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3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
Biodiversity for sustinable agriculture: Common bean genetic diversity
Nemli Seda , Tanyolac M.Bahattin
Department of Bioengineering, Ege University Izmir, Turkey
E-mail: eryilmazseda@hotmail.com
Abstract
The immense genetic diversity of genotypes of crops is the most directly useful
and economically valuable part of biodiversity. Genetic diversity is a key factor
enabling adaptation, and therefore survival, of natural populations in changing
environments. And also genetic diversity is essential tool for any breeding
program. Leguminous plants, after cereals, include the most economically
important species of agricultural interest, considering area cultivated and total
production. Among the grain legumes,soybean, peanuts and common beans are
the most important commercial crops. Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and
its related species are important protein sources for the world population. In 2006,
the bean industry was valued at $1.2 billion and $180 million in USA and Canada,
respectively. The average yield of bean varieties cropped in developing countries
is still very low. The analysis of genetic diversity and relationships among
different individuals, species, or populations is an important topic in genetics and
plant breeding. Since morphological charactersin plants effect from environmental
condition, DNA markers provide the most precise tool for measuring genetic
relationships, because they are potentially unlimited in number Among the DNA
techniques, Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) is intense and
provides a powerful tool for genotype identification, phylogeny The AFLP
technique is based on the amplification of short restriction endonuclease digested
genomic DNA fragments onto which adaptors have been ligated at both ends.For
this purpose common bean genomes were analyzed using AFLP fingerprinting to
examine the genetic variation within and among genotypes.. A total of 86
common bean accessions collected from different countries were used in this
study. For the AFLP analysis,12 primer combination were used. Acrylamide gels
from primer combination were scored according to presence (1) or absence (0) of
amplified fragments.The molecular data were analyzed using the NTSYs
program. A dendrogram was generated using JMP software (version 3.1, SAS
Institute, 1995) based on the UPGMA (unweighted pair-group method of
arithmetic average). The eightysix genotypes represented seven different clusters
as revealed by AFLP primers. The minimum variation was detected between
sample 20, Turkey and sample 24, Turkey (GD = 0.09), and the maximum was
found between samples 34 and 28 (GD = 0.80).
Keywords: Biodiversity, Common bean, AFLP
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1.INTRODUCTION
Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is an important economic food legume and is
widely grown in North, Middle and South America, Eastern Africa, Europe and
China. The bean seed is rich in protein, fiber, carbohydrates, minerals and
vitamins. Beans provide a good source of protein for rural and urban poor in many
developing countries. (Pachico,1989) Common bean originated and was
domesticated in the New World and has two major gene pools, The Andean and
The Mesoamerican, based on their centers of origin in South and Central America,
respectively. (gebts and debouck 1991). Common bean is a diploid (2n=22)
legume with a relatively small genome. A few species show an aneuploid
reduction to 20 chromosomes. The genome of common bean is one of the smallest
in the legume family at 625 Mbp per haploid genome.
DNA markers provide the most precise tool for measuring genetic relationships,
because they are potentially unlimited in number and are not affected by the
environment (Maciel et al., 2003). During the last two decades, DNA-based
molecular markers have been extensively used for a variety of purposes in many
animal and plant systems. Among the DNA techniques, amplified fragment length
polymorphism (AFLP) is robust and provides a powerful tool for studies of
genetic variation, genotype identification, phylogeny (Kafkas 2006), and
molecular linkage mapping (Hurtado and Ramstedt 2002). The AFLP analysis
provides a higher level of polymorphism than random amplified polymorphism
DNA (RAPD) or restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) (Pejic et al.,
1998).Amplified fragment length polymorphisms are based on selective and
semiquantitative PCR amplification of restriction fragments digested from total
genomic DNA. Fragments generated by digestion of DNA with a combination of
two restriction endonucleases are linked to suitable adapters and, thereafter, linked
DNA fragments are amplified selectively with different primer combinations (Vos
et al., 1995). The RFLPs (Becerra-Vela´ squez and Gepts, 1994; Duarte et al.,
1999; Metais et al., 2000; Maciel et al., 2001), RAPDs (Haley et al., 1994;
Nienhuis et al., 1995; Moura-Duarte et al., 1999; Beebe et al. 2000; Metais et al.,
2000), inter simple sequence repeats (ISSRs) (Rosales-Serna et al., 2003), and
more recently, AFLPs (Tohme et al., 1996; Caicedo et al., 1999; Maciel et al.,
2003; Pallottiniet al., 2004) have been successfully used for the description of
diversity in common bean.
In the present paper, AFLP analysis was used to investigate genetic variability at
the DNA level in 86 common bean collected from different countries.
2.MATERIAL-METOD
A total of 86 common bean accessions were used in this study (Table 1),
including 45 Turkey accessions, 5 Netherlands accessions, 4 Germany
accessions,, 3 China accessions, 17 England accessions,11 USA accessions, 1
Bulgaria accessions.
Table 1: A list of 86 P. vulgaris accessions used in AFLP analysis
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Genotip Number
Genotip Number
Location
1
Turkey
20
Turkey
2
Netherlands
21
Turkey
3
Germany
22
Turkey
4
Germany
23
Turkey
5
Germany
24
Turkey
6
Turkey
25
Turkey
7
Netherlands
26
Turkey
8
Netherlands
27
Turkey
9
Netherlands
28
USA
10
Turkey
29
USA
11
Turkey
30
USA
12
Turkey
31
England
13
China
32
England
14
China
33
England
15
Turkey
34
England
16
Turkey
35
England
17
Turkey
36
England
18
Turkey
37
England
19
Turkey
38
England
39
England
63
Turkey
40
England
64
Turkey
41
England
65
USA
42
Turkey
66
England
43
Turkey
67
Turkey
44
Turkey
68
Turkey
45
Turkey
69
Turkey
46
Turkey
70
Turkey
47
Turkey
71
Turkey
48
Turkey
72
Turkey
49
Netherlands
73
India
50
USA
74
USA
51
USA
75
England
52
USA
76
England
53
Turkey
77
England
54
Turkey
78
England
24
Location
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Sarajevo
55
Turkey
79
England
56
Turkey
80
Turkey
57
Bulgaria
81
Turkey
58
Turkey
82
USA
59
Turkey
83
USA
60
China
84
USA
61
Turkey
85
Turkey
62
Turkey
86
Turkey
2.1. DNA extraction
Young leaves from plants collected were harvested and placed in an aluminum
foil and kept in liquid nitrogen. Leaf tissue from each individual was ground to a
fine powder in liquid nitrogen with a mortar and pestle. Total genomic DNA was
extracted following the procedure as described by Doyle & Doyle. The purified
DNA was quantified with ND-1000 (Nanodrop, Thermo Co.) spectrophotometer.
The DNA quality was also assessed and the concentration determined by
visualization under UV light, on 1% agarose gels in TAE (Tris-acetic acid-EDTA)
buffer and then agarose gel–stained.
2.2. AFLP analysis
Li-Cor AFLP Kit (catalog number: 830-06195 AFLP 2-DYE Selective
Amplification Kit) was used according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.
According to the kit, 200 ng pure DNA was digested with EcoR I and Mse I
restriction enzymes. The enzyme adaptors were ligate to the digested DNA.
Selective amplification of restriction fragments was conducted using primers with
three selective nucleotide extensions, RD700/800 dyes. Twenty-two primer
combinations were used to screen for polymorphism among samples.
Amplification products were resolved on 8% acrylamide gel in 1 9 TBE (Trisborate-EDTA) buffer under 1500 V and 40 mA conditions. Li-Cor 4300s DNA
Analyzer machine was used to image, analyze, and screen the bands profile
2.3. Band scoring and data analysis
Each polymorphic AFLP bands were scored manually as present(1) or absent (0)
across all 33 genotypes for each primer-paircombination and the values were used
to compile binary datamatrix.Onlybright, clearly distinguishable bands were
usedin the genetic analysis. Genetic disimilarity estimates were calculated using
Jaccard’scoefficient of disimilarity (Jaccard, 1908). JMP software (version 3.1,
SAS Institute, 1995) was used to calculate distances and a dendrogram was
generated. The accessions were grouped by cluster analysis using the unweighted
pair-group method (UPGMA).PIC (polymorphism information content) was
calculated from the 1/0 datum matrix. The PIC value refers to the relative value of
each marker with respect to the amount of polymorphism it exhibits. PIC was also
calculated by 1- Σpi2: , where i= indiviual p and pi = the allele frequencies of the
loci. (De Riek,2001).
