teenth” in a girl’s years. (Zitkala-Ša, 1979, p. 69)
Zitkala-Ša’s feelings of (un)belonging or the state of in-betweeness are
ascribed to her partial immersion into both cultures precipitated by her education
as a Native American at the boarding school. JanMohamed problematizes the
position of the colonized after colonial education as a double bind position that
is unable to espouse any of the two polarities:
if he chooses conservatively and remains loyal to his indigenous culture,
then he opts to stay in a calcified society whose developmental momentum
has been checked by colonization. If, however, the colonized person
chooses assimilation, then he is trapped in a form of historical catalepsy
because colonial education severs him from his own past. (1983, p. 5)
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�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
Zitkala-Ša’s Native American community, represented by her mother,
shunned the education of the colonizer for its goals and methods, which she
speaks of in the story “Incurring My Mother’s Displeasure:” “Her few words
hinted that I had better give up my slow attempt to learn the white man’s ways”
(Zitkala-Ša, 1979, p. 76). It is revealed throughout the stories that Zitkala-Ša’s
mother held a grudge against her decision to go to college for a long period of
time since her mother perceived the act as something that would deepen the
chasm of acculturation. As outlined in the above-quoted section, Zitkala-Ša felt
she did not belong fully to her Native American community any longer.
Similarly, the white community did not see her as an equal, even after she had
attained their education and started working as a teacher at Carlisle, evident
when her employer told her the following: ““I am going to turn you loose to
pasture!” He was sending me West to gather Indian pupils for the school, and
this was his way of expressing it” (Zitkala-Ša, 1979, p. 85). He is assuming a
condescending attitude and categorizing her as if she were a chained animal that
would be given freedom by those who possess the power over it.
Bhabha defines the double bind position mentioned previously as Third Space.
For Bhabha, the friction between antagonistic/manicheancultures, which have
opposing truths, assists the emanation of new identities. According to Bhabha,
although dangerous, this position need not necessarily be unfavorable since the
“interstitial passage between fixed identifications opens up the possibility of a
cultural hybridity that entertains difference without an assumed or imposed
hierarchy” (Bhabha, 1994, p. 4). Hence, Bhabha’s theory might be beneficial in
analyzing Zitkala-Ša’s ability to appropriate education and language as a power
reversal strategy that would benefit her in spreading the Native American cause
in the language of the colonizer. It seems as if Zitkala-Ša followed Ema
LaRocque’s formulation: “I have sought to master this language so that it would
no longer master me” (as cited in McLeod, 2000, p. 125). Ashcroft et al argue that
writing in English would prove high-yielding for many Native Americans since
the language enabled them “to intervene more readily in the dominant discourse,
to interpolate their own cultural realities, or use that dominant language to
describe those realities to a wide audience of readers” (2007, p. 16).
The significance of Zitkala-Ša’s boarding schools experience and mastery
of the English language could be paralleled to Diane Glancy’s (Cherokee)
chronicle of events at Fort Marion prison titled Fort Marion Prisoners and The
Trauma of Native Education (2014). According to Glancy’s study, about seventytwo Plains Indian warriors were captured and imprisoned after the Red River
War (1874-1875). A rigorous regime was installed in the prison. The prisoners
were stripped off their clothes and their hair was cut. They were also taught
English and given ledger books to produce paintings and drawings for profit.
Glancy provides a number of these drawings which, surprisingly, portray Native
American battles, implying that a new, although unintentional, mode of Native
American cultural continuity was created in spite of the epistemological
hierarchy that was foisted upon the indigenous population.
30
�Colonizing the Mind: A Dialectic Approach to Education and Language in Zitkala-Ša’s
American Indian Stories
Adisa Ahmetspahić
3. CONCLUSION
The aim of this paper was to investigate the link between education and language
and mind colonization on the example of Zitkala-Ša’s American Indian Stories. The
analysis was supported by a number of theories and studies and as such
provided an overview of different aspects closely related to education and
language in the process of colonization. Although the theories used in the paper
are somewhat differing and from different domains, they meet at the point of the
same inference: education and language are less aggressive methods of
colonization, in a physical sense, yet most dangerous. For example, Foucault’s
theories on power/knowledge relations help understand the mindset of the
colonizer and ultimately its propensity in transferring that particular mindset
onto those who are in a less favorable position. On the other hand, theories of
Homi Bhabha reveal the position of the colonized, namely Zitkala-Ša, after they
have been immersed into the education and language of the colonizer as well as
her ability to speak up.
It is plausible that a number of limitations could have influenced the
analysis of the paper given that relatively little publications have dealt with the
importance of Zitkala-Ša and no publications, to the best of my knowledge, have
discussed education and language in this story collection. However, this analysis
might be valuable in understanding the methods and outcomes of mind
colonization, eventually creating a link between the past, the present, and the
future. In addition, Native American literary tradition is rich in narratives that
speak of mind (de)colonization and the reinvention of Native American identity
in the contemporary world of the United States where they are enrolled as legal
citizens yet marginalized. Hence, Zitkala-Ša’s subversion of colonial modes of
dominance can be considered a forerunner to such matters. Overall, this study
has gone some way towards enhancing our understanding of the benefits and
hindrances of education and language for the indigenous population in the US.
Further work needs to be performed to establish the use of religion in mind
colonization as well as gender aspects in the same process based on American
Indian Stories.
31
�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
REFERENCES
Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G., & Tiffin, H. (2007). Post-colonial studies: The key concepts,
(2nd ed.). Routledge.
Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G., & Tiffin, H. (2002). The empire writes back: Theory and
practice in post-colonial literatures (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis e-Library.
Bhabha, H. (1994). The location of culture. Routledge.
Coulombe, J. (2001). Reading Native American literature. Routledge.
Fisher, D. (1979). Foreword. In American Indian stories (pp. v-xx). University of
Nebraska Press.
Foucault, M. (1980). Power/Knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings 19721977 (C. Gordon, Ed.). Pantheon Books.
Foucault, M. (2005). The order of things: An archaeology of the human sciences. Taylor
& Francis e-Library.
History and culture: Boarding schools. (n.d.). Retrieved October 31, 2020, from
http://www.nativepartnership.org/site/PageServer?pagename=airc_hist_boar
dingschools
Irwin L. (2002). Native American spirituality: History. In Deloria, P., & Salisbury,
N. (Eds.), A companion to American Indian history (pp. 103–120). Blackwell.
JanMohamed, A. (1983). Manichean aesthetics: The politics of literature in colonial
Africa. University of Massachusetts Press.
Lewandowski, T. (2016). Red bird, red power: The life and legacy of Zitkala-Ša.
University of Oklahoma Press.
McCarty, T. (2013). Language planning and policy in Native America: History, theory,
praxis. Multilingual Matters.
McLeod, J. (2000). Beginning Postcolonialism. Manchester University Press.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T., & Dunbar, R. (2010). Indigenous children’s education as
linguistic genocide and a crime against humanity? A global view (Vol. 1). GálduČála –
Journal of Indigenous Peoples Rights.
https://www.afn.ca/uploads/files/education2/indigenouschildrenseducation
.pdf.
Stout, Mary A. (2012). Zitkala Ša. In Wiget, P. (Ed.), Native American literature (pp.
303-307). Routledge.
Tinker, G. (1993). Missionary conquest: The gospel and Native American cultural
genocide. Augsburg Fortress.
wa Thiong’o, N. (1986). Decolonising the mind: The politics of language in African
literature. James Currey Ltd.
Zitkala-Ša. (1979). American Indian stories. University of Nebraska Press.
For more information see Bob Blaisdell's Great Speeches by Native Americans (2012).
should be noted here that it is not my intention to contribute to the stereotyped portrayal of Native
Americans.
i
iiIt
32
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Journal of Education and Humanities
Subject
The topic of the resource
Education and Humanities
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
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Colonizing the Mind: A Dialectic Approach to
Education and Language in Zitkala-Ša’s
American Indian Stories
Author
Author
Adisa Ahmetspahić
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Mind colonization has been a burning issue in the last few
decades in the fields of science and humanities. It is argued that mind
colonization of the indigenous populations has been conducted via
education and language in the mission of ‘civilizing’ since education
and language carry culture specific sets of meaning, including
knowledge and truth which condition our perception of the world.
Zitkala-Ša is one of the earliest Native American authors and
activists who sought to subvert the epistemological hierarchy
imposed through mind colonization. Zitkala-Ša’s autobiographical
collection of short stories titled American Indian Stories (1921)
documents her boarding school experience and the acquisition of the
colonizer’s education and language. The present paper seeks to
address mind colonization through language and education on the
example of Zitkala-Ša’s American Indian Stories relying on a
number of theories and approaches. The paper also reflects on the
importance of Zitkala-Ša mastery of the colonizer’s language.
Keywords
Keywords.
Native
American, mind
colonization, education,
language, boarding schools
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
2566-4638
DOI
Digital object identifier
10.14706/JEH2021322
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b31304c210e3baba1d0973954472b960.pdf
3d85898be93c5d7e4bedfda17b90ded3
PDF Text
Text
Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3 (2), pp. 3-22, Winter 2020
Original research paper
ISSN 2566-4638
© International Burch University
The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial
Re-reading of Sir Thomas More,
The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest
Damir Kahrić, MA
Nađa Muhić, BA
University of Sarajevo
Bosnia and Herzegovina
damir95484@gmail.com
muhicnadja13@gmail.com
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to shed light on the
representation of ‘the Other’ in three Shakespearean dramas: Sir
Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest. The article
describes several Shakespearean characters through the prism of
post-colonialism and, therefore, the paper is structured as the postcolonial re-reading of the aforementioned dramatic texts. William
Shakespeare portrayed the sad fate of immigrants in Sir Thomas
More, but the Bard also tackled the refugee issue which remains
relevant for the contemporary period. Additionally, Shakespeare
dramatized the position of the Jewish community in Venice through
the portrayal of Shylock. The re-reading of The Tempest focuses on
the process of colonisation and the Manichaean division within the
conquered world. In conclusion, the article portrays experiences of
those dramatic individuals stigmatised and subjugated by the
colonial forces, thus allowing the readers to better understand the
binary division within colonial systems.
Keywords: William
Shakespeare, Refugee Issue,
Stereotyping, Manichaean
World
Article History
Submitted: 28 August 2020
Accepted: 25 November 2020
�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
1. INTRODUCTION
William Shakespeare is one of the most profoundly important writers to have
ever existed. In the contemporary framework, the Bard may be synonymously
associated with the very term of drama, as such. His narrative poetry, his sonnet
sequence, as well as his dramatic pieces are the body of work which encompasses
numerous elements of the social and cultural sphere. Shakespeare thus stands as
the just equal to some of the most brilliant minds to have ever worked in the
realm of literary achievements, such as Dante, Dostoevsky and Dickens. As some
of the most important contributions to the great literary tradition, the Bard’s
dramas are an inexhaustible field for various literary theories. The post-colonial
literary criticism is especially important for Shakespeare’s dramas, because
particular plays superbly depict the process of ‘othering.’
In order to better understand the representation of ‘the Other’ and
‘otherness’ in Shakespearean dramas, it should first be explained why a single
minority group of people(s) is subjugated by the community which surrounds
them. Brons (2015) elaborates on idea of ‘otherness’ by stating: “Othering often
sets up a superior self/in-group in contrast to an inferior other/out-group, it can
also create distance between self/in-group and other/out-group by means of a
dehumanizing over-inflation of otherness” (72). Edward W. Said’s work
Orientalism also explains the Eurocentric opinions of the East and anything which
is related to the so-called Orient. Said (1979) explains that the Orient is: “Almost
a European invention, and had been since antiquity a place of romance, exotic
beings, haunting memories and landscapes, remarkable experiences” (1).
However, this rather biased and Eurocentric worldview does not only portray
elements of romance, or exoticism, because more often than not, the dwellers of
the ‘mysterious East’ are perceived as ‘the Other,’ hence extremely negatively.
The basic aim of this paper is to further disseminate the knowledge of the Bard
and ‘the Other.’ In other words, this paper will analyse three dramas through the
prism of post-colonial literary theory: Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and
The Tempest. In the case of Sir Thomas More, the Bard was not the main or the only
author, however Shakespeare did add a particularly interesting monologue
which describes the rising tension of the people of London, as well as their
frustrations. The inserted speech presents the clash between the superior ‘ingroup,’ that is to say, the people of London, and the dangerous and unwanted
‘strangers.’ Moreover, this drama focuses on some of the most vocal protests
especially in regards to the refugee issue.
Secondly, this paper will focus on The Merchant of Venice, as one of
Shakespeare’s greatest and best-recognised tragicomedies. The characters of
Shylock the Jew will be analysed in order to portray the negative elements
attributed to the Jewish community in Venice during the 16th century. Shylock
will be described as the character who is perceived as ‘the Other,’ but with the
highest degree of negative connotations. As a Jewish character, Shylock is heavily
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�The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial Re-reading of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of
Venice and The Tempest
Damir Kahrić & Nađa Muhić
marginalised by the Christian society. Different characters treat him harshly,
attributing animal pejoratives to Shylock, and ruthlessly try to expel him from
the society since he is perceived as ‘the Alien’ of the Venetian state. The third and
therefore the final segment of this paper will focus on the inhabitants of the
mysterious island in Shakespeare’s final play The Tempest. The paper will
predominantly focus on the analysis of Caliban as the natural native of the
aforementioned isle. On the other side of the spectrum there stand Prospero and
Miranda who are the newcomers of the island and they epitomise the European
conquerors. Thus, Caliban will be presented as the downtrodden and colonised
individual, whereas Prospero the Wizard will be analysed as the dominant ruler.
Ergo, this paper will focus on the portrayal of implicit/explicit forms of
subjugation of ‘the Other,’ but also the response which ‘the Other’ makes in order
to survive in the coloniser’s domain.
2. THE CASE FOR STRANGERS: SHAKESPEARE’S CONTRIBUTION TO SIR
THOMAS MORE
In the world of the 21st century, so heavily marked by censorship and intolerance,
one author’s voice was able to transcend all barriers of time and space. William
Shakespeare’s literary opus remains, undoubtedly, one of the best-recognised
contributions to the realm of theatre, poetry, but also linguistics and modern
understanding of various political and social systems. Shakespeare was not an
author situated within a single timeframe, rather he was a writer for every day
and age, and since he was able to brilliantly understand and depict the sociopolitical difficulties of his own epoch, the Bard’s dramatic pieces remain relevant
for the contemporary era.
A historic play dubbed Sir Thomas More grants the readers an invaluable
opportunity to discover one of the most passionate defences of the refugee policy.
The refugee issue was an important element in England’s history, however it is
equally if not even more relevant for the contemporary society. The dramatic
work is titled after the famous English chancellor Sir Thomas More whose
devotion to the Pope cost More his own life. Since the Chancellor refused to
accept Henry VIII’s divorce and his political split from the Church of Rome, he
was beheaded. Thomas More is even nowadays remembered as a passionate
defender of the Catholic faith who stood against the teaching of Martin Lutheri.
After the passing of Elizabeth Gloriana, Shakespeare was invited to make
adjustments to the text of the play. He and other playwrights revised the text and
the Bard of Avon included 147 lines in the middle of the central plotline. Namely,
Shakespeare inserted an additional monologue for the character of Sir Thomas
More. In this speech, More addresses the violent outbursts of the antiimmigration riot on the streets of London. This speech is intended for the people
because they so fervently desire the immigrants to be removed. It was explained
that they are baying for the so-called ‘strangers’ to be unequivocally banished
(Dickson, 2016). In this case, the superior and self-entitled group of the rioters is
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�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
juxtaposed with the ‘the Other,’ and the term refers to the ‘strangers’ in their
unfortunate position. More’s philosophical enquiry about the fate of the outcasts
attempts to reignite some degree of empathy among the angry people and More
says, “What would you think / To be thus used? this is the strangers case; / And
this your mountanish inhumanity” (2.4.121-123). At this instance, More switches
the places of the two opposing sides. He hypothetically ‘otherises’ the rioters by
placing them into the roles of those whom they deem unworthy. Through More’s
mouthpiece, Shakespeare poses the question of what would happen if the
downtrodden individuals were to replace their position with the people who
want to see them banished.
Shakespeare presents a kind approach, prompting both sympathy and
empathy among the rioters, whereas the plight of the alienated and dispossessed
is viewed with mercy rather than contempt. Dickson (2016) adds that this speech
may prefigure the great dramas which would later ensue in Shakespeare’s opus;
such dramas being Othello or The Merchant of Venice. The Bard was able to
successfully implement his own opinions into the monologue, by portraying a
sharp eye for the troubled relationship between the ethnic majorities and
minorities. The long speech additionally depicts Thomas More’s own courageous
side as he was more than willing to face the rioting mob at St. Martin’s Gate.
Thus, Shakespeare can be examined as a transnational traveller, and More as his
representative in the dramatic world. More’s albeit unsuccessful attempt to stop
the rioters does not only pose urgent ethnical questions, rather the same speech
addresses the issue of the responsibility for ‘the Other.’ In his article, Stephen
O’Neill (2020) explains that: “These iterations draw Shakespeare, long imagined
as a type of transnational traveller, into urgent ethical questions about borders,
displaced peoples, and responsibility to the Other, as More's empathetic plea
comes to function synecdochally for Shakespeare” (1). In addition to the
aforementioned empathy-prompting, More’s speech exemplifies the notion of
cultural tensions and mistrusts that still prevails. The cultural mistrust remains
ever-so-present even in the contemporary setting, whereas this play emphasises
the idea that cross-cultural connection should be bettered by all means necessary.
It would appear that the 16th century society of England and the post-modern era
of the world do not differ vividly from one another. Globalisation and masscommunication brings together various cultures nowadays more than ever
before. However, xenophobic nationalists and those people adhering to the
rightist political systems consequently try to drive different ethnic or cultural
apart. The Bard was able to inform the audience of his own time about issues
which plague their own society, and his words, or rather those of Thomas More
as a character, definitely must have tackled many people, giving them additional
reason to muse over the anti-immigration crises. The multi-authored play of Sir
Thomas More appears to foreshadow not just some of Shakespeare’s own great
tragedies and comedies, but also the countless problems which will be described
later on in literature, especially in terms of ‘the Other’ and the so-called ‘themus’ division. Bamford’s paper (2018) connects the late Renaissance period to the
21st century in this regard by further perpetuating the notion that the mistrust
6
�The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial Re-reading of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of
Venice and The Tempest
Damir Kahrić & Nađa Muhić
between the cultures and nations is growing: “Sir Thomas More’s speech,
attributed to Shakespeare, and found in the little-known and multi-authored play
Sir Thomas More, which deals with the responses to Huguenot immigrants to the
UK in the 16th century, demonstrates that mistrust of other cultures, and the
recognition of the need for cross-cultural communication are nothing new” (1).
Furthermore, it should be noted that the Bard used whatever medium he had at
his disposal to portray the hard position of ‘the Other,’ or in this case the
mistrusted ‘strangers.’ As a playwright, his empathic plea was delivered through
the adapted lines of Henry VIII’s Chancellor, while the theatre in itself was
profoundly important as an entertainment medium of his own era. Similarly
enough, for many decades numerous people have been able to enjoy the medium
of television in a similar yet far more modern setting and Bamford (2018) adds:
“Shakespeare made his plea through the medium of contemporary
entertainment, and in the last hundred years many have used the medium of
screen entertainment to make similar pleas” (1). Born in William Shakespeare’s
mind, the idea of ‘the Other’ was transmitted through the adaptation of this lessknown play.
Although the xenophobic and superior society of England desires to see
all strangers exiled from their kingdom, Shakespeare decided to alter the overall
focus of the spectators listening to the speech: “Shakespeare shifts the focus of
the audience and of the play as a whole from fear of the other to fear for the other”
(Lawrence, 2018, p. 2). For the xenophobes, all strangers are the enemy.
Moreover, everything or better to say everyone who is not a part of the
mainstream English society in this case is considered to be ‘the Other,’ therefore
these strangers are posing a serious threat for all those who do not wish them to
stay. Shakespeare, or actually More’s empathy-prompting, in this speech
addresses the issue of the mob suffering. In fact, More compares and contrasts
the pain of the audience present with that of the ‘terrifying strangers.’
More openly asks the people gathered what they would think of their own
exile, at least hypothetically. More enquires, “Should so much come to short of
your great trespass / As but to banish you, whether would you go? / What
country, by the nature of your error, / Should give you harbor?” (2.4.107-110). In
this portion of the long speech, More is trying to make the connection between
the actual exile of the foreigners and the hypothetical one, and Lawrence (2018)
explains that: “Fear for the other precedes and serves as a model of fear for the
self” (8). In order to tackle their own compassion, Shakespeare through More
inverts the logic of the so-called social contract. He accepts the alleged existence
or the myth of the ‘state of nature,’ and moreover, he perceives it as a terrifying
primordial phenomenon, an anarchy of some sort. Thus, More accuses the rioters
of their inhuman approach to the strangers, arguing the strangers’ case.
Lawrence (2018) elaborates on this notion by explaining: “Instead of imagining a
state in which everyone would fear for herself or himself, however, More
imagines a situation in which everyone would fear for other people” (8). The
communal spirit is important. By not being, to phrase it bluntly, selfish to the
core, various people are able to open themselves to empathy. The rioters, as well
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�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
as everyone else, should feel this level of genuine human compassion in order to
redirect fear from themselves to other individuals, as such. Essentially, the
gathered people are called to recognise ‘the Other’ as ‘the stranger’ and vice
versa. However, in this particular case, More advises the people to perceive them
differently.
More explicitly advises the people to recognise ‘the Other’ as the widow,
the orphan, and Lawrence (2018) further elaborates on this idea by explaining
that: “More’s speech calls for a recognition of the Other as “the stranger, the
widow, and the orphan” (8). The migrants carry different stories with them, they
can be recognised perhaps as strangers, but also as someone’s child, someone’s
mother, father, sister. Their own experiences do not necessarily have to differ
greatly from the experiences of the people who want them to be banned from
London. William Shakespeare advises, in turn, the fictional characters on the
stage, but also his real spectators, to pass through the doors of fiction and reality,
but also to transcend the barriers between their own experiences and the
experiences of ‘the Other.’ In More’s vision, the rioters are commanded almost to
imagine their own position wherein they would be excluded from the society,
reduced to a level of bare existence, and denied citizenship, as well as the status
of a human being (Lawrence, 2018, pp. 8-9). The inserted speech transmits one
very important message for the fictional rioters, but also for the theatre audience,
because More openly says: “Nay, any where that not adheres to England,— /
Why, you must needs be strangers” (2.4.112-113). Evidently, More tells the
people that only England is their home, for anywhere else, they would be
discarded and perhaps even treated unfairly. The Londoners are not invited
immediately to care for the strangers’ case by comparing their own position to
the plight of the newcomers, because this would imply a level of personal agenda
or self-interest. Rather, they are first asked to empathise with the tragic fate of the
foreigners before their hypothetical exile is described. More asks his addressees
to imagine the journeys of the foreigners, or as More calls them ‘the wretched
strangers.’ This can be observed when More says: “Imagine that you see the
wretched strangers, / Their babies at their backs and their poor luggage, /
Plodding tooth ports and costs for transportation” (2.4.57-59). The actual pain of
the ‘wretched strangers’ should be also considered, because as Lawrence (2018)
moreover explains: “The rioting Londoners are not called to care for the strangers
by comparing “the strangers’ case” to their own, which they would first care
about in the manner of self-interested agents. Before being asked to imagine
themselves becoming exiles, they are asked to imagine the suffering of “the
wretched strangers”” (9).
The tale of Sir Thomas More remains relevant for the contemporary society,
due to the fact that we are able to reinterpret the Bard’s writings in order to better
comprehend our own world, and Loomba (2002) emphasises this notion by
stating that Shakespeare’s writings: “Form a bridge between the past and us:
even as we read in them stories of a bygone world, we also continually reinterpret
these stories to make sense of our own worlds” (4-5). The Bard’s contribution to
the dramatic realm in terms of post-colonial theory remains a prominent aspect
8
�The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial Re-reading of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of
Venice and The Tempest
Damir Kahrić & Nađa Muhić
because as Popa (2013) explains: “Postcolonial theory attempts to consider the
circumstances of marginalized, exploited or subaltern systems and the social
groups that become stigmatized and it is a reflection on the difference, on the
Other, but more importantly, an address to the colonial Other” (92). Taking into
consideration Shakespeare’s entire dramatic opus, numerous dramatis personae
which may be described as ‘the Other’ can be found in the Bard’s writings, and
as Popa (2013) explains: “Four of Shakespeare‘s plays deal with non-white
characters: Titus Andronicus, Othello, Antony and Cleopatra, and The Tempest, while
in The Merchant of Venice we have non-Christian characters” (93). Moreover, Popa
(2013) also adds that: “There are a few other characters who contribute to the
general picture of Shakespeare‘s perception of a racial Other” (93). For this
reason, it should be noted that Shakespeare’s dramas are a fertile ground for the
portrayal of ‘the Other’ while in turn the post-colonial theory can consider and
analyse such stigmatised social groups. The plight of various refugees can be
detected all around the globe, even in Bosnia and Herzegovina. As countless
peoples from Palestine and elsewhere voyage over heavy terrain and dangerous
seas. Women, children and elderly immigrants can be seen moving from
countries ravished by conflict. By acknowledging such strangers as ‘the Other’
Shakespeare instructs the London rioters, but also everybody else to remember
that our own fates and experiences do not have to differ so vividly, due to the
fact that the wheel of fortune keeps turning. The Bard presents the case for ‘the
Other,’ whereas Shakespeare’s teachings and instructions during the Renaissance
period also prevail as something extremely relevant for the contemporary
society. Shakespeare’s empathy-prompting refers to the Bosnian society as well
as to all other communities. Since the playwright was able to understand the
functioning of the human heart and mind so analytically, it is no wonder that
Shakespeare successfully managed to contribute to the overall sense of empathy
and/or compassion in the real world.
THE ‘ALIEN’ OF VENICE
Shylock the Jew is the main antagonist of one of Shakespeare’s greatest
(tragi)comedies. He is at the same time a comic character, villainous, but also
particularly tragic in his own right. The Bard represents Shylock as ‘the Other’ of
the play. The Jew stands in contrast to the other Venetian characters due to his
Jewish identity, his usury and money-lending occupation. This type of a
profession, so to say, was greatly frowned upon during the Elizabethan times.
Hence, in post-colonial terms, Shylock is ‘the Other’ in The Merchant of Venice.
Huang (2019) elaborates on this notion by explaining that: “Compared with the
other characters in The Merchant of Venice, Shylock seems to be totally an
outsider and alien of Venice because he is considered to be the “Other” in the
eyes of the other Venetians as a result of his identity a Jew as well as his
occupation as a usurer, both of which are despised and degraded at the
Elizabethan times” (661). Shylock may be presented a villainous individual,
however his fate is, indeed, very tragic at the end of the dramatic piece.
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�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
Moreover, his entire fictional existence seems to be marked by this constant
element of degradation. The Jew stands in contrast to the people of Venice who
are predominantly Christian.
Thus, it would appear that the superior Christian group has placed itself
over the position of ‘the Other’ when it comes to Venice. Taking into account
Frantz Fanon’s monumental work The Wretched of the Earth, it becomes evident
that the Venetian society may be interpreted as a ‘Manichaean world’ in a
nutshell. Primarily, because the Manichaean world is a functioning community
divided into different segments. Fanon (1963) rendered the Manichaean setting
in the following lines: “The affirmation of the principle “It is them or us” does
not constitute a paradox, since colonialism, as we have seen, is in fact the
organization of a Manichean world, a world divided up into compartments” (84).
Ergo, the Manichaean setting is established as a world where there exist constant
binary divisions. In The Merchant of Venice, this division is exemplified through
Shylock. He is a part of the world split into compartments, and in his case,
Shylock is the less-fortunate compartment of this environment. Fanon’s
contribution to post-colonial studies has allowed numerous scholars over the
decades to better understand the binary dichotomy when it comes various texts.
More often than not, Shylock is undermined by other Venetian characters. This
is particularly plausible when Antonio insults him at the Rialto. Shylock reminds
Antonio of these insults when the Merchant arrives to ask money from the Jew
by citing the following lines: “You call me misbeliever, cutthroat dog, / And spet
upon my Jewish gaberdine, / And all for use of that which is mine own” (1.3.121123). From this description, the position of the Jews in the Manichaean
environment of Venice is easily recognisable, because Shylock is condemned for
both what he is and for what he does. Since the Manichaean world represents a
divided environment, it should be noted that the term is derived from the name
of Mani and his teachings. Mani’s teachings focused on the duality of the world,
or in other words: “As he developed Manichaeism, Mani composed seven
writings, including the Shabuhragan. His teachings focused on the origins of evil
and taught a “dualistic” view between good and evil” (Reese, 2019). Therefore,
Venice can be perceived as a Manichean world divided between the Christian
characters on one side and Shylock the Jew on the other. The Jew of Venice and
everything relating to him is vividly frowned upon by Antonio and the rest of
the characters.