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3.Results and Discussion
3.1.AFLP Marker analysis
The size of bands scored in all the 44 accessions were in the range of 50–450 bp.
86 genotypes were analyzed by AFLP-PCR using 13 selective primer
combinations as listed in Table 2. A total of 245 polymorphic bands were
generated, and the number of polymorphic bands per each primer combination
ranged from 4 (MCAG-EAGG) to 32 (MCAC-EACA) with an average number of
18.8 bands. A representative gel obtained from the primer combination MCAA/E-ACG ( 700 ) is presented in Fig. 1. Polymorphic bands from 86 DNA
samples, amplified by 13 AFLP primer combinations, are also listed in Table 2 .
The maximum number of polymorphic bands obtained per primer confirmed the
high polymorphism determination efficiency of AFLPs in comparison with other
marker systems used for common bean such as RAPD (Haley et al., 1994; Maciel
et al., 2001; Tiwari et al., 2005 ) and RFLP ( Sonnante et al., 1994; Stockton and
Gepts, 2004 ).
Table 2 Polymorphic bands from 86 DNA samples, amplified by 13 AFLP primer
combinations
Primer Number
Primer Pairs
1
MCAC-EACA
No. of
bands
32
2
MCAA-EAAC
25
3
MCAA-EACA
15
4
MCTC-EAAG
15
5
MCAG-EACA
27
6
MCAT-EACA
14
7
MCTG-EACA
25
8
MCAC-EAGC
23
9
MCAA-EACG
12
10
MCAA-EAGC
15
11
MCTC-EACT
20
12
MCAG-EAGG
4
13
MCAT-EAGG
18
TOTAL
245
polymorphic
3.2. Genetic diversity analysis
To determine the genetic relationships among the 86 genotypes, the scoring data
(1 for presence and 0 for absence) resulting from the 13 primer combinations were
used to compute the dissimilarity matrix according to Jaccard (1908). This
dissimilarity matrix was used to generate a dendrogram using the UPGMA
method. The 86 genotypes represented seven clades as revealed by AFLP primers
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(Fig.2). Group I was the largest one containing 44 accessions that included twenty
five Turkey varieties and seven England land races.
As shown in Table 3, the minimum variation was detected between sample 20
Turkey, and sample 24 Turkey (GD= 0,0094) and the maximum was found
between sample 34 England and samples 28 USA (GD = 0,80).
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Fig.1. AFLP pattern of 1-48 common bean DNA samples.
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Fig.1. AFLP pattern of 49-86 common bean DNA samples
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Fig. 2 Dendrogram resulting from UPGMA cluster analysis of 86 common bean
genotypes based on data derived from 13 AFLP primer combinations
Studies of genetic diversity using molecular marker and DNA sequencing
techniques are necessary if we are to understand a population’s genetic structure
and phylogeography, identify the center of genetic diversity of a species, and
develop effective conservation strategies (Gao, 2003).PCR-based molecular
marker techniques play an important role in the analysis of genetic diversity and
relatedness for crop plants, where most of the species involved are almost
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unknown at the genetic level (Ilgin et al. 2009). In this study, the AFLP method
generated large numbers of polymorphic bands. We detected a total of 284
polymorphic bands, and the number of polymorphic bands for each primer
combination ranged from from 4 (MCAG-EAGG) to 32 (MCAC-EACA) with an
average number of 18.8 bands. Our study shows that AFLP provided a large
number of polymorphic bands and a large amount of genotypic information. Grilli
Caiola et al. (2004) found the number of polymorphic bands per primer to be 2.01
in their RAPD study.
In conclusion, we have shown that AFLP profiling techniques may provide useful
information on the level of polymorphism and diversity in common bean, showing
their utility in the characterization of germplasm accessions. AFLP marker
systems have comparable accuracy in grouping genotypes of this species
according
to
their
gene
pool
of
origin
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Table
33
3
Genetic
distance
matrix
computed
according
to
Jaccard
(1908)’s
coefficient
based
on
AFLP
data
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
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35
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Title
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Biodiversity for sustinable agriculture: Common bean genetic diversity
Author
Author
Nemli , Seda
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The immense genetic diversity of genotypes of crops is the most directly useful and economically valuable part of biodiversity. Genetic diversity is a key factor enabling adaptation, and therefore survival, of natural populations in changing environments. And also genetic diversity is essential tool for any breeding program. Leguminous plants, after cereals, include the most economically important species of agricultural interest, considering area cultivated and total production. Among the grain legumes,soybean, peanuts and common beans are the most important commercial crops. Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and its related species are important protein sources for the world population. In 2006, the bean industry was valued at $1.2 billion and $180 million in USA and Canada, respectively. The average yield of bean varieties cropped in developing countries is still very low. The analysis of genetic diversity and relationships among different individuals, species, or populations is an important topic in genetics and plant breeding. Since morphological charactersin plants effect from environmental condition, DNA markers provide the most precise tool for measuring genetic relationships, because they are potentially unlimited in number Among the DNA techniques, Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) is intense and provides a powerful tool for genotype identification, phylogeny The AFLP technique is based on the amplification of short restriction endonuclease digested genomic DNA fragments onto which adaptors have been ligated at both ends.For this purpose common bean genomes were analyzed using AFLP fingerprinting to examine the genetic variation within and among genotypes.. A total of 86 common bean accessions collected from different countries were used in this study. For the AFLP analysis,12 primer combination were used. Acrylamide gels from primer combination were scored according to presence (1) or absence (0) of amplified fragments.The molecular data were analyzed using the NTSYs program. A dendrogram was generated using JMP software (version 3.1, SAS Institute, 1995) based on the UPGMA (unweighted pair-group method of arithmetic average). The eightysix genotypes represented seven different clusters as revealed by AFLP primers. The minimum variation was detected between sample 20, Turkey and sample 24, Turkey (GD = 0.09), and the maximum was found between samples 34 and 28 (GD = 0.80). Keywords: Biodiversity, Common bean, AFLP
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
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Could government legalize illegal settlement by improving their energy efficiency?
Janjusevic Jelena, Begovic Radojevic Milica,
UNDP, Podgorica; Montenegro
Abstract
In recent months we are faced with serious budget problems in Montenegro, the solution of
which, among other things is seen in reducing the number of employees in state
administration. On the other hand, the costs of living are significantly above the disposable
budget of households. Particular problem is the high cost of electricity, which recently
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
resulted in the street protests of discontented citizens. On one hand we have a government that
alerts the lack of electricity, and on the other hand we have citizens that may hardly cover
these costs. In addition, Montenegro is dealing with a double-challenge of inefficient space
use (country features over 100,000 illegal homes, if distributed evenly implying that every
other family lives in an illegal home) and inefficient energy use (Montenegro needs on
average 8.5 times more energy per unit produced than an average EU country).
1.How to solve a problem and please both sides? Is that feasible at all?
UNDP office in Montenegro came up with the idea to link solving the big problems in
Montenegro, such as the problem of illegal construction, with increasing the level of energy
efficiency in households, businesses and other facilities. Namely, UNDP proposes an
integrated policy solution to the double-challenge in providing energy efficiency measures to
incentivize households to legalize their homes. The idea and research that was recently
conducted show how the legalization of illegal buildings by the introduction of mandatory
energy efficiency measures in them, may at the same time result in the increase of revenue to
the central and local budgets, reduction of negative impact on the environment, increase of
employment, engagement of the economy, reduction of electricity consumption and thereby to
reduce the need to import electricity, and ultimately to contribute to the welfare of the
population.
Our research (energy audits) conducted on 30 illegal houses in three pilot municipalities
showed that significant savings in energy consumption could be realized (up to 60%). Based
on these results, we propose an approach to formalizing informal settlements in Montenegro
through implementing an energy efficiency incentive system for the households. The scheme
is broken down into 2 steps: (1) a household receives a loan to improve energy efficiency. On
average for a 100m2 household, €3,800 loan (with 4.5% interest rate) results in 59% of
energy savings or €630 per year at the current energy prices; (2) a household enters into a
contractual agreement with the Government/municipality to use the savings from energy
efficiency to pay off the low-interest loan it received for the retrofit and the formalization
cost.
The benefit for the household is dual- a title to the house and improved energy
efficiency/resulting financial savings. The benefit for the municipality/Government is the
steady supply of funding for the property tax. The benefit for the private sector is the increase
in demand for retrofits and upgrading of the infrastructure that services informal settlements.
Keywords: energy efficiency, sustainable development, illegal construction, energy audits,
retrofitting
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
2.INTRODUCTION
The world is experiencing three inter-related crises at the moment. One regards the rising
trend of resource prices. The resource price index in the 20th century fell by 50% even
though the population quadrupled, economic output rose 4 times, and demand for fossil fuels
and water increased by 16 and 9 percent respectively. The first decade of 21st century
reversed this trend, and relative to the beginning of 20th century in 2010 the index rose by
147%1. This is a result of a combination of factors: rising demand and population, decreasing
sources of supply, volatility of supply (most fossil fuel deposits are located in conflict prone
locations such as Iran, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela). If we continue on this path, by 2050 we
would need three times more resources and this is simply no longer an option, which brings us
to the second crises.
This crisis regards the rising inequality globally within countries. During the last several
decades, millions of people around the world have been lifted out of poverty. In Central and
Eastern Europe, some 90 million people or 18% of its population moved out of poverty since
1999. Despite this, 30% of the region’s population is still considered poor or vulnerable, with
the number rising by 5 million for each 1% of decline in GDP2. The recent ILO report echoes
this in noting that the ‘society is becoming increasingly anxious about the lack of decent jobs.
The findings show that Social Unrest Index in 2011 rose in 57 out of 106 countries, as more
people were pushed out of labor market, predominantly impacting youth and women. So
what does this mean for societies across the world? The recent research shows that more
unequal societies feature far more social problems including high rates of suicide, obesity,
teenage pregnancy, imprisonment, and low levels of literacy, trust, life expectancy3. In short,
the economic growth does not yield human development returns in those high developed
countries that features high levels of inequality and that subsequently invest the bulk of their
public resources into prisons, policy, and defence and health services to deal with the growing
amount of social problems.
Finally and linked with the other two crises, the world is at a tipping point in regard to the loss
of vital ecosystem services and extreme events- both connected to the changing climate.
Some 60% of ecosystem services that underpin our economies and life on earth have been
degraded, some beyond the point of return. Recently published research in the Journal of
Nature that for the first time compared effects of biodiversity loss to other human-caused
environmental changes analyzed 12 peer-reviewed articles and concluded that reduced
biodiversity affects ecosystems at levels comparable to those of pollution and global
1 McKinsey’s ‘Resource Revolution’ The report last accessed on May 4th 2012.
http://www.mckinsey.com/Features/Resource_revolution
2 This World Bank study quoted in ‘The Economic and Financial Crisis in CEE and CIS: Gender
Perspectives and Policy Choices’ last accessed on May 4th 2012 at:
http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp_598a.pdf
3 Richard Wilkinson, Kate Pickett ‘The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Society Almost Always Do Better’
Allen Lane, 2009
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warming4. In layman terms, this means that environment’s ability to provide clean water,
food and stable climate is seriously undermining the quality of life and human development
globally. In terms of disasters, in November last year IPCC published first scientific proof
that the changing climate results in an increase in frequency and intensity of extreme weather
events5. Our region experienced some $70 billion disaster-related losses during the last two
decades6.
The three crises are related, mutually reinforcing one another and creating a vicious cycle that
impacts all segments of sustainable human development- economic competitiveness, social
inclusion and environment. Any viable solution must match the complexity of the crises,
addressing them in an integrated manner that will unleash economic growth and job creation,
while at the same time conserving the biodiversity and maintaining the balanced environment.
This paper will present one such integrated solution that aims to resolve the multi-dimensional
development challenge of informal housing (low economic empowerment, rising pressure on
environment, high exposure to extreme events, inefficient resource use, low quality of life). It
will demonstrate how UNDP plans to utilize main principles of green economy to provide
economic empowerment to the citizens in Montenegro.
3.What is a Green Economy?
UNEP defines a green economy as one that results in improved human well-being and social
equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities. In its
simplest expression, a green economy can be thought of as one which is low carbon, resource
efficient and socially inclusive. In a green economy, growth in income and employment
should be driven by public and private investments that reduce carbon emissions and
pollution, enhance energy and resource efficiency, and prevent the loss of biodiversity and
ecosystem services. These investments need to be catalyzed and supported by targeted public
expenditure, policy reforms and regulation changes.7
The development path should maintain, enhance and, where necessary, rebuild natural capital
as a critical economic asset and as a source of public benefits, especially for poor people
whose livelihoods and security depend on nature.
4 http://www.clickgreen.org.uk/research/trends/123462-biodiversity-loss-is-as-damaging-as-climatechange-and-pollution.html
5 The IPCC Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate
Change Adaptation, PDF presentation last accessed on May 4th 2012
http://www.ipcc.ch/news_and_events/docs/srex/SREX_slide_deck.pdf
6 From Transition to Transformation: Sustainable and Inclusive Development in Europe and Central
Asia, report last accessed on May 4th 2012 at
http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/publications/oes/RIO_20_Web_Interactif.pdf
7 UNEP, Towards a Green Economy, Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication,
2011
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It is very important to understand that the concept of a “green economy” does not replace
sustainable development. However, there is a growing recognition that achieving
sustainability rests almost entirely on getting the economy right.
Perhaps the most widespread myth is that there is an inescapable trade-off between
environmental sustainability and economic progress. There is now substantial evidence that
the “greening” of economies neither inhibits wealth creation nor employment opportunities,
and that there are many green sectors which show significant opportunities for investment and
related growth in wealth and jobs.
Also, many theorists and practitioners believe that green economy is a luxury only wealthy
countries can afford, or worse, a developed-world imposition to restrain development and
perpetuate poverty in developing countries. Contrary to this perception, there are numbered
examples of greening transitions taking place in various sectors in the developing world,
which deserve to be emulated and replicated elsewhere.
The last two years have seen the idea of a “green economy” float out of its specialist moorings
in environmental economics and into the mainstream of policy discourse. It is found
increasingly in the words of heads of state and finance ministers, in the text of G20
communiqués, and discussed in the context of sustainable development and poverty
eradication.
Over the last quarter of a century, the world economy has quadrupled, benefiting hundreds of
millions of people. In contrast, however, 60% of the world’s major ecosystem goods and
services that underpin livelihoods have been degraded or used unsustainably. Indeed, this is
because the economic growth of recent decades has been accomplished mainly through
drawing down natural resources, without allowing stocks to generate, and through allowing
widespread ecosystem degradation and loss.
Meanwhile, for the first time in history, more than half of the world population lives in urban
areas. Cities now account for 75% of energy consumption and 75% of carbon emissions.
Rising and related problems of congestion, pollution, and poorly provisioned services affect
the productivity and health of all, but fall particularly hard on the urban poor. With
approximately 50% of the global population now living in emerging economies that are
rapidly urbanizing and will experience rising income and purchasing power over the next
years – and a tremendous expansion in urban infrastructure – the need for smart city planning
is paramount.