In a similar manner to the speech delivered in Sir Thomas More, William
Shakespeare yet again invites (or instructs) his audience/readers to cry and
sympathise with the fate of the Jew. Undoubtedly, Shylock might have wronged
different characters through his shrewd money-lending profession, nonetheless
his own existence in Italy has been greatly undermined by the Christian
population. In one of Shylock’s most famous monologues, the Bard touches the
basic humanity of every individual when Shylock says, “If you / poison us, do
we not die? And if you wrong us, shall / we not revenge? If we are like you in
the rest, we will / resemble you in that?” (3.1.64-67). Shylock wants everybody
to recognise that he is a person, just like all other dramatis personae. Primarily,
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the Jew should be perceived as a human individual regardless of his origins, his
creed or even his profession. Huang (2019) presents the notion that Shylock
actually tries to deny his own position as ‘the Other’: “Shylock denies his status
as the “Other” and makes every effort to defend and justify his identity and at
the same time attempts to other the Christians” (668). In the previous chapter of
this paper, it was explained that More tried to draw the gathering rioters closer
to the feeling of empathy by presenting the empathic case for strangers. In this
drama, however, Shakespeare through Shylock tried to depict the Jew in a
different manner. The usurer should be treated justly like any other Christian
individual, because as Shylock himself explains, they are not so vividly different
from each other after all. One might examine Shylock of narcissistic or vengeful,
yet he is a tragic individual when everything is taken into consideration. Shylock
is the ‘alien’ of Venice and is therefore (mis)treated accordingly.
The term ‘alien’ in this case is of vital importance, due to the fact that the
term denotes a social pariah, an outsider. For this reason, Shylock’s position is
not something one would desire. Near the end of the play, the lexeme ‘alien’ is
used once to describe Shylock, referring to the laws of Venice. Once the Jew
decides that he would get his revenge on Antonio and seize one pound of his
flesh, Portia disguised as Balthazar comes to the Merchant’s rescue. Once Shylock
is not persuaded to render any mercy to Antonio, and once he is robbed of the
opportunity to kill the Merchant, Portia informs Shylock that he cannot yet
escape the Venetian justice. To confirm this, Portia recites the following: “It is
enacted in the laws of Venice, / If it be proved against an alien / That by direct
or indirect attempts / He seek the life of any citizen, / The party ’gainst the which
he doth contrive / Shall seize one half his goods” (4.1.363-368). One of the
greatest Shakespearean actors Sir Patrick Stewart presented his article describing
Shylock as Shakespeare’s ‘alien’ in which he explains Shylock’s sad fate. Namely,
Stewart (1981) addresses the issue of Shylock’s greedy personality, and Stewart
explains that the Jew’s nature is disordered by avarice. It is Shylock’s bad
experience of the world and his endeavour to cope with it which makes Shylock
so malicious and cruel at certain instances. Shylock and his kind are the outsiders,
they are the strangers of Venice, feared and hated simply for being different than
the rest. They are, as the laws of the Venetian state clearly explain, the aliens. The
Jews are stamped by the world, thus being always vulnerable (142-143).
Just as it was the case with the strangers in Sir Thomas More, Shylock is likewise
another Shakespearean alien. In post-colonial terms, he is ‘otherised’ by the
Venetian state. Huang (2019) explains the use of the verb ‘othering’ within the
context of post-colonialism and other studies by saying that: “The term “Other”
together with its other variations such as its noun form “otherness” and verb
form othering is often used in psychoanalysis, post-colonialism, and cultural
studies” (662). Since ‘the Other’ is a term used in post-colonial studies, and since
this paper classifies Shylock as ‘the Other’ of The Merchant of Venice, it is safe to
assume that Shylock is the epitome of the post-colonial ‘otherness’ within the
Venetian state. Furthermore, Huang (2019) confirms this aspect of Shylock’s
‘otherness’ by explaining that: “He is a stranger and a foreigner as well as an
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outsider and an alien “marginalized and firmly placed on the fringe of society”;
he does not “fit the norm” which has been largely determined by the Christian
Venetian society. Therefore, it is absolutely safe for us to define Shylock as an
“Other” in the play” (662-663). The esteemed Shakespearean thespian also adds
that Shylock has found a way to ‘merge’ with his environment. Stewart (1981)
adds that Shylock appears as a shabby, unmemorable and eccentric old clown in
the eyes of the people around him. Not many would consider him a threat. It is
only Antonio, his competitor is business, whose senses are sharpened by
commerce, and who is able to detect contempt behind Shylock’s visage (143).
Nevertheless, the Jacobean audience of England would be able to recognise and
condemn Shylock not only for what he does, but for what he is and the way he
looks.
Primarily, this becomes evident in the process of stereotyping when Jews
are concerned. In post-colonial terms, Mushtaq (2010) defines stereotyping and
he explains that: “In post-colonial theory, ‘stereotype’ refers to the highly
generalized views of the colonizers about the colonized” (25). In Shakespeare’s
play, the image of Shylock the Jew is often presented rather negatively, and this
is important to consider, because Mushtaq (2010) adds that: “Stereotyping can be
defined as an image, mostly negative, of a person in relation with a group or
society” (25). Shylock is the part of the so-called ‘out-group’ mentioned at the
beginning of this paper, therefore he is the object of stereotyping. The superior
group on the other hand perceives individuals from the ‘out-group’ as: “shirkers,
liars, corrupt, weak, inferior, uncivilized, impotent, cruel, lazy, irrational, violent
and disorganized” (Mushtaq, 2010, p. 25). Shylock’s outward appearance on the
stage would mark him as the Jewish individual, and afterwards many
stereotypes would be attributed to the character. Nahvi (2015) elaborates on this
notion: “Elizabethan theatergoers would have recognized Shylock as a Jew
immediately. His red wig, bulbous nose and huge cape immediately label him as
the other and as an outsider. Even though Jews were not living in England (at
least not openly), they represented a stereotype evil, cunning, greed and at
the very core, heartlessness” (1293). Interestingly enough, in order to undermine
Shylock’s positions, other characters, such as Antonio or Bassanio, even
Portia/Balthazar refer to him simply as ‘the Jew.’ Nahvi (2015) adds that: “Even
before the play begins, the dramatis personae presents Shylock as an archetype,
Shylock, the Jew. Throughout the play, the other characters consistently refer to
him as simply, the Jew. This characterization dehumanizes and de-personalizes
Shylock” (1294). Such a characterisation certainly undermines but also dehumanises Shylock, however this is by no means the only case of Shylock’s dehumanisation, because, for example, Gratiano compares Shylock to a dog by
saying, “O, be thou damned, inexecrable dog” (4.1.130). Such references serve
one function and that is to replace Shylock’s human soul. Bianchi (2005) explains
this element of de-humanisation by stating that: “The images increase in
vulgarity as Gratiano dehumanizes Shylock, and the animal references serve to
take the place of Shylock's human soul” (14). Other fictional characters and
citizens of Venice reduce Shylock from a person to a mere category (Nahvi, 2015,
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p. 1294). Shylock is furthermore moved from a position of ‘the Other,’ to the
position of stranger, to his well-known ‘alien status,’ however even more
prominently he is treated as an animal occasionally by various dramatis
personae. He is attributed bestial terms such as ‘dog’ or ‘wolf.’ He is, also,
equated to the devil. Shylock cleverly recalls this remark in the third act of
Shakespeare’s drama and Shylock says, “Thou call’dst me dog before thou hadst
a cause, / But since I am a dog, beware my fangs” (3.3.7-8). He reminds the
Merchant of this epithet, thus the danger behind Shylock’s vindictiveness is
portrayed clearly to the readers/spectators.
Additionally, Antonio in the play spits on the Jew, while his daughter
Jessica runs off with a Christian, symbolically leaving the Jewish family, thus
converting to Christianity. Eventually, Shylock is left without his livelihood, and
perhaps even figuratively without his own life. Shakespeare’s creation of ‘the
Other’ unquestionably mirrored the sentiments, fears and the myths about the
Jews commonly visible in the Bard’s own time. Many of such sentiments prevail
even in the 21st century (Nahvi, 2015, p. 1296). The Merchant of Venice remains
relevant for the contemporary world, because as Nowosad (2017) states: “The
play is a good selection for the time we live in right now as we strive to examine
the way we look at people who are different from ourselves. Religious and racial
prejudice prevail in this play opening our thoughts to what happens in our own
modern day society.” The aforementioned prejudice and intolerance can be
observed also within the lives of various people today, because Nowosad (2017)
likewise explains the notion that: “The desire for wealth, anti-Semitism,
prejudice, racial and gender bias, all of these take place in this story as well as in
many people’s lives today. How we decide to view them are [sic] influenced by
our own places in this life. Being open to examining them allows us to express
our thoughts and perhaps overcome what we can.”
The pivotal scene of The Merchant of Venice is, by all means, the court scene,
when Portia beats Shylock in his revenge and makes him in turn pay for the foul
agendas. Portia, or rather Balthazar in disguise, urges the Jew to render some
mercy, nevertheless the Jew refuses to do so. It would appear that the ‘crude’
Shylock stands in contrast to the ‘merciful’ Christians of Venice. The basic
messages of the Old and the New Testament(s) are juxtaposed through Shylock
and the rest of the community. However, it should be noted that the mercy which
Portia so adamantly mentions is not extended to the Jewish characters within the
drama (Navih, 2015, p. 1296). In his (tragi)comedy, William Shakespeare
portrayed the problems of his day and age which linger even in our own sphere
of existence. The issue of Shakespeare’s world is almost identical to the issue of
the post-modern society. In order to connect the similarities of problems in
Shakespeare’s own time and the current era, Bambušková (2019) analysed The
Merchant of Venice, especially in regards to the previously-mentioned court scene,
and she explained that: “Today’s ‘Christian Europe’ (Christian in name but
focused on easy, enjoyable life, much like the Venetians) may profit from
recognition of what kind of law and what kind of mercy we may offer those who
come into our country, who are our ‘Others’ and whose ‘Others’ we are” (1-2).
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Thus, it is less relevant whether Shylock the Jew is a tragic character or a
sympathetic villain, because one fact is evident, he is ‘the Other,’ he is the
undermined ‘alien’ of this dramatic piece.
3. CALIBAN THE NATIVE
Shakespeare’s last (authentic) play, his final ‘farewell’ from the London audience,
presents one of the most memorable dramatic pieces ever written. The Tempest
perhaps above all other Shakespearean dramas remains most relevant for the
post-colonial analysis. Characters such as Caliban, the original dweller of the
enchanted island will be presented as the central element for the post-colonial
examination of the play. Caliban, and other magic inhabitants such as Ariel,
stand is sheer contrast to the European newcomers. The wizard called Prospero
arrives from Milan with his daughter to the mysterious isle and it is there that
Prospero establishes his hegemony over other beings of the enchanted island.
Through his dominance, his alleged magical prowess, Prospero is able to control
other island-dwellers, enslave them and ‘otherise’ them to such a degree that they
are henceforth treated even worse than the strangers in Sir Thomas More or
Shylock in The Merchant of Venice.
In order to better understand both the colonised and the coloniser, it
should be taken into consideration that the post-colonial (re-)reading of The
Tempest was inspired by the process of de-colonisation. Singh (2016) connects The
Tempest to the post-colonial interpretation by explaining the following: “Postcolonial readings of The Tempest were inspired by the decolonisation movements
of the 1960s and 1970s in Africa, the Caribbean and Latin America.” Initially,
Prospero’s craft symbolised the world of civility, as well as learning, rendered in
contrast to the ‘natural’ dark spells of Caliban’s mother, whereas the postcolonial re-reading of Shakespeare’s play challenges this rather Eurocentric
approach: “If, traditionally, Prospero's art represented the world of civility and
learning in contrast to the 'natural' black magic of Caliban's mother Sycorax, anticolonial revisions of the play challenged this rather abstract Eurocentric division
between art and nature” (Singh, 2016). In the book Eurocentrism, the Eurocentric
perception of the Western colonisers is explained, and in this sense the
Westerners view themselves as efficient, rational, democratic, whereas the
colonised peoples on the other hand are perceived as underdeveloped and as
individuals who have nothing to offer, yet they have to imitate the West in order
to progress, albeit slowly and imperfectly (Amin, 2009, p. 180). The post-colonial
reading of the play challenges this Eurocentric approach by focusing on postcolonial elements. For example, Goicoechea de Jorge (2016) mentions the postcolonial representation of Prospero as the European coloniser enslaving the
indigenous people of a newly-discovered place, but also as a European person
who imposes his tradition and language over the natives’ own culture. Caliban
tries to resist by rejecting to learn Prospero’s tongue. Therefore, it becomes
obvious that this romance play grants a better insight into the world of the
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‘civilised’ European society, and the naturalised albeit ‘savage’ realm of Caliban
and the rest. The Bard gives the voice to ‘the Other’ in this dramatic work and
moreover Caliban clearly reminds his colonisers that the isle once belonged to
him, and Caliban says: “This island’s mine by Sycorax my mother, / Which thou
tak’st from me” (1.2.331). Caliban had inherited his home from Sycorax, yet the
colonisers, in this case Prospero and his daughter who had previously escaped
from Europe, made the island their home and furthermore they enslaved the
creatures encountered there.
There exists a clear dichotomy between the two opposing sides of the
island. Shylock stood against the Christian characters of Venice, and he was
‘otherised’ because of his Jewish origins, religion, outward appearance, moneylending and other activities. Similarly enough, Caliban is vividly dissimilar from
the Wizard or Miranda primarily because Caliban is a non-human being. He is a
mysterious creature. As such, the island-dwellers possess a particular form of
personality, just like Prospero or Miranda, nonetheless they still differ from one
another. Prospero and Miranda are both human characters, with their own sets
of unique traits, however on the other hand, the spirit Ariel and Caliban are
portrayed as monstrous perhaps on the outside, but they also develop their own
personalities. Harold Bloom (1998), as one of the greatest Shakespearean
scholars, further perpetuated this idea by stating that: “Caliban and Ariel are
personalities, but then Caliban is only half-human, and Ariel is a sprite” (582).
Both Caliban and Ariel are ‘otherised’ and by being only semi-human unlike
Prospero or Miranda, both island-dwellers can be perceived as ‘the Other’ in the
play. The Manichaean world can again be observed in this regard, and Fanon’s
own teachings can be applied adequately. The enchanted isle is a divided setting,
it is an isolated world conquered and colonised by the Europeans. The island is
colonised and inherently Manichaean. Fanon (1963) openly proclaims that: “The
colonial world is a Manichean world” (41). It is a world divided into segments,
and it is a world where Caliban is constantly undermined.
The character of ‘the Other,’ in this case Caliban, appears to be a pun in its
own right. In other words, the name ‘Caliban’ actually stands for the term
‘cannibal’: “The name Caliban/Cannibal appears in Shakespeare's play and in
colonial history as a cultural stereotype for the natives of the New World” (Singh,
2016). For this reason, Caliban can be observed as one of the natives of the New
World, and therefore his own background, his own culture and even language,
all play a significant role in post-colonial theory. Prospero uses various methods
in order to keep his slave at bay; moreover, the Wizard uses colonial
methodology to harm, control, beat and subjugate the ‘savage.’ Prospero even
attempts to assert his dominance via linguistic capacities.