4.Energy efficiency
People have always used energy to do work for them. Thousands of years ago, early humans
burned wood to provide light, heat their living spaces, and cook their food. Later, people used
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the wind to move their boats from place to place. A hundred years ago, people began using
falling water to make electricity.
Today, people use more energy than ever from a variety of sources for a multitude of tasks
and our lives are undoubtedly better for it. Our homes are comfortable and full of useful and
entertaining electrical devices. We communicate instantaneously in many ways. We live
longer, healthier lives. We travel the world, or at least see it on television and the internet.
In 1973, when Americans faced their first oil price shock, people didn’t know how the
country would react. How would Americans adjust to skyrocketing energy prices? How
would manufacturers and industries respond? We didn’t know the answers.
Now we know that Americans tend to use less energy when energy when energy prices are
high. We have the statistics to prove it. When energy prices increased sharply in the early
1970s, energy use dropped, creating a gap between actual energy use and how much the
experts had thought Americans would be using. The same thing happened when energy prices
shot up again in 1979, 1980, and 2008—people used less energy. When prices started to drop,
energy use began to increase.
In 2009, the United States used 27 percent more energy than it did in the 1970s. That might
sound like a lot, but the population increased by over 43 percent and the nation’s gross
domestic product (the total value of all the goods and services produced by a nation in one
year) was 2.6 times that of the 1970s.
If every person in the United States today consumed energy at the rate we did in the 1970s,
we would be using much more energy than we are - perhaps as much as double the amount.
Energy efficiency technologies have made a huge impact on overall consumption since the
energy crisis of 1973.
Mankind is facing one of the greatest challenges in its history: developing in order to “meet
the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their needs”8. Increasing demands for natural resources, weakening of ecosystems,
global warming and soaring population growth are just a few of the global issues confronting
us. Since the end of the 1960s there have been more and more global initiatives to reduce
social and ecological imbalances. The movement is now speeding up: those involved are
becoming aware of the role they can play within their sphere of influence and of the
interdependence between the various aspects of sustainable development.
Improving energy efficiency is mostly connected with buildings, both residential and
business, changes and the main challenge now is to design, build and renovate buildings to
8 Our Common Future, Brundtland Report, 1987
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reduce their environmental impact and create areas that are healthy and comfortable for the
occupants.
Throughout their life cycle, buildings consume natural resources, generate waste and emit
large amounts of CO2, contributing significantly to global warming. A large proportion of the
world's population, particularly in the developed countries, spends 90% of its time indoors
(source: OECD). In this context, questions of hygiene standards inside buildings and the
comfort of occupants are also central issues in the debate.
At building level, energy efficiency covers all the methods used to reduce the energy used for
a given service (heating, lighting, operating machines, etc.). Two types of energy efficiency
are generally taken into consideration:
Energy efficiency associated with the framework This corresponds to the structural properties
of the building that will reduce energy requirements (and in particular heating and lighting).
This category includes: optimized insulation, double glazing, treatment of heat bridges,
management of openings (doors and windows) and coverings (blinds and shutters).
Energy efficiency from high-performance equipment and as a result of the management of
this equipment. High-performance equipment is that providing the best efficiency.
Equipment management is used to adapt the level and duration of the provision of energy to
requirements. It corresponds to the installation of products and systems that will regulate and
automate energy consumption in the building in order to avoid unnecessary consumption.
Energy efficiency retrofits provide an opportunity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
generate economic activity, save billions in energy costs, and ensure the long-term viability of
affordable housing. However, there is insufficient data on how much energy these upgrades
actually save, and therefore little data on what the return on investment would be for lenders.
Without this data, it is very difficult to secure upfront capital investments in retrofits,
inhibiting this sector’s capacity to scale.
5.Montenegro and legalization problem
In the past decade, Montenegro has witnessed rapid urbanization fuelled by foreign direct
investment on the Adriatic coast and in mountain resorts. This growth, which has significantly
increased the GDP of the country for several years has, in parallel, caused negative effects
such as urban sprawl in previously natural landscapes along the coast and around the capital
Podgorica, resulting in large numbers of informally built constructions (that is without a
construction permit), both commercial and residential, that have very low energy efficiency
characteristics, resulting in an overall increase in CO2 emissions due to rising energy demand
in buildings. According to one estimate, there are approximately 100,000 such informal
constructions, though there are no clear statistics. Approximately 62% of the population of
Montenegro lives in urban areas and the quality of their life is under pressure from urban
development problems. Uncontrolled urbanization, especially in the central area (around
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Podgorica and other cities) and the coastal areas (seaside tourist development), is having
negative impacts, such as overcrowded settlements and inaccessibility to infrastructure.
Informal constructions in Montenegro generally fall under three broad categories:
A building constructed on a parcel of land that legally belongs to the owner. The owner
obtained the necessary ‘construction permit’ but did not secure the ‘use permit’ from the
municipal authorities, which is required by law to ensure that the housing unit was built
according to specifications approved in the ‘construction permit’. Owners are required to pay
specified municipal fees to obtain the ‘use permit’.
A building constructed on own land by the owner of the land, but without both the
‘construction permit’ and the ‘use permit’.
A building constructed on state or municipal land without the express consent of the owner
and without the necessary ‘construction or ‘use permit’.
Nearly all Montenegrin households (>99%) are connected to the electricity grid and metered.
Based on the latest available data, average monthly electricity consumption in Montenegro in
2001 was 367 kWh per household. This makes that average monthly bill for electricity per
household amounts cca 100 euro. According to the estimation of Ministry of Economy of
Montenegro 80% of the electricity in the household is used for the heating. Most homes are
heated through an electric radiator system, an electric thermal accumulator or an individual
heating system. Wood is one of the most popular heating sources in individual houses in
Montenegro, especially in the North, but almost absent in the South and in apartment
buildings.
Assuming that the 100,000 informal constructions have the same average energy consumption
profile as regular houses (a highly conservative assumption given their generally sub-standard
workmanship and hence low EE), the informal housing sector is estimated to account for over
one-quarter of Montenegro’s residential energy consumption and 7% of the country’s energybased GHG emissions. The irregular sector is also characterised by relatively high energy
poverty: systematic data are scarce but some observations suggest that up to 40% of people
living in the irregular housing sector do not have access to sufficient energy services to ensure
a healthy lifestyle for themselves and their families.
Buildings constructed without building permits in most cases have not been subject to the
process of verification of application of standards, neither in the course of design
development nor during performance of works, particularly from the aspect of seismic risk.
Existence of a large number of informal buildings, primarily residential facilities, highlights
the urgent need for organized approach to resolving the problem of regularization of such
buildings and verifying achieved level of their static and seismic protection.
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The Government of Montenegro has adopted a National Formalisation Program (NFP) and
Action Plan to regularize the vast stock of informal individual housing. The new
Regularization Law will mandate all owners of illegal houses to undergo mandatory building
registration process; it will impose penalties (up to building demolition) for those property
owners who fail to comply with the requirements. The Law and bylaws will also stipulate the
administrative procedures and financial costs associated with legalization.
6.UNDP approach to the legalization problem
National Formalization Program, will result in new policies, regulation and significant
investment to transform illegal housing stock into regularized and law-compliant buildings.
However, if implemented as designed, NFP will not bring in energy efficiency improvements
in individual houses, which are now characterized by poor thermal performance, high energy
use and offer major opportunities for cost-effective GHG emission reduction. In order to
address this problem, UNDP design the National Formalization Program in such manner that
it would incorporate mandatory requirements and financial support package for energy
efficiency improvements as outlined in the following section.
The formalisation of Montenegro’s large informal buildings sector represents a unique
opportunity to not only insert EE considerations into regulation of this building stock (for the
first time ever), but also to integrate informal neighbourhoods and settlements into municipal
governments’ spatial planning in order to address urban-system GHG mitigation opportunities
in a ‘joined up’ manner.
7.UNDP research in energy efficiency of the illegal houses
In the beginning of 2011 Ministry of Sustainable Development and Tourism of Montenegro
and UNDP agreed on join implementation of three new pilot projects which deal with
problem of transformation of informal settlements to formal. This is related to three
municipalities: Zabljak, Bijelo Polje and Bar.
Projects activities resulted in:
identifying alternative solutions for formalization of informal settlements
giving initial study on the energy efficiency characteristics of the informal building sector in
Montenegro and an assessment of the economic mitigation potential of the sector, with
particular focus on the Government’s Formalization Programme and how the Programme can
be harnessed to maximize mitigation outcomes – in terms of the buildings themselves and
also how they can be best integrated into broader urban planning.
proposing different economical scenarios for formalization process
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encouraging housing opportunity for people of low and moderate income by creative, flexible,
and innovative approach to resolving this issue
Purpose of the energy audits was to determine a baseline for consumption and potential
savings giving the most basic renovation/retrofit measures. Every energy audit consisted of
basic information about the existing object, its current use, dimensions, number of inhabitants,
heating periods during the day and the whole year, local climate characteristics etc. Data on
average yearly consumption of electricity and consumption of water was collected from
Public Utility Companies. This was provided with assistance of municipal officials9.
Figure 1: The appearance of used software
Energy audit team used the following measuring equipment during the inspection of the
buildings :Thermal Imager-3 Testo880 PROSet; Data loggers for measuring temperature and
humidity Testo 175 and Testo 635-2 Luksmetar.
9 Calculation of building energy performance was performed using: ENSI (Energy Savings
International AS) "ENSI EAB CG 8.1". The algorithm for calculation in the current version of the Key
Number software relies mainly on the EN ISO 13790:2004 standard. Economic calculation is done in
the "ENSI Profitability Software - Version 7.0".
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Figure 2: Results of thermal camera imaging (one of the audited buildings in Bijelo Polje)
After revision of all provided audits, a general conclusion regarding possibilities for EE
retrofitting in informal settlements is that, on average, with €3,800 investment in retrofits the
annual savings are €700 (payoff in less than 6 years), and this is in accordance with current
energy prices (€ 0.7/kWh as opposed to € 0.17 kWh which is average within liberalized
energy market in Europe).
More detailed average results are, as follows:
Average building (heated) area
Average electricity bill [€/god]
(for 2009/2010/2011)
Baseline
(kWh/m2 year)
Baseline
(kWh/year)
After EE retrofit measures
(kWh/m2year)
After EE retrofit measures
(kWh/year)
Calculated savings
(kWh/m2year)
Lowering of CO2 emission
(tons/year)
142
116.80
1240.32
468.81
52771.05
169.74
20122.85
303.49
0.82
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Assessment of the investment in EE retrofit
measures
4458.20
[€]
Net savings
[€/year]
Return on investment [year]
736.15
5.60
Savings in delivered energy / wooden logs
32945.80
(kWh/ year)
Savings in delivered energy / electrical energy
(kWh/ year)
574.65
The most cost effective and most often basic EE measures that have been suggested are:
appropriate isolation of external walls
replacement of windows/doors
isolation of roofs
EE audits also suggested implementation of additional measures, such as installation of
central heating, which will not significantly improve EE performance, but will in general raise
a living comfort for the inhabitants. These measures are relatively expensive, and with longer
return on investment, but they are also included in narrative part of audits, in order to be
considered by the owners as possibility for additional improvement of living conditions.
General conclusion is that energy efficiency measures can be used as a tool for encouraging
owners of the informal object to apply for legalization. Calculation showed that that each
household that apply for formalization will have almost the same cost as it pay regularly for
electricity today, but now this cost covers electricity bill, but also retrofitting and
formalization. This means that with the same amount of financial resources, they will have
legal object, energy efficient and safer house.
Energy efficiency measures can be used as a tool for encouraging owners of the informal
object to apply for legalization. The main idea is to increase number of applicants, and on the
other side to provide solution that would be in line with principles of sustainable development
and status of Montenegro as ecological state.
Below is explained one of possible the scenarios for formalization using energy efficiency
measures as incentive, for average residential building of 100m2.
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EE measure as incentives – calculation:
(Example – residential house of 100m2, with average monthly energy bill – 100 euros.)
Size of
Houshold
Cost
for Saving
energy
per
month (euro)
Formalization
(50e per m2)
100
90
5000 €
59%
cost Retrofitting
cost(interest
rate 4.5% on investment
3800eur)
5760
Scenario after retrofitting
(costs)
Electricity bill Monthly
Monthly
Total
(euro)
formalization
retrofit cost, 15
cost, 20 yr yr period
period
Monthly
36.9
20.9
32
89.9
The idea is to use possibility of getting soft loan with no or very low interest rate, with 20
years period for repayment that will be used for retrofitting the object. The main condition for
loan is IF household apply for formalization process.
This calculation shows that each household that apply for formalization will have almost the
same cost as it pays regularly for electricity today, but now this cost covers electricity bill,
but also retrofitting and formalization. This means that with same amount of financial
resources, they will have legal object, energy efficient and safer house.
Revenue from formalization to government
Monthly
Yearly
After 20 years
2,083,333.33€
25,000,000€
500,000,000€
Through identifying alternative solutions for formalization of informal settlements and
integration of sustainable development principles into planning process, this project will
contribute to establishment of the link between economic growth, poverty reduction and
environmental sustainability.
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8. CONCLUSION
The paper demonstrates potentials for using energy efficiency as an incentive for
formalization of illegal households. Building on the wealth of research on decision making
and behavioral economics, the solution features a revenue-neutral option that addresses dual
challenges from the consumers’ perspectives (households: inefficient use of energy and illegal
house) and dual challenge from the providers’ perspective (Government: low real estate tax
collection and low investment in infrastructure).
This solution has never been tested before. It will require a multidimensional approach to
systemic level change (new regulation and policy development), institutional level change
(establishing novel links between the municipal and national level, designing novel processes
for financial management) and individual level (capacity building, behavioral change). On
the positive note, regardless of its success, this proposal is likely to yield important lessons on
the potential for manipulating incentives for green economy.
Implications for future research include consideration of incentives related to clean energy
production (e.g. solar and wind power) and sustainable urban development (e.g.
municipality’s capacity to manage incoming funding for a greener and sustainable
urbanization).
LITERATURE
„More Urban—Less Poor, Fighting poverty in an urban world“, Göran Tannerfeldt and Per
Ljung, August 2006
„Trade and Development Report, UNCTAD, 2011,
“Trends and Progress in Housing reforms in South Eastern Europe, Sasha Tsenkova, CEB,
October 2005
„Towards a Green Economy, Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty
Eradication“, UNEP, 2011
“Energy Efficiency: Engine of Economic Growth”, Jamie Howland & Derek Murrow, Lisa
Petraglia & Tyler Comings, Economic Development Research Group, Inc, October 2009
“Our Common Future”, Brundtland Report, 1987
“Why More Equal Society Almost Always do Better’ Richard Wilkinson, Kate Pickett ‘The
Spirit Level: Allen Lane, 2009
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“From Transition to Transformation: Sustainable and Inclusive Development in Europe and
Central Asia”, report, 2011
Web:
http://www.mckinsey.com/Features/Resource_revolution
http://www.clickgreen.org.uk/research/trends/123462-biodiversity-loss-is-as-damaging-asclimate-change-and-pollution.html
http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp_598a.pdf
http://www.ipcc.ch/news_and_events/docs/srex/SREX_slide_deck.pdf
http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/publications/oes/RIO_20_Web_Interactif.pdf
www.undp.org.me
www.mek.gov.me
www.energetska-efikasnost.me
Situation Of The Dikili Gulf Fishes For Sustainable Fisheries
Mehmet İkiz1, Hatice Koç Torcu 2, Fatih Güleç1
1- Ege Üniversitesi, Su Ürünleri Fakültesi, 35080 İzmir
2- Balikesir University, Faculty of Science and Arts, Balikesir-Turkey
E-mails: mikiz@mynet.com, htorcukoc@hotmail.com, mc305@live.com
Abstract
Conservation fish stocks in the aquatic ecosystem is important for sustainable fish production.