It is clearly stated in the play that the colonisers, Miranda particularly,
tried to teach Caliban their own, European, language. Colonisation, as such,
brought with it subjugation not just on the physical level but also in regards to
the cognitive sphere of the natives. Singh (2016) elaborates on this notion of
Prospero’s dominance by stating that: “His mission assumed that the natives
lacked any culture or formal language until the Europeans brought them the
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‘gifts’ of Western language and culture. If the natives resisted European paternal
rule, then they were labelled as ‘savages,’ beyond redemption.” Miranda even
insults Caliban by addressing him as ‘the abhorred slave,’ reminding him that is
was her who tried to teach Caliban their language: “Abhorred slave, / Which any
print of goodness wilt not take, / Being capable of all ill! I pitied thee, / Took
pains to make thee speak, taught thee each hour / One thing or other” (1.2.351).
It is apparent that Miranda takes up a superior position and she is more than
willing to undermine Caliban by any means necessary. However, Caliban does
not even remain silent on this remark. Rather he, too, reminds Miranda that he
loathes their language and that now he is only able to curse in their European
mother-tongue: “You taught me language, and my profit on’t / Is, I know how
to curse” (1.2.363). The assertion of language backfires, due to the fact the ‘the
Other’ is now able to retort in the language of his new masters. Their imposition
of power and superiority is gradually subverted. Miranda and Prospero attempt
to de-humanise the native as much as it is possible, nonetheless even in his own
speech, Caliban appears more sophisticated than one would perhaps expect.
Primarily, it should be noted that Caliban is more of a poetic creature. He
is able to utilise verse in order to transmit the message of his speech. Bloom (2008)
explains that: “He never falls into the prosaic and low familiarity of his drunken
associates, for he is, in his way, a poetical being; he always speaks in verse” (73).
However, Miranda is not even swayed by this reply. She constantly attempts to
degrade Caliban, going as far as reminding him that he was completely unaware
of his own purpose. In other words, Miranda reminds Caliban that only through
her education Caliban was able to realise his own existence, his own meaning:
“When thou didst not, savage, / Know thine own meaning, but wouldst gabble”
(1.2.355). It would appear that Caliban was unable to comprehend his own
existence until the moment his new master came and took over. Caliban’s
quintessence and merit is constantly annihilated by such claims, and more often
than not he is reduced to a particularly inferior level. Bloom (2008) states that
such a proclamation made by Miranda would imply that in her own perspective:
“Unlike a civilized person, the savage Caliban did not know what his true
meaning was as a human” (16). The colonisers use violence in order to subjugate
‘the Other,’ but this violence is both open as well as subtle. Fanon (1963) adds
that: “Violence in the colonies does not only have for its aim the keeping of these
enslaved men at arm's length; it seeks to dehumanize them. Everything will be
done to wipe out their traditions, to substitute our language for theirs and to
destroy their culture without giving them ours” (15). Only when the entire
heritage of creatures originally living on the island is destroyed, only then will
the complete control be established. The implicit, as well as the explicit, forms of
violence presented are there to serve one purpose – to make characters such as
Caliban or Ariel utterly subservient. Thus, Prospero is able to establish his
governance of the isle, and the Wizard becomes the sole sovereign of the
enchanted landscape.
Caliban is ‘otherised’ in his own house, so to say, on his own island. He
was the primary settler of the island, much earlier than Prospero or Miranda,
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however even this right was taken from him. For Caliban, Prospero is the first
intruder who betrayed his host’s welcome and conquered with power and might.
Caliban recalls Prospero’s arrival: “When thou cam’st first, / Thou strok’st me
and madest much of me, wouldst give me / Water with berries in’t, and teach
me how / To name the bigger light, and how the less, / That burn by day and
night; and then I lov’d thee / And show’d thee all the qualities o’ th’ isle” (1.2.332337). In Caliban’s own rendition of history, it is described that it was Prospero
who arrived to the island but later decided to take full control over its beauties.
Now, it is the Wizard who holds the utmost power. Singh (2016) focuses on this
element of representing history, as such, by adding that: “It is this rendition of
history that became the battle cry for the anti-colonial movements in Africa, the
Caribbean, and Latin America – a rendition that became the staple of many
revisions and appropriations of Shakespeare's play in these regions.” The Tempest
is considered to be a multi-layered play which contributes greatly to the postcolonial theory, because it should be noted that: “While the play was written in
17th-century England, post-colonial criticism takes the play outwards towards
its complicated transactions between European and African and Caribbean
cultures in the succeeding centuries” (Singh, 2016). There exists a clear purpose
in trying to define the history of the island by observing both sides. The postcolonial approach allows for a better insight when Caliban as the character is
examined, because the readers or the spectators are able to fully understand his
own experiences. They are able to better understand the perspective of ‘the
Other.’ Post-colonialism in this case focuses on history from Caliban’s angle.
Thus, the version of ‘the savage Other’ challenges the version presented by
Prospero to Miranda. Singh (2016) explains this by stating: “In trying to view the
conditions of Caliban's servitude from his perspective, post-colonial criticism
gives legitimacy to his claims to the island, based on a reading of history that
challenges the version narrated by Prospero to his daughter.”
William Shakespeare allowed for the amplification of the seemingly
marginalised voices of ‘the Other’ in his dramatic opus. Predominantly, the Bard
presented the shifting perspective of the island from both sides, emphasising the
idea that even various things or elements should be constantly considered and
reconsidered from numerous perspectives, because it should be noted that:
“Post-colonial criticism in the West has mined this new archive of the reception
history of Shakespeare's The Tempest, questioning, once again, all normative ideas
of a ‘common humanity,’ while articulating, as Shakespeare did, the voices of the
seemingly marginal characters in Prospero’s grand designs” (Singh, 2016).
Caliban the Native in the play is ‘Caliban the Other,’ Caliban’s home was taken
from him, Prospero established his dominance and through the Wizard’s ruthless
demeanour managed to forcefully command every creature encountered.
Caliban’s cry stands for all those who were oppressed and stigmatised by the
overwhelming power of the coloniser. Perhaps Prospero and Miranda thought
that by teaching their language to Caliban they were bringing civilisation and
enlightenment to the savage, however the de-humanisation, the mechanism of
slavery applied, simply continue to assert Caliban’s position as ‘the Other.
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CONCLUSION
The most important element which is easily recognisable in Shakespearean
dramas is the Bard’s universality. The dramatic plots of Sir Thomas More, The
Merchant of Venice and The Tempest present a fertile ground for post-colonial
analyses. In post-colonial terms particularly, representation of ‘the Other’ and
‘otherness’ is of paramount importance, due to the fact that Shakespeare’s
message remains crucial for every day and age, surpassing and linguistic,
cultural and political boundaries. In Sir Thomas More, Shakespeare added a
speech which clearly presents the Bard’s opinions on the idea of the refugee issue,
and through More, the Bard of Avon attempted to make his spectators render the
deeds of mercy. Furthermore, The Bard endeavoured to show the plight of the
immigrants who had to travel abroad in order to find a better life, en route they
encounter various forms of stigmatisation. William Shakespeare managed to
switch the roles, at least hypothetically, in order to remind the people of London
that they could also experience great misfortunes should their own ruler turn on
his own subjects.
In the second chapter, this paper examined the role of Shylock in Venice.
Since Shylock is a Jew, he is the epitome of the marginalised Jewish community.
Shakespeare cleverly presented Shylock as ‘the Other’ in order to remind his
audience/readers that Shylock had to behave in a negative manner since he was
constantly undermined by the predominantly Christian society of the Venetian
state. In a sense, Shylock’s stand against Antonio, Portia and the rest formulates
a distinct ‘clash’ between the Old and the New Testament. In the final segment
of this paper, the character of Caliban was analysed. Since Caliban was the
original native of the magical island, he was subjugated by the European
colonisers, primarily Prospero the Wizard. In post-colonial re-reading of the text,
it became apparent that Prospero and Miranda applied all methods in order to
bend the ‘savage native’ to their will. Prospero trapped, threatened and used
violence against the poor creature, whereas Miranda even tried to teach him their
language, therefore assimilating Caliban further. However, this paper portrayed
Caliban as a poetic being, a creature which was able to distinguish things for
himself. The paper also reflected on Caliban’s position as ‘the Other,’ as someone
whose home had been conquered. Ariel and Caliban might be non-human
characters, however it may be presumed that they hold more humanity than
Prospero and the rest.
In analysing William Shakespeare’s dramas through the prism of postcolonial criticism, the readers were presented with an exciting dialogue
formulated between the dramatic universe and the post-colonial portrayal of the
world. The post-colonial academic field of research presents the repercussions of
imperialism/colonialism as the main by-products of the European rule and
exploitations. Hence, Shakespearean plays are the superb replicas of the worlds
and societies branded by colonialism, and moreover the Bard’s round characters
transmit the suffering and experience of every inhabitant of the East subjugated
by the European control. This paper determined the post-colonial ‘Other’ in three
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Shakespearean dramas and it examined the story of colonial systems which
exploited characters because they were perceived differently than the rest. It is
the identification of the colonised and the oppressed individuals, however this
article was also presented as the definition of the colonisers who attempt to assert
their hegemony, relaying on all techniques necessary in order to exert utter
dominance over ‘the Other.’
4. CONCLUSION
The most important element which is easily recognisable in Shakespearean
dramas is the Bard’s universality. The dramatic plots of Sir Thomas More, The
Merchant of Venice and The Tempest present a fertile ground for post-colonial
analyses. In post-colonial terms particularly, representation of ‘the Other’ and
‘otherness’ is of paramount importance, due to the fact that Shakespeare’s
message remains crucial for every day and age, surpassing and linguistic,
cultural and political boundaries. In Sir Thomas More, Shakespeare added a
speech which clearly presents the Bard’s opinions on the idea of the refugee issue,
and through More, the Bard of Avon attempted to make his spectators render the
deeds of mercy. Furthermore, The Bard endeavoured to show the plight of the
immigrants who had to travel abroad in order to find a better life, en route they
encounter various forms of stigmatisation. William Shakespeare managed to
switch the roles, at least hypothetically, in order to remind the people of London
that they could also experience great misfortunes should their own ruler turn on
his own subjects.
In the second chapter, this paper examined the role of Shylock in Venice.
Since Shylock is a Jew, he is the epitome of the marginalised Jewish community.
Shakespeare cleverly presented Shylock as ‘the Other’ in order to remind his
audience/readers that Shylock had to behave in a negative manner since he was
constantly undermined by the predominantly Christian society of the Venetian
state. In a sense, Shylock’s stand against Antonio, Portia and the rest formulates
a distinct ‘clash’ between the Old and the New Testament. In the final segment
of this paper, the character of Caliban was analysed. Since Caliban was the
original native of the magical island, he was subjugated by the European
colonisers, primarily Prospero the Wizard. In post-colonial re-reading of the text,
it became apparent that Prospero and Miranda applied all methods in order to
bend the ‘savage native’ to their will. Prospero trapped, threatened and used
violence against the poor creature, whereas Miranda even tried to teach him their
language, therefore assimilating Caliban further. However, this paper portrayed
Caliban as a poetic being, a creature which was able to distinguish things for
himself. The paper also reflected on Caliban’s position as ‘the Other,’ as someone
whose home had been conquered. Ariel and Caliban might be non-human
characters, however it may be presumed that they hold more humanity than
Prospero and the rest.
19
�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
In analysing William Shakespeare’s dramas through the prism of postcolonial criticism, the readers were presented with an exciting dialogue
formulated between the dramatic universe and the post-colonial portrayal of the
world. The post-colonial academic field of research presents the repercussions of
imperialism/colonialism as the main by-products of the European rule and
exploitations. Hence, Shakespearean plays are the superb replicas of the worlds
and societies branded by colonialism, and moreover the Bard’s round characters
transmit the suffering and experience of every inhabitant of the East subjugated
by the European control. This paper determined the post-colonial ‘Other’ in three
Shakespearean dramas and it examined the story of colonial systems which
exploited characters because they were perceived differently than the rest. It is
the identification of the colonised and the oppressed individuals, however this
article was also presented as the definition of the colonisers who attempt to assert
their hegemony, relaying on all techniques necessary in order to exert utter
dominance over ‘the Other.’
20
�The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial Re-reading of Sir Thomas More, The Merchant of
Venice and The Tempest
Damir Kahrić & Nađa Muhić
REFERENCES
Amin, S. (2009). Eurocentrism (R. Moore and J. Membre, Trans.). New York:
Monthly Review Press. (Original work published in 1988).
Bambušková, T. (2019). Law and Mercy in The Merchant of Venice and the
Present Refugee Crisis. Archive ouverte en Sciences de l’Homme et de la Société, pp.
1-14.
Bamford, N. (2018, January). The Strangers’ Case: harnessing the power of screen
entertainment to communicate between cultures. Paper presented at Cross-Cultural
Communication Conference, Barcelona.
Bianchi, Tina J. (2005). Shrews, Jews, and Public Dues: The High Price of Rhetorical
Savvy (English Master’s Thesis). Retrieved from Digital Commons @Brockport.
Bloom, H. (1998). Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human. New York: Riverhead
Books.
Bloom, H. (2008). Bloom’s Shakespeare Through the Ages: The Tempest. New York:
Infobase Publishing.
Brons, L. (2015). Othering, an Analysis. Transcience, a Journal of Global Studies, 6(1),
pp. 69-90.
Dickson, A. (2016, March, 1). The Book of Sir Thomas More: Shakespeare's only
surviving literary manuscript. Retrieved from https://www.bl.uk/collectionitems/shakespeares-handwriting-in-the-book-of-sir-thomas-more.
Frantz, F. (1963). The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove Weidenfeld: A
division of Grove Press, Inc.
Goicoechea de Jorge, M. (2016, January, 15). A Post/colonial View. Retrieved
from https://thetempestcomplutense.wordpress.com/a-postcolonial-view/.
Huang, L. (2019). On the Otherness of Shylock in The Merchant of Venice. Journal
of Literature and Art Studies, 9(7), pp. 661-668. DOI: 10.17265/21595836/2019.07.001.
Lawrence, S. (2018). Fear and the Other in Sir Thomas More. Actes des congrès de la
Société française Shakespeare, 36: 1-13. DOI: 10.4000/shakespeare.4123.
Loomba, A. (2002). Shakespeare, Race, and Colonialism. Oxford and New York:
Oxford University Press.
Munday, A. et al. (cca. 1591-1593). Sir Thomas More. Retrieved from
http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/1547/pg1547-images.html.