Continuation of the fish species generations in a habitat is affected by environmental
conditions and hunting pressure. For the sustainability of the reproductive abilities of fishes, it
is essential to know interactions with the the other species that live in habitat. In this way the
production models, that encourage the fish to grow in its natural habitat, can be developed. In
this study, the fish species that live in Dikili Bay of Izmir City and their economic features
were investigated. Fish species that live in Dikili Bay were examined systematically and
biologically; also identification keys of the species were formed. Morphometric and meristic
characters of obtained species were identified. In the examination, 70 species belonging to 39
families were identified. 9 species of these belong to chondrichythyes and 61 to osteichtyes.
31 of these species are economically important species and are hunted. 2 of them (Sea bream
and sea bass) are farmed in Turkey, also. As a result of inadequate protection measures and
mindless hunting, it was observed 31 economically important and identified species, that live
146
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
1238
Title
A name given to the resource
Could government legalize illegal settlement by improving their energy efficiency?
Author
Author
Janjusevic, Jelena
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In recent months we are faced with serious budget problems in Montenegro, the solution of which, among other things is seen in reducing the number of employees in state administration. On the other hand, the costs of living are significantly above the disposable budget of households. Particular problem is the high cost of electricity, which recently resulted in the street protests of discontented citizens. On one hand we have a government that alerts the lack of electricity, and on the other hand we have citizens that may hardly cover these costs. In addition, Montenegro is dealing with a double-challenge of inefficient space use (country features over 100,000 illegal homes, if distributed evenly implying that every other family lives in an illegal home) and inefficient energy use (Montenegro needs on average 8.5 times more energy per unit produced than an average EU country).
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3d4ff2b9b08ecbcac3130023fde0ccf6.pdf
af9b6af30280b633dd9058cc742e0d22
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Elimination of Cr(VI) from aqueous solution by a new agro-waste material
Şerife Parlayıcı, Erol Pehlivan
Department of Chemical Engineering, Selcuk University, Campus, 42079 Konya, Turkey
E-mail: erolpehlivan@gmail.com
Abstract
The efficiency of Wheat Straw (WS) and modified Wheat Straw (MWS) in removing Cr(VI)
ions from aqueous solution was studied. Batch experiments were designed to obtain Cr(VI)
ion sorption data. The influences of contact time, pH, adsorbent dose and initial chromium
concentration on adsorption process performance was researched and an appropriate
adsorption isotherm of Cr(VI) adsorption on (WS) and (MWS) was determined. The results of
this study showed that adsorption of chromium by (RWS) and (MWS) reached to equilibrium
after 120 min and after that a little change of chromium removal efficiency was observed.
Higher Cr(VI) adsorption was observed at lower pH and maximum Cr(VI) concentration and
lower adsorbent doses. The equilibrium sorption capacity of Cr(VI) ion after 120 min was
28.6 and 81.9 mg/g for (WS) and (MWS) respectively. The investigated adsorbents showed
different adsorption capacities for Cr(VI) ions. Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms have been
used to characterize observed biosorption phenomena of Cr(VI) ions on (MWS). The carboxyl
groups on the surface of (MWS) were primarily responsible for the sorption of Cr(VI) ions.
Keywords: Sorption; Cr(VI); Agricultural by-product; Citric acid
1.INTRODUCTION
Environmental pollution and health by heavy metals is an important economic and
environmental subject in many areas of the world (Köhler et al. 2007). Industrial wastes and
domestic generated have been threating our aquatic environment. Significant amounts of toxic
heavy metals in laden with debris are deposited into the natural aquatic ecosystems (Chen and
Lim 2002). Chromium (Cr) is one of priority pollutants among heavy metals in surface water
and groundwater cycle resulting from numerous industrial activities such as wood
preservatives, textile dyeing, leather tanning, electroplating and metal plating operations.
Cr(VI) containing wastewaters must be lowered to allowable limits before discharging into
the environment ((Sonmez and Aksu 2002; Kobya, 2004).
In recent years, increasing number of publications has been exhibited for the removal of
heavy metals from aqueous medium by using adsorption techniques with different adsorbents
(Chong and Volesky 1995; Chong and Volesky 1995). Studies reveal that various agricultural
waste materials such as materials such as bark, hazelnut shells, peanut hulls, nuts, wood,
soybean hulls, soybean straws, saw dust, walnut shells, osage orange etc. has been tried and
the adsorption capacity of these natural by products and wastes could be enhanced by
chemical modifications (Kobya 2004; Cimino et al. 2000; Hashem et al. 2005; Mohanty et al.
2005; Low et al. 2004; Marshall et al. 2001; Zhu et al. 2008; Raji and Anirudhan 1997; Sud et
al. 2008; Altun and Pehlivan 2012; Pehlivan et al. 2012; Yu et al. 2001). The functional
groups present in agricultural waste biomass such as acetamido, alcoholic, carbonyl, phenol,
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
amido, amino, sulphydryl groups etc. have affinity for chromium ions to form chelates. These
groups have the affinity for Cr(VI) ion. The mechanism of adsorption process includes
chemisorption, complexation, adsorption on surface, electrostatic attraction and ion exchange
etc. (Sud et al. 2008).
The purpose of this research was to gain a fundamental understanding of the chemical and
physical phenomena associated with the binding of Cr(VI) ion to (WS) and (MWS)
biosorbents. So a new group was substituted to (WS). The Cr(VI) ion retention on this
adsorbent has been carried out batch wise where the influence of physico-chemical key
parameters such as the solution pH, the initial metal concentration, contact time, and ionic
strength has been considered.
2.Materials and methods
2.1.Materials
(WS) was collected from vicinity of Konya-Turkey. Straws were ground with Retsch RM 100
model grinding machine. They were ground and sieved to obtain size of 100 µm. Before using
raw straws, they were washed thoroughly with deionized water and dried in air oven at 100
°C for 24 h. All chemicals were of an analytical grade. Double distilled water was used to
prepare all solutions throughout the experiments. Cr(VI) stock solution (from Merck) was
prepared by dissolving K2Cr2O7 salt in double distilled water. Solutions of 0.01 M NaOH
and HCl (from Merck) were used for pH adjustment.
Experimental methods
A series of standard Cr(VI) solution were prepared by appropriate dilution of the stock
solution. A thermostated shaker of GFL 3033 model was used for adsorption experiments.
The pH measurements were performed with Orion 900S2 Model pH meter. For Cr(VI) ion
sorption studies, 40 mg WS was brought in contact with 25 mL of Cr(VI) solution using an
orbital shaker at 25 C. After filtration, the filtrate was analyzed spectrophometrically for
determining the Cr(VI) concentration in the solution phase. The remaining Cr(VI) ion in the
solution was calculated by taking the difference of initial concentration and total Cr(VI)
concentration in the filtrate. The concentrations of Cr(VI) ions in initial and final solutions
were determined spectrophotometrically at 540 nm by UV-visible Spectrophotometer
(Shimadzu UV-1700).
For the determination of Cr(VI), its supernatant was separated from the reaction mixture and
divided into two parts. In one part equilibrium concentration of the Cr(VI) was measured by
adding 1,5 diphenyl carbazide as a complexing agent, whereas the second part was heated up
to 130 C with KMnO4.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Effect of solution initial pH on the Cr (VI) adsorption
Earlier studies have shown that solution pH is an important parameter influencing the
biosorption of Cr(VI) ions (Dönmez and Aksu 2002). Cr(VI) removal was investigated as a
function of solution pH and the result is indicated in Figure 1.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
100
Sorption (%)
75
Cr(VI)
50
Cr(III)
25
0
0
2
4
6
8
pH
Figure 1. Effect of pH on the biosorption of Cr (VI) using (MWS). Biosorption conditions;
initial concentration of Cr (VI): 2x10-3 mol/L, 0.1 g adsorbent, 40 mL of biosorption
medium, temperature: 25 C, contact time: 120 min.
As seen from this figure, the biosorption of Cr(VI) onto (WS) and (MWS) is strongly pHdependent. 82 % of the Cr(VI) adsorbed onto (MWS) from the solution when the optimum pH
was around 2.0. There is a tendency to decrease in the removal when the solution pH is raised
from 2.0 to 5.0 and thereafter the effect becomes negligible. Similar results were reported by
other several workers (Sud et al. 2008). The decrease in the adsorption with the increase in
solution pH may be ascribed to the decrease in electrostatic force of attraction between the
adsorbent and the adsorbate.
It has been verified that Cr(VI) can be easily reduced to Cr(III) in the presence of biosorbents
and in acid media. Although the resarches on the chromium elimination by biosorption are
numerous, few of them have analyzed the combined effect of the retention of Cr(VI) by the
biosorbent and its reduction to Cr(III). There was sorption of Cr(VI) as well as Cr(III) during
sorption of Cr(VI) on the surface of biosorbent. Reduction of Cr(VI) into Cr(III) is also clear
from the aqueous chemistry of Cr(VI) at low pH value. The low pH also accelerates the redox
reactions in aqueous and biosorbent phases, since the protons participate in these reactions.
The mechanisms for the biosorption are: i) the reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) in presence of
the biosorbent and in acid media. ii) the retention of the initially present Cr(VI) by the
biosorbent, as well as of the Cr(III) formed during the reduction process (Sud et al. 2008).
The decrease in Cr(VI) ion removal capacity (WS) and (MWS) at pH > 2.0 may be caused
by hydrolysis accompanying by precipitation of metal hydroxides. This pH dependence of the
binding showed that adsorption, chelation and electrostatic interactions were involved in the
binding mechanism of Cr(VI) by (WS) and (MWS). Indeed, adsorption and chelation
involving hydroxyl functions, close to carboxylated, may increase the binding level of Cr(VI)
ions in addition to the electrostatic interactions taking place. It was confirmed that (WS) and
(MWS) is dominated by negatively charged sites that are largely carboxylated groups with
some weaker acidic groups. At pH values higher than 4, carboxyl groups are deprotonated
and negatively charged. Consequently, the attraction of positively charged metal ions would
be enhanced. At low pH, the surface of (WS) and (MWS) would also be surrounded by
38
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
hydronium ions, which decrease the Cr(VI) ion interaction with binding sites of the
biosorbent by greater repulsive forces.
3.2. Effect of contact time
100
Sorption (%)
75
50
25
0
0
40
80
120
160
200
240
Contact Time(min)
Figure 2. Effect of contact time on the sorption of Cr (VI) by (MWS). Biosorption conditions;
initial concentration of Cr (VI): 2x10-3 mol/L, 0.1 g adsorbent, 40 mL of biosorption
medium, temperature: 251C, pH 2.0.
The effect of time on the adsorption of Cr(VI) ions by the (WS) and (MWS) was studied by
taking 0.1 g sorbent with 40.0 ml of 0.001 M Cr(VI) solution in the plastic beakers. The
beakers were shaken for different time intervals in a temperature-controlled shaker. Figure 2
showed the effect of contact time on adsorption of Cr(VI) ions using (MWS). The results
showed that the percentage of Cr(VI) ion adsorption by (WS) and (MWS) increased with
increasing time of equilibration and it reached the plateau value at about 120 min.
3.3. Effect of initial Cr(VI) concentration
The Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms were both used to describe observed sorption
phenomena of Cr(VI) on the biosorbents (Altun and Pehlivan 2012; Pehlivan et al. 2012; Yu
et al. 2001). The Langmuir isotherm applies to adsorption on completely homogenous
surfaces with negligible interaction between adsorbed molecules. For a single solute, it is
given by the Freundlich model, which is an empirical model used to describe adsorption in
aqueous systems, was also used to explain the observed phenomena of Cr(VI) biosorption on
(MWS).
The effect of sorbate concentration was shown in Figure 1. In the case of low Cr(VI)
concentrations, the ratio of the initial number of moles of chromium ions to the available
surface area was larger and subsequently the fractional biosorption became independent of
initial concentrations. However, at higher concentrations, the available sites of adsorption
became fewer, and hence the percentage removal of chromium ions depends upon the initial
concentration. The amount of Cr(VI) ions adsorbed per unit mass of the (WS) and (MWS)
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
increased with the initial Cr(VI) concentration as expected. The sorption capacities was 28.6
and 81.9 mg/g for (WS) and (MWS) respectively.
Table 1. Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm parameters of (MWS).
Freundlich Isotherm
a
Langmuir Isotherm
ka
n
R2
Kb
As a
R2
0.925
1.384
0.985
30.90
1.578
0.988
mmol/g dry adsorbent.
The Langmuir model fitted well in the pH range 2.0. We found the Langmuir isotherm, to
have the highest correlation coefficients of 0.988 for (MWS) (Table 1.). It was found that
more than 82% removal of Cr(VI) was achieved using (MWS).
Conclusion
In this study, the toxic Cr(VI) ion biosorption on the inexpensive and efficient biosorbents
from agricultural waste materials have been investigated as replacement strategy for existing
conventional systems. The use of these low cost biosorbents is recommended since they are
relatively cheap or of no cost, easily available, renewable and show highly affinity for Cr(VI)
ions. Literature also reveals that in some cases the modification of the adsorbent increased the
removal efficiency. (WS) both untreated and treated was effective in removal of Cr(VI) ion
from aqueous solutions. Adsorption of Cr(VI) was dependent on its initial concentrations and
pH of the Cr(VI) solution. The results indicate that the optimum pH for the removal of Cr(VI)
ions by (WS) and (MWS) was around 2. Cr(VI) removal was built up; equilibrium conditions
are attained after nearly 2 h. Isothermal data of Cr(VI) sorption on (MWS) can be modeled by
Langmuir isotherm. The data in the linearized forms (Langmuir equation) gave satisfactory
correlation coefficients for a part of the covered concentration range.
REFERENCES
Altun T., Pehlivan E. (2012) Removal of Cr(VI) from aqueous solutions by modified walnut
shells. Food Chemistry, 132, 693–700.
Chen J.P., Lim L.L. (2002) Key factors in chemical reduction by hydrazine for recovery of
precious metals. Chemosphere 49, 363–370.
Chong K.H., Volesky B. (1995) Description of two metal biosorption equilibria by Langmuirtype models. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 47, 451–460.
Cimino G., Passerini A., Toscano G. (2000) Removal of toxic cations and Cr(VI) from
aqueous solution by hazelnut shell. Water Research 34, 2955–2962.
Dönmez G., Aksu Z. (2002) Removal of chromium(VI) from saline wastewaters by
Dunaliella species. Process Biochemistry 38, 751–762.
Hashem A., Abdel-Halim E.S., El-Tahlawy K.F., Hebeish A. (2005) Enhancement of
adsorption of Co (II) and Ni (II) ions onto peanut hulls though esterification using citric acid.
Adsorption Science and Technology 23, 367–380.
40
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Kobya M. (2004) Adsorption, kinetic and equilibrium studies of Cr (VI) by hazelnut shell
activated carbon. Adsorption Science and Technology 22, 51–64.
Köhler S.J., Cubillas P., Rodríguez-Blanco J.D., Bauer C. and Prieto M. (2007) Removal of
cadmium from wastewaters by aragonite shells and the influence of other divalent cations.
Environmental Science & Technology 41, 112–118.
Low K.S., Lee C.K., Mak S.M. (2004) Sorption of copper and lead by citric acid modified
wood. Wood Science and Technology 38, 629–640.
Marshall W.E., Chatters A.Z., Wartelle L.H., McAloon (2001) A., Optimization and
estimated production cost of a citric acid-modified soybean hull ion exchanger. Industrial
Crops and Products 14, 191–199.
Marshall W.E. and Wartella L.H. (2003) Acid recycling to optimize citric acid-modified
soybean hull production. Industrial Crops and Products 18, 177–182.