Mushtaq, H. (2010). Othering, Stereotyping and Hybridity in Fiction: A
Postcolonial Analysis of Conrad's Heart of Darkness (1899) and Coetzee's
Waiting For The Barbarians (1980). Journal of Language and Literature, 3: 25-30.
Nahvi, A. (2015, May, 5). Shakespeare’s Shylock, the Everlasting Character of all
Times. Chumhuriyet University Faculty of Science: Science Journal (CSJ), 36(3) Special
Issue, pp. 1291-1299.
Nowosad, K. (2017, May, 31). ‘The Merchant of Venice’ Still Relevant Today.
Retrieved from https://letsgotothetheater.com/merchant-of-venice/.
O’Neill, S. (2020). Shakespeare's Hand, or "the strangers' case": Remediating Sir
Thomas More in the context of the Refugee Crisis. Borrowers and Lenders: The
Journal of Shakespeare and Appropriation, 13(1), pp. 1-23.
21
�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020
Pettinger, T. (2014, August, 3). Biography of Thomas More. Retrieved from
https://www.biographyonline.net/spiritual/thomas-more.html.
Popa, A. (2013). Post-colonialism in Shakespearean Work. Annals of the
„Constantin Brâncuși” University of Târgu Jiu, Letter and Social Science Series, 4: 9195.
Reese, M. R. (2019, October, 17). Manichaeism: The Ancient Religion that
Rivaled Christianity. Retrieved from https://www.ancientorigins.net/history/manichaeism-one-most-popular-religions-ancient-world002658.
Said, E. W. (1979). Orientalism. New York: Random House, Inc. (Original work
published in 1978).
Shakespeare, W. (Ed. by Barbara A. Mowat and Paul Werstine). (1605). The
Merchant of Venice. Washington: Folger Shakespeare Library.
Shakespeare, W. (1998). The Tempest. St. Paul: Minnesota. (Original work
produced in 1611).
Singh, J. (2016, March, 15). Post-colonial reading of The Tempest. Retrieved from
https://www.bl.uk/shakespeare/articles/post-colonial-reading-of-the-tempest.
Stewart, P. (Ed. by Marie-Thérèse and Jones-Davies). (1981, November, 1).
Shylock, Shakespeare’s Alien (Royal Shakespeare Company). Actes des congrès de
la Société française Shakespeare, 3: 137-156. DOI: 10.4000/shakespeare. 444.
For more information on Thomas More, please consult the following: Pettinger, T. (2014, August 3).
Biography of Thomas More. Retrieved from https://www.biographyonline.net/spiritual/thomasmore.html.
i
22
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Journal of Education and Humanities
Subject
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Education and Humanities
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
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The Bard and ‘the Other’: A Post-colonial
Re-reading of Sir Thomas More,
The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest
Author
Author
Damir Kahrić, Nađa Muhić
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The purpose of this article is to shed light on the
representation of ‘the Other’ in three Shakespearean dramas: Sir
Thomas More, The Merchant of Venice and The Tempest. The article
describes several Shakespearean characters through the prism of
post-colonialism and, therefore, the paper is structured as the postcolonial re-reading of the aforementioned dramatic texts. William
Shakespeare portrayed the sad fate of immigrants in Sir Thomas
More, but the Bard also tackled the refugee issue which remains
relevant for the contemporary period. Additionally, Shakespeare
dramatized the position of the Jewish community in Venice through
the portrayal of Shylock. The re-reading of The Tempest focuses on
the process of colonisation and the Manichaean division within the
conquered world. In conclusion, the article portrays experiences of
those dramatic individuals stigmatised and subjugated by the
colonial forces, thus allowing the readers to better understand the
binary division within colonial systems.
Keywords
Keywords.
William
Shakespeare, Refugee Issue,
Stereotyping, Manichaean
World
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
2566-4638
DOI
Digital object identifier
10.14706/JEH2021321
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2ec0ac41ff0e0b71ab32b474c716b5ce.pdf
c6d7c6996b753e2359491dfe742709ae
Dublin Core
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Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering
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2637-2835
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10.14706
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International Burch University
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Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts.
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English
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FPGA-based Implementation of IIR Filter for Real-Time Noise Reduction in Signal
Author
Author
Aladin Kapić1, Rijad Sarić1, Slobodan Lubura1, 2, Dejan Jokić
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Filtering of unwanted frequencies represents the main aspect of digital signal processing (DSP) in
any modern communication system. The main role of the filter is to perform attenuation of certain frequencies
and pass only frequencies of interest. In a DSP system, sampled or discrete-time signals are processed by digital
filters using different mathematical operations. Digital filters are commonly categorized as Finite Impulse
Response (FIR) and Infinite Impulse Response (IIR). This research focuses on the full VHDL implementation
of digital second-order lowpass IIR filter for reducing the noisy frequencies on the FPGA board. The initial
step is to determine, from continuous time domain function, the transfer function in the complex {s} domain,
then map transfer function in complex {z} domain and finally calculate the difference equation in discrete-time
domain of the system with adequate coefficients. Prior to the FPGA implementation, the IIR filter is tested in
MATLAB using a signal with mixed frequencies and signal with randomly generated noise. The digital
implementation is completed by using fixed-point binary vectors and clocked processes.
Keywords
Keywords.
digital signal processing; IIR filter; digital design; FPGA; VHDL; Bode diagram
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
2637-2835
DOI
Digital object identifier
10.14706/JONSAE2021316
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c91f0c7eb4c25c44efb93b1215302dc1.pdf
11fd7f01ac78fa3f60095d139353018c
PDF Text
Text
Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019)
DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114
Quantitative estimation of cooling load capabilities of residential buildings using
machine learning
Nedret Bećirović, Ismail Bejtović, Jasmin Kevrić
International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
nedret.becirovic@stu.ibu.edu.ba
ismailbejtovic@hotmail.com
jasmin.kevric@ibu.edu.ba
Abstract – Based on previous research on energy efficiency of the buildings, particularly their cooling
load capabilities we will develop a collection of machine learning methods for detecting buildings
with best cooling load capabilities. This collection will study the influence of 8 input variables (relative
compactness, surface area, wall area, roof area, overall height, orientation, glazing area, glazing area
distribution) on one output parameter, that is cooling load of buildings. The results of this study
support the practicability of using machine-learning software to estimate building parameters as a
convenient and accurate approach, as long as the methods chosen are well suited for the type of data
in question.
Keywords – cooling load, energy efficiency, machine learning, neural network.
1.
Introduction
Considering growing electrical energy consumption in the residential sector [1] and Global Warming it is
noticeable that energy consumption for cooling will surpass energy consumption for heating in the
foreseeable future. Heating and cooling load are two very important parameters in the efficient building
design. These two parameters are closely related to the materials that the building is made of, so
construction decisions made early on have a great impact on the final result. There has been a considerable
body of research [2] on this field and on this dataset but with no focus on the cooling load itself. Various
software for simulation of energy consumption has been used over the years often in conjunction with
architectural design. Accuracy of the simulation varies often across from one software package to another
[3]. Therefore this work is envisaged as an addition to the existing software solutions.
It is often the case that building parameters are compared separately with cooling and heating load, and
simple correlation has been sought [4]. Multiple regression analysis was very popular for prediction of
energy consumption until it was proven that a simple Neural Network is much better than Multiple Linear
Regression Analysis with a large database [5].
�Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019)
DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114
For architects it is very important to single out and rank parameters that have the strongest impact since
normality assumptions do not hold for very complicated problems. For example, glazing areas will have
minimal impact on the cooling load. Surface area and overall height are parameters with strongest impact.
This work is done in hope it will help future architects, energy advisors for building smart buildings and
generally in the field of energy efficiency. Further studies could help with choosing suitable materials for
the construction.
2. Data
This study is based on UCI database made, non-gaussian dataset made by a CAD software Ecotect. Dataset
represents 12 different building forms, where each form is composed of 18 building blocks of the same
volume (3.5 x 3.5 x 3.5), and houses have also the same volume, which is 771.75 m3, but different height
and surface area. Materials used in these 18 blocks are all contemporary and with best U-values which are
well defined for walls, floors etc with variations in glazing area and orientation [2].
With twelve building forms and three glazing area variations with five glazing area distributions each, and
for four orientations, (12x3x5x4) 720 building samples. 12 building types are considered without glazing
but with four sides of orientation (4x12). In all it gives 768 different building types. [2]
Since parameters are identified which have the strongest impact a new dataset can be constructed where
some parameters can be locked in value and others can be varied.
Data-mining is the identification of the parameter which has the greatest influence of the result. Statistical
tools will be used tools but also inputs from builders, architects, masons etc. will give great value to the
study. They can also provide knowledge of feasibility of building parameters. How much a particular
building feature costs in the real world.
This is a well understood, relatively large dataset with 786 buildings each having 8 parameters. This is not
a skewed dataset, so this dataset is not treated as such, meaning that data were not sifted through. Some
light pruning, or trimming of data is an essential part of the random and best first search methods.
Data are though skewed in another way. Dataset is non-gaussian, and it is of great importance to find any
bias that may have influenced the dataset using classical statistical analysis which visually gives an outlying
parameter. There were not any parameters which should be given more or less weight in the neural network
model. Finding a dataset of real buildings or extracting data from buildings with a great cooling load was
�Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019)
DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114
also a goal for this work. Glazing area did not have much importance in this data set for finding cooling
load. New modern types of materials are changing the paradigm of the builders' philosophy and focus of
this work changed back on the study of the virtual buildings i.e. our dataset. It would be best to actively
follow the research on the field, particularly if there has been a report on a construction of the buildings
based on research using this or a similar dataset. Dataset has been normed, quantified and classified in a
very understandable and logical way by Xifara-Tsanas, (see Table 1).
Table 1. Mathematical representation of the input and output variables to facilitate the presentation of the
subsequent analysis and results.
Mathematical
Name
Number of possible values
x1
Relative compactnes
12
x2
Surface area
12
x3
Wall area
7
x4
Roof area
4
x5
Overall height
2
x6
Orientation
4
x7
Glazing area
4
x8
Glazing area distribution
6
y2
Cooling load
636
representation
3. Methods
Classical statistical tools like histograms and scatter plots are firstly applied to dataset. Seeing the data on
the graph is a great help in understanding the data. It gives the idea in which direction study has to go.
Improving a model can take two different directions: make the model simpler or add complexity. Making
a simpler model involves feature reduction, pruning branches and removing learners from an ensemble.
Adding complexity means fine-tuning involving model-combination or adding more data sources [6].
Out of many software tools, WEKA is chosen because it is easy to use and it is easily accessible. Searching
for the best computer intelligence method that is suitable for artificial dataset was the first step. Which
algorithm to use is to be based on dataset form and trial and error method. Getting a good result from the
start with a random forest method gave indication in which direction to go.
For the analysis of the available data set, five different regression algorithms were used:
�Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019)
DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114
•
Linear Regression
•
Random Forest
•
REPTree
•
SMOreg
•
Multilayer Perceptron
These algorithms are recommended for these types of datasets [7]. Regression analysis was helpful to model
the relationship between dependent variables (cooling load) and independent variables (8 attributes in our
dataset), and because a class from a data set (cooling load) has a large number of different instances. Cross
validation was used with ten folds, to get insight of how the model will behave to an unknown dataset.
All of the above algorithms are regression algorithms, with the same goal, but working in different ways.
Linear regression models are linear predictor functions whose model parameters are estimated from the
data. Linear regression models are often fitted using the least square approach, but they may be fitted in
many other ways [8].
Random forest is an ensemble method, which creates multitude of decision trees, and gives as output mean
prediction of individual trees. This algorithm applies bootstrap aggregating, or bagging, to its tree learners.
Compared to decision tree random forest tends to provide more accurate classification of a feature, because
of the decreased bias and variance. The more decision trees are chosen the more computational power is
required [9].
Reduced Error Pruning Tree (REPTree) is a fast decision tree learner, which creates multiple trees in
different iterations and selects the best one from all created trees. REPTree builds regression tree
information gain and prunes it using reduced-error pruning. For numeric attributes it sorts values only once
[10].
SMOreg uses a support vector machine for regression. RegSMOImproved for SMOreg are used to learn
parameters, but many other algorithms can be used, like Platt’s SMO [11].
Multilayer perceptron is a class of feedforward artificial neural networks. It consists of at least three layers
of nodes: an input layer, a hidden layer and an output layer. It is by far the most popular architecture because
of its structural flexibility, good representational capabilities, and the availability of a large number of
training algorithms [12].
Feature selection is a key part of the applied machine learning process, just as model selection is. Feature
selection should be considered as a part of the model selection process. If not, bias can inadvertently be
introduced into models and it results in overfitting.
�Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019)
DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114
Feature selection must be included within the inner-loop when using accuracy estimation methods such as
cross-validation. This means that feature selection is performed on the prepared fold right before the model
is trained [7].
Dataset used in this work is small both in number of features and samples and it does not suffer from the
“curse of dimensionality” [13] p.4. Feature selection and feature extraction methods are not recommended
for this type of datasets with a small number of features [13] but extracting the information about which
variables are most important, is important in this type of study. Choosing this particular approach is a type
of rudimentary data mining.
Four attribute evaluators and two search methods combinations are used:
•
CfsSubsetEval and BestFirst
•
ClassifierAttributeEval and Ranker
•
ClassifierSubsetEval and BestFirst
•
CorrelationAttributeEval and Ranker
CfsSubsetEval creates subsets of attributes, where predictive ability of each feature and level of
redundancy is considered. Features need to be highly correlated with class and low intercorrelation. Best
first search method is used with CfsSubsetEval.
ClassifierAttributeEval evaluates the worth of an attribute by using a user-specified classifier. For
example if we use linear regression on our dataset, linear regression needs to be chosen for the classifier
attribute evaluator. Ranker search method is used with classifier attribute evaluators.
Classifiersubseteval evaluates attribute subsets on training data or a separate hold out testing set. Same as
classifier attribute evaluator it uses classifier to estimate how good are subsets. Bestfirst search method is
used with ClassifierSubsetEval.
CorrelationAttributeEval evaluates the worth of an attribute by measuring the correlation between it and
the class. Each value of an attribute is treated as an indicator. Ranker method is used with
CorrelationAttributeEval.
Best-first search method searches the space of attribute subsets by greedy hill-climbing augmented with a
backtracking facility. Bestfirst may start with the empty set of attributes and search forward, or start with
the full set of attributes and search backward, or start at any point and search in both directions.
Ranker search method ranks attributes by their individual evaluations, where it is used with attribute
evaluators.
�Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019)
DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114
4. Results and Discussion
Classical statistical tools like probability distribution were used firstly in order to get the sense of the data.
Table 2 represents the attribute subset evaluator used on random forests. Random forests with Classifier
Subset Evaluator and Best First search method gave the best results for all the combinations. Best First
search method is a heuristic or informed search; it evaluates the second step before taking the first. Then it
chooses which way to go. For this combination of methods only attribute nr.2 (Surface Area), is not
considered. Since the volume of the buildings is fixed it is logical that surface area has a little variation and
therefore a little impact on the result.
Table 2. Results for combination of random forest and search methods
Random Forest
Attribute
Correlation
Mean
Root
Relative
Root Relative
Selected
Evaluator and
Coefficient
Absolute
Mean
Absolute
Squared Error
Attribute
Error
Squared
Error
1.4319
2.2692
16.6687
Search Method
CfsSubSetEval
0.9711
and BestFirst
Classifier
s
23.8241%
3, 5, 6, 7
17.1345%
1, 2, 3, 4,
%
0.9582
1.0079
1.6320
AttributeEval and
11.7324
%
5, 6, 7, 8
Ranker
Classifier
0.959
2.0323
2.6933
AttributeEval and
23.3581
28.2775%
1, 2, 4, 5
17.0046%
1, 3, 4, 5,
%
Ranker
ClassifierSubsetE
0.9854
0.9967
1.6196
val and BestFirst
CorrelationAttrib
11.6030
%
0.9852
1.0079
1.6320
uteEval and
11.7324
6, 7, 8
17.1345%
%
1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8
Ranker
CorrelationAttrib
0.9841
uteEval and
1.0859
1.6904
12.6408
17.7479%
5, 1, 3, 7
%
Ranker
Relationship between the volume of a built form and the surface area of its enclosure is called compactness.
Roundness is a similar feature.
R. Buckminster Fuller, engineer and an architect claimed that round houses have best energy efficiency,
and an attempt to extract this feature has been made, but with no results.
�Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019)
DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114
Surface area, attribute nr.2, directly shows compactness of the building and by similarity, roundness.
Classifier attribute evaluators removed this feature and gave the best correlation coefficient meaning that
compactness has no impact on cooling load.
Usage of geometric compactness for such evaluative purposes is criticized on multiple grounds. It does not
capture the specific morphology of the building shape, disregards transparent blocks of the structure and
does not correlate with orientation att. nr. 6 [14].
High correlation coefficient with all attributes included, except for surface area finally pointed that
compactness does not affect thermal load. Our model gave similar results using the same dataset as Tsanas
and Xifara [2] with slightly better correlation coefficient which is shown in Table 3 for classifier attribute
evaluator and ranker, in Table 4 for correlation attribute evaluator and ranker.
Table 3. Ranking of attributes according to attribute evaluator and ranker
ClassifierAttributeEval and Ranker
Mathematical representation
Name
Ranked
x1
Relative compactnes
6.8134
x2
Surface area
6.8134
x4
Roof area
5.5105
x5
Overall height
5.2827
x3
Wall area
2.3935
x7
Glazing area
0.1718
x8
Glazing area distribution
0.0306
Table 4. Ranking attributes according to correlation attribute evaluator and ranker
CorrelationAttributeEval and Ranker
Mathematical representation
Name
Ranked
x5
Overall height
0.8958
x1
Relative compactnes
0.6343
x3
Wall area
0.4271
x7
Glazing area
0.2075
�Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019)
DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114
x8
Glazing area distribution
0.0505
x6
Orientation
0.0143
x2
Surface area
-0.673
x4
Roof area
-0.8625
Further study is to be done with different variations of cross folds with above-mentioned algorithms. Results
would be standing stronger if another dataset to test our algorithm was available. “K-nearest neighbor”
algorithm gave poor results. It is a “data sensitive” algorithm, vulnerable when faced with large amounts
of data. Different datasets would be a great boost to this work to test methods against them.
Parameter tuning is an iterative process, and Weka makes it easy to use it, without need to understand how
parameters work. Especially, when dealing with feature selection, bias can be inadvertently introduced into
models as it can give unforeseen consequences, mostly overfitting [7] [15].
Numerical values calculated by software simulations, lies very closely to previous results. Close values as
compared to similar studies on the same dataset is a characteristic of the machine learning scientific field
and using different methods and coming to the same results is an achievement [16].
6. Conclusion
Results of the previous study were repeated [17], and further work was done with examining cooling load
resulting in slightly better correlation coefficient than in article with high scientific impact [2].
Trial and error are at the core of machine learning. Choosing right algorithms is a trade-off between speed,
accuracy, and complexity. Starting with simple combinations and then adding complexity is the core of
dealing with machine learning while constantly having in mind what type of data is dealt with.
Empirical study gives answers to what algorithm to use or what parameters to choose. Knowing beforehand
what method will work best is almost impossible. Constantly iterating different combinations of similar
methods with systematic workflow and using Weka is a way forward. New and easy accessible software
packages makes it easier to spot and exploit new research areas, which previously were inaccessible due to
low computing capability.
REFERENCES
�Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019)
DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114
[1]
Y-T. Chen, “The Factors Affecting Electricity Consumption and Sector – A Case of Taiwan”,
2017.
[2]
A. Tsanas, A. Xifara, “Accurate quantitative estimation of energy performance of residential
building using
statistical machine learning tools”, Science Direct, 2012, p 9.
[3]
A. Yezioro, “An applied artificial intelligence approach towards assessing building performance
simulation tools”,
Energy and Buildings, 2007, p 40.
[4]
T. Catalina, J. Virgone, “Cooling energy demand evaluation by means of regression models”.
Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference Enhanced Building Operations, New York City 2011,
pp 6.
[5]
D. Datta, S. A. Tassou, D. Marriot, “Application of Neural Networks for the Prediction of the
Energy Consumption”, 1997.
[6]
Mathworks, “Mastering Machine Learning: A Steb-by-Step Guide with MATLAB.” Available at:
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[7]
J. Brownlee, “Machine Learning Mastery With Weka”, Wellington: Jason Brownlee 2019.
[8]
X. Yan, X. Su, “Linear Regression Analysis: Theory and Computing”, World Scientific, 2009.
[9]
D. Natingga, “Data Science Algorithms in a Week”, 2017.
[10]
S. Kalmegh, “Analysis of WEKA Data Mining Algorithm REPTree, Simple Cart and RandomTree
for Classification of Indian News.”, IJISET- International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering and
Technology, 2015, Vol. 2 Issue 2.
[11]
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P. Thomas, M. C. Suhner, “A new Multilayer Perceptron Pruning Algorithm for Classification and
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M. S. Raza, U. Qamar, “Understanding and Using Rough Set Based Feature Selection – Concepts,
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[14]
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�
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Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts.
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Title
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Quantitative estimation of cooling load capabilities of residential buildings using
machine learning
Author
Author
Nedret Bećirović, Ismail Bejtović, Jasmin Kevrić
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Based on previous research on energy efficiency of the buildings, particularly their cooling
load capabilities we will develop a collection of machine learning methods for detecting buildings
with best cooling load capabilities. This collection will study the influence of 8 input variables (relative
compactness, surface area, wall area, roof area, overall height, orientation, glazing area, glazing area
distribution) on one output parameter, that is cooling load of buildings. The results of this study
support the practicability of using machine-learning software to estimate building parameters as a
convenient and accurate approach, as long as the methods chosen are well suited for the type of data
in question.
Keywords
Keywords.
cooling load, energy efficiency, machine learning, neural network.
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
2637-2835
DOI
Digital object identifier
10.14706/JONSAE2021315
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/27eac86735340248e4eda9d6b63e242a.pdf
dfc7fdc2237adebaad2030ec2e8f4107
PDF Text
Text
Leveraging Raspberry Pi as a server for the integration of the NETCONF protocol
within IoT systems based on YANG
Dalibor Đumić1, Slobodan Lubura2
1
2
International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
dalibor.dumic@stu.ibu.edu.ba
slobodan.lubura@ets.ues.rs.ba
Abstract – Herein the idea of leveraging Raspberry Pi as a server for the integration of an incipient
network management protocol, the Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF), within IoT
systems based on YANG is presented. The practical realization of this idea requires the
implementation of the NETCONF protocol together with REpresentational State Transfer web
services (RESTful). Such an interesting and innovative practical realization like this opens new
additional possibilities in domotics systems and these possibilities will be discussed in this paper.
Keywords – Django, domotics, Internet of Things, NETCONF, Raspberry Pi, RESTful web
services, YANG
1.
Introduction
In each home network there are always heterogeneous devices that are expected to be connected. All of
these devices are different if compared because they can be based on different hardware platforms, the
controller services can be of a different nature, and also the software components for enabling the network
access can vary [1]. For example, when we compare wearable technology based on the IoT like a
smartwatch or wristband with smart home devices such as a washing machine or air conditioner, we will
notice different capabilities in terms of memory usage, processing speed, and power consumption [2].
Because of that, the IoT devices can be generally classified based on their key characteristics:
●
communication flows in the system,
●
memory management,
●
data manipulation and processing,
●
power control and consumption.
For example, a smart coffee machine is not always powered on because it performs certain tasks when
required, but only when a user turns on it via a user interface such as a mobile application whenever the
user wants to drink a coffee or when the user is on the way to home and wants to have already prepared
coffee. These kinds of devices consume less power for communication. There are many actuators in home
automation systems that must be managed by systems connected to the Internet via network protocols [3].
�The focus of this paper is on the practical implementation of the methodology proposed in [4] and this
methodology was carried out by the empirical study of the NETCONF protocol that will be used as a
network protocol for enabling the connection of the gateway with the Internet. The gateway will perform
effective management of sensors and devices in a home network and it will be based on the RESTful
technologies.
The paper is organized into five sections. Section 1 introduces us to the IoT systems and the purpose of this
paper. In Section 2, the NETCONF protocol and its features are introduced. The proposed integration of
the NETCONF protocol in the IoT is detailed in Section 3. The results of the proposed integration of the
NETCONF protocol are noted in Section 4. The benefits of the proposed integration and the main
conclusions are discussed in Section 5.
2. The Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF) and its features
A.
NETCONF
The Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF) is a network management protocol with great features
such as installing, manipulating, and deleting the configuration of the devices in the network. Its purpose
is managing network devices, retrieving its configuration data, and uploading or manipulating new
configuration data of the network devices [5]. That means devices on the network can take different states
according to their configuration.
To switch between the device’s states, the configuration datastores are used. By definition, a configuration
datastore contains a set of information that is needed for the configuration, and thereby that configuration
is required to change the state of a device to chosen operational state from its initial default state. NETCONF
currently supports event notification features and the following multiple configuration datastores [6]:
●
"running" – this configuration is always present and it is used as the currently active configuration
●
"startup" – this configuration is used in the next startup
●
"candidate” - this configuration that can be used instead of currently running configuration through
an explicit commit.
By using NETCONF operations, it is possible to manipulate device configuration. The NETCONF
operations are invoked as Remote Procedure Calls (RPCs) from the client to the server. Some minor
operations are [6]:
●
“commit” - commits the "candidate" configuration to "running",
●
“copy-config” - copy one configuration datastore to another,
●
“edit-config” - changes the contents of a configuration database,
●
“get-config” - retrieves configuration datastore,
●
“lock” - prevent changes to a datastore from another party, and
●
“unlock” - releases lock on a datastore.
�Configuration data stored on devices and the protocol messages between devices are encoded in Extensible
Markup Language (XML) on both client and server side. Any script or application can be the client in order
to be runned as part of a network manager. The server is typically a network device. There is a rule that a
device on the network must support at least one NETCONF session. The main NETCONF message
exchange between client and server in a single NETCONF session [7] is illustrated in Figure 1. At the start,
the device and controller create a NETCONF session and share their list of their own capabilities by sending
<hello> messages. A capability describes a supported data model. After the session has started,, the
NETCONF executes exchanges <rpc> and <rpc-reply> messages. The <rpc> message consists of an
enclosed NETCONF command which is sent from the controller to the device. The <get> command in the
<rpc> message is used to get the running configuration and state information of the device (3). The <editconfig> request is used to write a specific configuration on the device (5). The <rpc-reply> message is sent
from the device to the controller in response to a <rpc> message. The response data for the given method
invoked is encoded as one or more child elements enclosed in the <rpc-reply> message.
Figure 1. NETCONF messages
The information that a client retrieves from the server consists of two parts: configuration data and state
data [6]. The purpose of the configuration data is to give a description of actions that will change a system
from its previous state into the state described in the configuration data, while the purpose of the state data
is to provide information such as read-only status data and collected statistics. For specifying NETCONF
data models and operations, the YANG data modeling language is used.
A.
YANG
To perform the NETCONF operations, a YANG module has to be defined as a hierarchy of data such as
configuration data, state data, RPCs, and notifications. By defining the YANG module, a description of all
data sent between both NETCONF client-side and server-side becomes completed. Each YANG module is
consisting of statements and some of the statements are previewed in Table 1 [8].
Table 1. YANG statements
Statements
augment
choice
Description
Extends existing data
hierarchies
Defines mutually
�container
extension
feature
grouping
key
exclusive alternatives
Defines mutually
exclusive alternatives
Allows new statements
to be added to YANG
Indicates parts of the
model are optional
Groups data definitions
into reusable sets
Defines the key leafs for
lists
Defines a leaf node in
the data hierarchy
A leaf node that can
appear multiple times
leaf
leaf-list
list
notification
rpc
typedef
uses
A hierarchy that can
appear multiple times
Defines notification
Defines input and
output parameters for
an RPC
Defines a new type
Incorporates the
contents of a
"grouping"
With the help of XML parsers and XSLT scripts, a translation of the YANG module into an equivalent
XML syntact becomes possible. Every YANG module consists of a set of built-in types and has a type
mechanism through which additional types may be defined. The modeler of the YANG module can add
constraints to the model to prevent impossible or illogical data. The purpose of these constraints is to
provide information about the data being sent from the server and help a client to understand the data that
the server will accept in order to avoid sending incorrect data from the client to the server. Table 2 briefly
describes some other common YANG constraints [9]
Table 2. YANG constraints
Statements
length
Description
Limits the length of
string
�mandatory
max-elements
min-elements
Requires the node
appear
Limits the number of
instances in list
Limits the number of
instances in list
must
XPath expression must
be true
pattern
range
reference
unique
when
Regular expression
must be satisfied
Value must appear in
range
Value must appear
elsewhere in the data
Value must be unique
within the data
Node is only present
when XPath expression
is true
Generally said, the YANG module is a single data model that contains three types of statements:
●
module-header statements – they describe the module and provide the information about the
module
●
revision statements – they provide information about the history of the module
●
definition statements – they are the body of the module where the YANG module is defined.
In order to use the YANG module, it firstly has to be defined or modeled to the specific problem domain.
After that, the YANG module can be loaded, compiled, or coded into the server. In the end, the NETCONF
server may implement any number of the YANG modules [10].
3. Proposed Methodology
After the empirical study of the NETCONF protocol and retrieving its features, an implementation of the
proposed integration was divided into two parts: server-side and client-side, as it is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Both client and server sides are communicating over the Internet [4]
A.
Server-side
To implement the proposed integration, the following requirements are defined:
�●
small physical dimensions, because it has to be hidden in home installation and not visible;
●
able to boot Linux Operating System, since the Linux OS is open-source;
●
has General Purpose Input Output (GPIO) pins for interfacing with the sensors and devices,
●
has Ethernet port and/or WiFi module, and
●
CPU based on ARM for fast computing.
A great match for the single board with the following characteristics is Raspberry Pi 3 B+, which is based
on a 1.4GHz 64-bit quad-core ARM Cortex-A53 processor. The good thing about Raspberry Pi is that it
has the GPIO module which can be used through several programming languages such as C, C#, Python,
Java, etc. The fact is that the integration will be implemented by using Python programming language and
it makes Raspberry Pi a perfect match [11]. A server would be connected via appropriate connection lines
to these rooms as it is shown in the Figure 3.
Figure 3. Raspberry Pi as server connected to sensors and devices in each room via GPIO line [4]
In order to build a server, the Netopeer2, a set of tools implementing network configuration based on the
NETCONF protocol, is installed [12][13]. Each room in a home has sensors and relays for controlling
devices. For each room, a custom YANG module is created, and each custom YANG module manipulates
with data such as temperature, humidity, open or closed status, turned off or turned on status, etc. Thanks
to custom YANG modules, the server can easily manage the information related to the sensors and relays
in the home. The structure of the simplest custom YANG module for a room is shown in the section
“Appendix”.
�B.
Client-side
On the client-side, any device which supports the NETCONF protocol can communicate with the server.
However, the challenge is to develop an application by means of RESTful services. It should send the RPC
commands such as “edit-config” or “get-config” directly to the NETCONF server in order to retrieve
information about rooms in the user’s home. Finally, its interface must be user-friendly and rich with data
charts, data graphs, toggle buttons, etc.
The very first step is to develop a script that shall “talk” with the NETCONF server. Thanks to the enormous
possibilities of the Python programming language, it is possible to communicate with the server via the
NETCONF protocol by using ncclient library. The ncclient library enables an easy way of the client-side
scripting around the NETCONF protocol, and as well as the possibility of the application development [14].
The next step was to develop a web application and merge it with the script based on ncclient library. There
are many high-level Python web frameworks and one of them is Django. Django is specific because it
encourages rapid development and clean, pragmatic design [15]. By combining Django and ncclient, a
powerful user-friendly web application is created, and it will fulfill its main purpose – to collect all
information about the conditions such as temperature and humidity in the rooms of the user’s home and to
control devices in the rooms of the user’s home, all of it over the NETCONF protocol.
4. Results
On the client-side we have an application based on both front-end and back-end development in the Django
framework and merging its back-end with the ncclient module for interfacing with the server as shown in
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Developed client application
�On the server-side we have Raspberry Pi computer booting Linux OS which runs Netopeer2 and sysrepo
modules for enabling the NETCONF protocol and interfacing the data through YANG modules. The
Raspberry Pi is connected to several sensors and actuators, as shown in the Figure 5:
Figure 5. Raspberry Pi running as the NETCONF server
The URL of the recorded video of the methodology proposed in this paper can be found below in the
reference section [16]. A clip from the recorded video is shown in Figure 6 and it can be seen that two
processes are running parallely: sysrepo and netopeer2.
Figure 6. Testing the proposed methodology
An overview of both client and server sides is shown in Figure 7.
�Figure 7. Used technologies on both client and server sides
The complete overview of the proposed integration is shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8. Overview of the complete integrated system
4. Conclusion
Through the empirical study of the NETCONF protocol, great capabilities of the NETCONF protocol are
discovered. The NETCONF protocol allows us to have an unlimited number of YANG modules with
different structures of the data. This characteristic of the NETCONF protocol is of crucial importance for
using it in the home automation system and similar systems. The proposed integration is not a challenge
anymore. Thanks to the powerful Python Web framework and ncclient Python library, it is possible to
develop a rich web application that can be outperformed on many devices such as single board computers,
desktop computers, notebooks, and even tablets.
APPENDIX
Implemented module for a room in the YANG language:
module room1 {
namespace "urn:sysrepo:room1";
prefix r1;
description "The room yang module.";
revision 2019-09-14 {
description "Initial revision.";
}
container room-data {
description "Room 1 info.";
leaf temperature {
�description "Actual temperature inside the room.";
type uint8 {
range "0..125";
}
}
leaf humidity {
description "Actual humidity inside the room.";
type uint8 {
range "0..100";
}
}
leaf ac-status {
description "Informs whether the AC is switched on or off.";
type boolean;
}
}
}
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Many thanks to the experts from the RT-RK Institute for Computer Based Systems in Banja Luka who
contributed and influenced so much to the development of this research from the early stages of the project.
REFERENCES
[1]
M. Tooba, A. Muhammad and A. M. Martinez-Enriquez, "Smart Solution for Heterogeneous
Device Interoperability in IoT," 2018 Seventeenth Mexican International Conference on Artificial
Intelligence (MICAI), Guadalajara, Mexico, 2018, pp. 70-75,
[2]
Van den Abeele, F., Hoebeke, J., Moerman, I., & Demeester, P. (2015). Integration of
Heterogeneous Devices and Communication Models via the Cloud in the Constrained Internet of
Things. International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks.
[3]
Vijay S., Banga M.K. (2018) Management of IoT Devices in Home Network via Intelligent Home
Gateway Using NETCONF. In: Kumar N., Thakre A. (eds) Ubiquitous Communications and Network
Computing. UBICNET 2017. Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and
Telecommunications Engineering, vol 218. Springer, Cham
[4]
D. Đumić, S. Došlić, M. Antić, B. Milić, “Integration of the NETCONF Protocol in the Internet
of Things by means of RESTful Web Services”, 6th International Conference on Electrical, Electronic and
Computing Engineering IcETRAN, pp. 983 - 987, ETRAN Society, June 2019
[5]
R. Enns, M. Brojklund, J. Schoenwaelder and A. Bierman, “Network Configuration Protocol
(NETCONF)”, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), ISSN: 2070-1721, June 2011. [Online]. Available:
https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6241
[6]
H. Ji, B. Zhang, G. Li, X. Gao and Y. Li, "Challenges to the New Network Management Protocol:
NETCONF," 2009 First International Workshop on Education Technology and Computer Science, Wuhan,
Hubei, 2009, pp. 832-836, doi: 10.1109/ETCS.2009.189.
�[7]
M. Dallaglio, N. Sambo, F. Cugini and P. Castoldi, "Management of sliceable transponder with
NETCONF and YANG," 2016 International Conference on Optical Network Design and Modeling
(ONDM), Cartagena, 2016, pp. 1-6
[8]
M. Dallaglio, N. Sambo, F. Cugini, P. Castoldi, “Management of sliceable transponder with
NETCONF and YANG”, International Conference on Optical Network Design and Modeling, pp. 1 – 6,
IEEE, May 2016
[9]
P. Shafer, “An Architecture for Network Management using NETCONF and YANG”, Internet
Engineering
Task
Force
(IETF),
ISSN:
2070-1721,
June
2011,
[Online].
Available:
https://tools.ietf.org/id/draft-ietf-netmod-arch-07.html
[10]
M. Brojklund, “YANG – A Data Modeling Language for the Network Configuration Protocol
(NETCONF)”, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), ISSN: 2070-1721, October 2010. [Online].
Available: https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6020
[11]
The Raspberry Pi Foundation. “Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+”, [Online], Available:
https://www.raspberrypi.org/products/raspberry-pi-3-model-b-plus/
[12]
Czech Educational and Research Network (CESNET), “Netopeer2 – The NETCONF Toolset”,
[Online], Available: https://github.com/CESNET/Netopeer2
[13]
sysrepo
-
YANG-based
datastore for
Unix/Linux application,
[Online],
Available:
http://www.sysrepo.org/static/doc/html/start_page.html
[14]
S. Bhushan, L. Poulopouls, Python library for NETCONF clients, [Online], Available:
http://ncclient.readthedocs.org/
[15]
Django Software Foundation, [Online], Available: https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/3.0/
[16]
NETCONF Protocol + Raspberry Pi + Django = Home Automation || Yugoscientiz © 2019,
[Online], Available: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZoiYGt2NbCA
�
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Title
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Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
2637-2835
DOI
Digital object identifier
10.14706
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
International Burch University
Description
An account of the resource
Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts.
Language
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English
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Leveraging Raspberry Pi as a server for the integration of the NETCONF protocol
within IoT systems based on YANG
Author
Author
Dalibor Đumić1, Slobodan Lubura
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Herein the idea of leveraging Raspberry Pi as a server for the integration of an incipient
network management protocol, the Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF), within IoT
systems based on YANG is presented. The practical realization of this idea requires the
implementation of the NETCONF protocol together with REpresentational State Transfer web
services (RESTful). Such an interesting and innovative practical realization like this opens new
additional possibilities in domotics systems and these possibilities will be discussed in this paper.
Keywords
Keywords.
Django, domotics, Internet of Things, NETCONF, Raspberry Pi, RESTful web
services, YANG
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
2637-2835
DOI
Digital object identifier
10.14706/JONSAE2021314
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/277ccb2bcc1a93885c5603d23beeeaa1.pdf
713fcc8ab28178f5189f971fd2845cb6
PDF Text
Text
Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020)
DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123
Student Attendance Pattern Detection and Prediction
Ibrahim Muzaferija1, Zerina Mašetić2, Samed Jukić3, Dino Kečo4
1
International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
ibrahim.muzaferija@stu.ibu.edu.ba
zerina.masetic@ibu.edu.ba
samed.jukic@ibu.edu.ba
dino.keco@ibu.edu.ba
Abstract – Since the early beginnings of education systems, attendance has always played a crucial
role in student success, as well as in the overall interest of the matter. The most productive way of
increasing the student attendance rate is to understand why it decreases, try to predict when it is
going to happen, and act on causing factors in order to prevent it. Many benefits of predicted and
increased attendance rate can be achieved, including better lecture organization (i.e. lecture time and
duration, lecture class choice, etc). This paper describes the steps in the extraction of knowledge from
the university's student database and making a model that predicts whether the student will attend
the class or not. Results show that the attendance patterns are best reflected when employing a
decision tree algorithm, a C4.5 model that is interpretable and able to predict the attendance with
0.81 AUC performance measure.
Keywords - Data Mining, Educational Data Mining, Machine Learning
1.
Introduction
Data mining (DM) is an approach to discover useful information in data. It uses statistical and machine
learning (ML) techniques to operate on large volumes of data to discover hidden patterns and relationships
that describe the behaviors of systems that produced the data. Relationships and patterns discovered provide
helpful insight into decision making, as well as making predictions, thus solving numerous problems.
In recent years, there has been an increase in the use of ML techniques in many fields, such as education,
economics, business, statistics, medicine, and sport. The main objective of this paper is to apply ML
techniques in the educational field to analyze student behaviors and to predict whether the student will
attend the class.
Traditionally, educational institutions are collecting large volumes of data related to students, classes,
faculty members, and educational processes. However, collected data is often not analyzed enough to
provide significant results. In general, collected data is used for producing simple reports that are not highly
significant in contributing to the decision making process in the institutions.
�Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020)
DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123
Currently, educational systems aim to enhance the teaching and learning process by carefully analyzing
collected data, and discovering patterns related to student behavior and their final outcome. Reasons are to
identify which students will perform well, so that they can be awarded scholarships and more importantly,
to identify the students who may fail so that some form of help and assistance may be offered to them.
Besides identifying students by their performance, it's also important to discover which aspects of teaching
and learning systems facilitate student learning and success. One of the aspects that are closely related to
student performance is student attendance, meaning that students who have a higher attendance rate also
have a higher success rate in the end [1].
The paper is structured in seven sections: 1. Introduction section; 2. The previous work section describes
the previous efforts for the topic; 3. The methods and materials section describes data cleaning and
processing steps; 4. The model creation section describes model selection and creation methodology; 5.
The results section provides model results and evaluation; 6. In the discussion section, a comparison
between this study and previous studies is made; 7. The conclusion section provides recommendations for
future work in the area of educational data mining.
2.
Previous Work
Gurmeet Kaur and Williamjit Singh [2] applied machine learning methods from the WEKA tool in order
to predict students' performance from the College of Science and Technology – Khan Younis. Thir work
was concluded with two classification algorithms, Naive Bayes and J48, which provided an accuracy of
63.59% and 63,53% respectively.
C. Anuradha and T. Velmurugan [3] conducted a comparative analysis of the evaluation of classification
algorithms in the prediction of students' performance. The dataset was obtained from the college database,
containing 19 attributes that describe the student, his family, and the living environment, as well as previous
performances. Their goal was to compare algorithms in predicting students’ performance in end semester
examinations. The results show that Bayesian classifiers, as well as JRip and J48, had the highest accuracy
which is very close to 70%.
Abeer Badr El-Din Ahmed and Ibrahim Sayed Elaraby [4] describe the importance of Educational Data
Mining (EDM) and Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) in achieving the main goal of higher
education institutions, that is, providing quality education to students. They used classification algorithms
to identify those students who needed special attention in order to reduce the failing ratio and taking
appropriate action at the right time, resulting in a decrease of the falling ratio by more than 15%.
Anal Acharya and Devadatta Sinha [5] used a dataset that contains a huge number of features that describe
a student, by applying feature selection algorithms like Correlation-Based Feature Selection (CBFS) and
Information Gain Attribute Evaluation (IGATE), they reduced the number of features and performed cross
�Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020)
DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123
modeling with five machine learning algorithms: Decision Trees (DT), Bayesian Networks (BN), Artificial
Neural Networks (ANN), Support Vector Machines (SVM) and Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP). Features
related to gender, university, time, and family are the ones having the highest information gain, as well as
the models created using decision tree algorithms, provide 10-15% more reliable performance in
comparison to other classification algorithms.
The study conducted by Havan Agrawal and Harshil Mavani [6] confirms that past performances have
indeed got a significant influence over current performances. Further, they used neural network algorithms
and confirmed that the accuracy of the algorithms is proportional to dataset size, meaning that with the
increase of dataset size, the algorithms generalize the problem better.
In this paper, we’ll address the problem with a selection of best-performing machine learning algorithms
for EDA, as proposed by Anal Acharya and Devadatta Sinha [5] and Gurmeet Kaur and Williamjit Singh
[2], such as Logistic Regression, Decision Tree, Rule-based, k-NN, etc. Moreover, an increased number of
data samples is obtained in order to improve the algorithms generalizing ability, in contrast to the number
of data samples used in the previous study conducted by Gurmeet Kaur and Williamjit Singh [2].
3.
Methods and Materials
The research is based on CRISP-DM [7] methodology as it describes common approaches used by data
mining experts, while the paper contains a simplified version of the processing model shown below.
Figure 1. Data processing workflow
A. Data selection
Initial data was obtained from International Burch University’s Student Academic System [8] and contains
2nd-year student attendance data from the years 2016/2017 and 2017/2018. Although the dataset doesn't
contain all the details about the students and their classes (such as day of the week in which the class was
held, exact start and end time of classes, professor ID, etc.), it’s enough to extract the patterns of student
attendance behavior and create a model that predicts it.
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The data was obtained as an SQL file, and after importing the file to the local database, RapidMiner [9]
was used to fetch the tables and store them in CSV format. Every further operation is done using the
RapidMiner, as it has the Weka [10] extension.
The following table displays whether or not an attribute of the original dataset was copied over to the data
mining dataset. All the selected attributes were considered relevant to the task of predicting student
attendance to classes.
Table 1. Initial dataset attribute selection
Table
Attribute
Accepted
Notes
student_id
x
No need for additional IDs
student_number
x
No need for additional IDs
student_id
✓
Student ID
course_code
✓
Course ID
branch
x
Same values in other tables
year
x
Same values in other tables
semester
x
Same values in other tables
student_id
✓
Student ID
attendance_id
✓
Class attendance ID
attendance_id
✓
Class attendance ID
course_code
✓
Course ID
branch
✓
Branch
year
✓
Year
semester
✓
Semester number
course_date
✓
Starting date of the week in which class
was held
type
✓
Type of the class
students
student_courses
student_attendance
course_attendance
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topic
x
Not relevant / High cardinality
duration
✓
Duration of the class
B. Data Cleansing
In order to get an insight into data quality, graphical and statistical methods were used to detect anomalies,
faults, outliers, missing values, etc. First, the dataset was divided into four parts: 1st semester of 2016, 2nd
semester of 2016, 1st semester of 2017, and 2nd semester of 2017.
After examination, data related to both semesters of the year 2016 contained no anomalies and were
consistent, thus were labeled as clean data. Furthermore, 2nd semester of the year 2017 contained
incomplete data due to university system failure (class attendance from the last 2 weeks is missing), and
1st-semester data were not consistent (having a huge number of recorded attendances in the 14th week and
almost none in 15th week).
The dataset contained automatic attendance values that were irrelevant for creating a model and those
samples were removed. Some attendance samples recorded before and after the semester were marked as
outliers. Samples related to midterm and final exams showed the decrease of recorded attendances due to
the nature of exam weeks, as instead of multiple lectures in those weeks, only one was held - the exam.
Those samples were not relevant in predicting the lecture attendance and were discarded.
C. Deriving Data
From the course_date attribute, containing the date of the week in which the class was held, week attribute
was derived, containing week number in the semester.
The attribute attended is added to the table student_attendances and contains the value 1, which reflects that
the student attended the class. Later when joining tables, this attribute will have missing values which
indicate that students didn't attend the class.
The dataset contains only the records of students that attended the class and no records of students that
didn't attend. In order to populate the attribute attended with reflection did the student attend the class,
joining the tables is necessary.
First, by performing an inner join of student_courses and course_attendance tables, matching course_code
from one table with course_code from another, a new table is created containing a matched list of students
per course attendance IDs.
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Next, by performing a left join of the previously created table and student_attendance table, matching both
attendance_id and student_id from one table with attendance_id and student_id from another table, a new
table is created containing attendance values where the student attended the class and missing values where
the student was absent. Finally, missing values were replaced with 0, indicating that the student was absent.
D. Dataset Creation
During the data preparation phase, attributes considered most relevant were selected to shape the model's
prediction capabilities. Then, using the RapidMiner tool, all data was cleaned and exported as a CSV dataset
that will be used in training and testing the model. The final dataset contains about 58,000 attendance
samples from the 2nd semester of the year 2016, and the following table displays qualitative and
quantitative aspects of all the attributes present on the final dataset. The goal attribute (or prediction class)
is “attended” which indicates did the student attend the class (marked as 1) or not (marked as 0).
Table 2 - Final dataset attribute description
Attribute
Data type
Range
Missing
values
Distinct
values
Unique
values
Statistics
id
integer
[1,58019]
0
58019
58019
—
attended
integer
0,1
0
2
0
Least: 1 (21327)
Most: 0 (36692)
course_code
nominal
MAN 201,
(...)
0
85
0
Least:
IRES 305 (5)
Most:
MAN 201 (6784)
branch
nominal
A,B,C,D,E,
F
0
6
0
Least: D (1628)
Most: A (37368)
type
nominal
Recitation,
lecture, lab
0
3
0
Least: recitation (1954)
Most: lecture (46511)
duration
integer
[1,4]
0
4
0
Min: 1
Max: 4
Average: 1.684
week
integer
[1,15]
0
15
0
Min: 1
Max: 15
Average: 7.861
4.
Model Creation
This machine learning problem belongs to the classification types [11]. In order to reach the business goal,
the complete understanding of data is required to generate the model. Currently, there are several modeling
algorithms for classification types of problems, and they are shown in the table below.
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In order to correctly create, evaluate and validate the model, one of the key steps is the separation of the
data into training, testing, and validation.
Table 3. Machine Learning algorithms
Type
Name
Functions
Logistic Regression
ID3 (Decision Tree)
C4.5 (J48)
Trees
Random Forest
One-Rule
Rules
PRISM
Memory-Based
k-NN
The most convenient method for training and testing separation is called Cross-Validation [12], as it splits
the data into folds, and crosses the results of training and testing with different folds. The cross-validation
is conducted using five folds of training data. Validation data will not be used in cross-validation in order
to provide reliable testing results at the end.
5.
Results
All the decision tree algorithms had the minimal gain set to “0.01” in order to prevent premature pruning
of the tree branches, and pruning confidence threshold to “0.25”. Other model settings have been kept on
the default values because they are preselected for optimal model performance. After applying manifold
training and testing methods known as cross-validation [13], building the models with different algorithms
yielded promising results, as shown using the metrics such as accuracy, the area under the curve (AUC),
precision, recall, fallout, and f-measure [14]. Moreover, models have been evaluated with validation data
holdout and the results match with the cross-validation testing results presented below.
Table 4. Evaluations of created models
Algorithm
Accuracy
AUC
Precision
Recall
Fallout
F-Measure
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Logistic Regression
75.37%
0.803
71.09%
55.63%
13.16%
62.41%
ID3
68.38%
0.697
56.20%
63.31%
28.68%
59.54%
C4.5
77.41%
0.812
73.04%
61.12%
13.12%
66.55%
Random Forest
66.48%
0.700
56.41%
38.73%
17.39%
45.92%
One-Rule
74.60%
0.500
69.25%
55.65%
14.39%
61.69%
PRISM
64.15%
0.500
71.90%
4.07%
0.93%
7.70%
K-NN
70.42%
0.672
58.13%
69.86%
29.25%
63.45%
The machine learning algorithm that creates the most accurate model is a decision tree algorithm known as
C4.5. The reason is the enhanced method of tree pruning that reduces misclassification errors due to noise
and too many details in the training data set, as described in the study conducted by Anuja Priyam et al
[15]. The accuracy of the model is fairly satisfying, taking into consideration that previous works provided
an accuracy of less than 70%. As opposed to previously mentioned studies, our data set contains more
examples thus produces a more accurate prediction model. This process allows the extraction of relevant
information from the model and helps draw the lines of action for this business problem.
Table 5. Confusion matrix for C4.5 model
true 0
true 1
class precision
predicted 0
31878
8291
79.36%
predicted 1
4814
13036
73.03%
class recall
86.88%
61.12%
In regards to interpretability, the decision tree generated by the C4.5 algorithm is easy to interpret as the
size of the tree generated is 357 and the number of leaves is 230. The most important attribute on the dataset,
as taken from the model, is the course code.
Furthermore, it's wrong to assume that one student attending classes has the same cost, from a business
perspective, as one that never goes to class. That means that students that attend classes are beneficial and
students that miss classes have a cost. With that in mind, the model needs to help in finding the solutions
that decrease the overall cost. There are four possibilities:
1. We predicted the student would attend class and he did;
2. We predicted the student would not attend class and he did not;
3. We predicted the student would attend class, but he did not;
4. We predicted the student would not attend class, but he did.
�Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020)
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Point 1 is the best scenario, so it needs to have a negative cost (to be a benefit). Point 2 is the worst case,
so it needs to have the highest cost. Point 3 is also negative, but not as negative as the previous one. Point
4 is positive, but not as good as the first point. With that information, it is possible to build a cost matrix
for the class “Attended”:
Table 6. Cost matrix for the model
Actual
T
F
T
-15
15
F
-5
5
Prediction
Building the cost-matrix doesn’t affect the model’s performance but aids in the final outcome of prediction
by introducing the business bias and targeting to increase the business value.
6.
Discussion
The possible issue with the study conducted by Gurmeet Kaur and Williamjit Singh [2] is the small number
of instances (as low as 52) contained in the dataset and used to build the model. In order to make a model
more accurate and more prone to generalization, Havan Agrawal and Harshil Mavani [6] propose using a
higher number of instances, which made the model described in this paper more accurate. Moreover, crossvalidation, as one of the extra steps that are taken in model construction, increased the model’s overall
ability to generalize and provide higher accuracy than models in previous studies.
While conducting the research, it was noticed that the quantity and quality of data plays a crucial role in
the final outcome and performance. We highly devise to use a high number of instances in future studies,
and continuum stream of attendance data in deployed models to continuously train the model as the trends
responsible for student attendance dynamic behavior progresses over time.
The feature engineering task in the data preparation step has yielded significant model improvement as
compared to the models from previous studies that are built without deriving new attributes. Moreover, the
induction of external data has also improved the performance of the model as outliers were removed.
7.
Conclusion
This study has shown that patterns for student attendance exist and can predict whether the student will
attend the class. The importance of student data quantity and quality is presented, as well as the methods
for cleaning and transforming the data. The creation of a machine learning model should include cross-
�Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020)
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validation as one of the key steps, and we devise using multiple algorithms for achieving the best results.
When there is a business value to achieve, it’s recommended to use a cost-matrix to further adjust the model
and increase the business value. The model for predicting student attendance can be used to improve in the
area of causing factors and increase the attendance ratio, which will subsequently increase the passing ratio,
i.e., the number of students that graduate. Future works can include an increase in data set examples, as
well as dimensionality increase by adding attributes for external factors of students’ attendance, such as a
professor who held the lecture and weather information of the day.
REFERENCES
[1]
A. S. N. Kim, S. Shakory, A. Arman, C. Popovic, and L. Park, “Understanding the impact of
attendance and participation on academic achievement,” 2019. [Online]. Available:
https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000151. [Accessed: 14-Feb-2020].
[2]
“Prediction Of Student Performance Using Weka Tool,” Vidya Publications. [Online].
Available: http://ijoes.vidyapublications.com/paper/Vol17/02-Vol17.pdf. [Accessed: 26-Nov-2018].
[3]
“A Comparative Analysis on the Evaluation of Classification Algorithms in the Prediction of
Students Performance.” [Online]. Available:
http://www.indjst.org/index.php/indjst/article/view/74555/58051. [Accessed: 26-Nov-2018].
[4]
A. B. El-Din Ahmed and Ibrahim Sayed Elaraby, “Data Mining: A prediction for Student’s
Performance Using Classification Method,” HR PUB. [Online]. Available:
http://www.hrpub.org/download/20140105/WJCAT3-13701793.pdf. [Accessed: 26-Nov-2018].
[5]
“Early Prediction of Students Performance using Machine Learning Techniques,” Semantics
Scholar. [Online]. Available:
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6447/4a9172a97cdf5d39c6fdcc21fc0c61fc7df3.pdf. [Accessed: 26-Nov2018].
[6]
“Student Performance Prediction using Machine Learning.” [Online]. Available:
http://www.ece.uvic.ca/~rexlei86/SPP/otherswork/V4I3-IJERTV4IS030127.pdf. [Accessed: 26-Nov2018].
[7]
“IBM Knowledge Center.” [Online]. Available:
https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/en/SS3RA7_15.0.0/com.ibm.spss.crispdm.help/crisp_ove
rview.htm. [Accessed: 19-Dec-2018].
[8]
International Burch University, “Home,” International Burch University. [Online]. Available:
https://www.ibu.edu.ba/. [Accessed: 19-Dec-2018].
[9]
“Lightning Fast Data Science Platform for Teams | RapidMiner©,” RapidMiner, 19-Jan-2016.
[Online]. Available: https://rapidminer.com/. [Accessed: 19-Dec-2018].
[10]
“Weka 3 - Data Mining with Open Source Machine Learning Software in Java.” [Online].
Available: https://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/ml/weka/. [Accessed: 19-Dec-2018].
[11]
“[No title].” [Online]. Available: https://www.cs.princeton.edu/~schapire/talks/picasso-
minicourse.pdf. [Accessed: 10-Nov-2019].
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[12]
“[No title].” [Online]. Available: https://www.cs.princeton.edu/~schapire/talks/picasso-
minicourse.pdf. [Accessed: 10-Nov-2019].
[13]
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[Online]. Available: https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/cross_validation.html. [Accessed: 10-Nov2019].
[14]
L. Egghe, “The measures precision, recall, fallout and miss as a function of the number of
retrieved documents and their mutual interrelations,” Inf. Process. Manag., vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 856–876,
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[15]
“Comparative Analysis of Decision Tree Classification Algorithms” [Online]. Available:
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�
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Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering
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2637-2835
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10.14706
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International Burch University
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Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts.
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Title
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Student Attendance Pattern Detection and Prediction
Author
Author
Ibrahim Muzaferija1, Zerina Mašetić2, Samed Jukić3, Dino Kečo4
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Since the early beginnings of education systems, attendance has always played a crucial
role in student success, as well as in the overall interest of the matter. The most productive way of
increasing the student attendance rate is to understand why it decreases, try to predict when it is
going to happen, and act on causing factors in order to prevent it. Many benefits of predicted and
increased attendance rate can be achieved, including better lecture organization (i.e. lecture time and
duration, lecture class choice, etc). This paper describes the steps in the extraction of knowledge from
the university's student database and making a model that predicts whether the student will attend
the class or not. Results show that the attendance patterns are best reflected when employing a
decision tree algorithm, a C4.5 model that is interpretable and able to predict the attendance with
0.81 AUC performance measure
Keywords
Keywords.
Data Mining, Educational Data Mining, Machine Learning
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
2637-2835
DOI
Digital object identifier
10.14706/JONSAE2021313