Mohanty K., Jha M., Biswas M.N., Meikap B.C. (2005) Removal of chromium (VI) from
dilute aqueous solutions by activated carbon developed from Terminalia Arjuna nuts activated
with zinc chloride. Chemical Engineering Science 60, 3049–3059.
Pehlivan E., Pehlivan E., Kahraman H. (2012) Hexavalent chromium removal by Osage
Orange. Food Chemistry, (Accepted).
Raji C. and Anirudhan T.S. (1997) Chromium (VI) adsorption by sawdust: kinetics and
equilibrium. Indian Journal of Chemical Technology 4, 228–236.
Sud D., Mahajan G., Kaur M.P. (2008) Agricultural waste material as potential adsorbent for
sequestering heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions-a review. Bioresource Technology
99(14), 6017–6027.
Yu B., Zhang Y., Shukla A., Shukla S.S., Dorris K.L. (2001) The removal of heavy metals
from aqueous solution by saw dust adsorption. Removal of Pb(II) and comparison of its
adsorption with copper. Journal of Hazardous Materials B84, 83–94.
Zhu B., Fan T., Zhang D. (2008) Adsorption of copper ions from aqueous solution by citric
acid modified soybean straw. Journal of Hazardous Materials 153, 300–308.
Parasitic Diseases And Their Controls In Sustainable Development Of Aquculture Of
Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus Thynnus)
Erol Tokşen, Egemen Nemli,Uğur Değirmenci, Ulviye Karacalar
Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 İzmir, Turkey
E-mails: erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr, egemen.nemli@ege.edu.tr, ugur.degirmenci@ege.edu.tr,
ulviye.karacalar@ege.edu.tr
Abstract
In the last decades Turkish and Mediterranean mariculture has focused its production mainly
on two species, gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.).
41
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Title
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Elimination of Cr(VI) from aqueous solution by a new agro-waste material
Author
Author
Şerife , Parlayıcı
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The efficiency of Wheat Straw (WS) and modified Wheat Straw (MWS) in removing Cr(VI) ions from aqueous solution was studied. Batch experiments were designed to obtain Cr(VI) ion sorption data. The influences of contact time, pH, adsorbent dose and initial chromium concentration on adsorption process performance was researched and an appropriate adsorption isotherm of Cr(VI) adsorption on (WS) and (MWS) was determined. The results of this study showed that adsorption of chromium by (RWS) and (MWS) reached to equilibrium after 120 min and after that a little change of chromium removal efficiency was observed. Higher Cr(VI) adsorption was observed at lower pH and maximum Cr(VI) concentration and lower adsorbent doses. The equilibrium sorption capacity of Cr(VI) ion after 120 min was 28.6 and 81.9 mg/g for (WS) and (MWS) respectively. The investigated adsorbents showed different adsorption capacities for Cr(VI) ions. Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms have been used to characterize observed biosorption phenomena of Cr(VI) ions on (MWS). The carboxyl groups on the surface of (MWS) were primarily responsible for the sorption of Cr(VI) ions. Keywords: Sorption; Cr(VI); Agricultural by-product; Citric acid
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5350f703b28bb8058bc2df15ef561ead.pdf
599ff1882bf9d1cf5aafec29e7116094
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
Ackerman T., Söder, L., An Overvief of Wind Energy - Rewiews Status 2002,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Rewiews, Vol. 6, 67-128 p.,2002.
AWS Scientific Inc., Wind resource assessment handbook, National Renewable
Energy Laboratory, 1997.
Aydın, İ., Yılmaz, S.S., The determination of dominant wind speed to increase
efficiency of wind energy in Manisa province, 1st International Conference on
Architecture and Urban Design, 19-21 April., Tirana-Albania, 2012.
Environmental Welding: The Friction Stir Welding
Selim Sarper Yilmaz1, Bekir Sadık Ünlü2, İbrahim Aydin2
1Celal Bayar University, Vocational High School, Department of Machinery,
45020, Manisa, Turkey
2Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering,
45040, Manisa, Turkey
E-mails: selim.yilmaz@cbu.edu.tr, bekir.unlu@cbu.edu.tr,
ibrahim.aydin@cbu.edu.tr
Abstract
In this study, microstructural and mechanical properties of pure aluminum joined
by friction stir weldingusing different parameters were investigated.
Hardness, tensile, bending and impact mechanics tests were applied to the
welded samples.In addition, optical and SEM tests were carried out. The effects of
the welding progress rate on the microstructure and mechanical properties were
investigated in these materials.Then, the optimal conditions for friction stir
welding were determined for pure aluminum.
Keywords:Friction stir
welding, aluminum alloy, microstructure, mechanical properties.
1. INTRODUCTION
Aluminum metal and its alloys are economical and attractive material due to their
superior mechanical properties. These features include the appearance,
lightness, ease
of production, physical and
mechanical properties and corrosion strength.
Aluminum is
known
for two mechanical properties; namely, lightness and corrosion resistance. The
weight of aluminium is approximately a third of the same volume
steel, aluminum, copper or brass and its specific gravity is 2.7 g/cm3.
Aluminum
has
an
excellent
atmosphere, water, salt water, oil
6
corrosion
resistance
against
and many chemicals.
the
In
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
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addition, electrical and thermal conductivity of aluminum is superior. In addition,
the strengths of some aluminum alloys are higher than strength of structural steels
(ASM Metals Handbook, 1979).
Friction stir welding (CCT) is a solid-state welding technique developed
bythe Welding Institute (Cambridge, United Kingdom) in 1991 and is used for the
combination of the non-ferrous metals and alloys. Although friction stir welding
can be used to combine a large number of materials, the first studies and the
industrial interest have focused on the combination of aluminum alloys.
Friction stir welding has become an important and rapidly developing welding
technique in combining these alloys (Boz and Kurt, 2004; Fonda, Bingert and
Colligan, 2004; Somasekharan and Murr, 2004; Meran, 2006)
In friction stir welding, tools which are cylindrical, rotating, inexhaustible, and
hard, has got a tip in thecenter and is composed of a shoulder. The tip of the
tools is firmly immersed in between the two workpieces to be welded and brought
forehead to forehead firmly. During the welding, while the tip is going forward in
a rotational movement, the shoulder moves towards the welding in contact with
the upper surface (Meran, 2006; Ericsson, 2005; Smith, Hinrichs; Crusan and
Leverett 2003; Butlerworth-Heinemann,2001; Staron,Koçak, Williams and
Wescott, 2004).
Friction stir welding of welding connections found in the welding region is a
typical form
of onion
rings and weld
metal, as the
format consists
of many variables. This format depends on the type of alloy being welded and the
parameters of welding process (Özsoy and Kaluç, 2002).
The
position
of
the half-circles on
the
surface of
the
tool during rotation and forward movement provides necessary heat for the
welding and pushes hot metal on the surface and appears to stay on the surface.
The continuous nature of welding provides the consistency of semi-circular rings
and the distance between the rings is equal to the distance the tool travels during
one rotation. The material is pushed towards the sides and back in a semicircular ring during each rotation of the tool. There is more mixing near the upper
surface. All these results lead the researchers to the idea that the process
mentioned is an extrusion process (Mert and Kaluç2003). Although the
main material or the material resistant to heat is far from the welding point, they
are affected by the thermal cycle of the process. But this does not affect the
microstructural or mechanical properties(http://tech.plymouth.ac.uk/sme/UoA30/
Weld_Microstructure.PDF).
The objectives of this study are to investigate mechanical properties of pure Al, to
study the hardenability of welding region and the region under the heat effect, to
further investigate internal structures of these regions and the resistance value of
welded parts.
2. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
Plates of 5 mm x 110 mm x 300 mm size were processed using an universal
milling machine. Afterwards, 8 mm thick base material was placed on the milling
table. After clamping the plates to be joined on the metal sheet base, the material
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
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was ready for welding process. The mechanical characteristics of the materials
used in the experiments are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of materials used in the experiments
Material
Pure
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
Break
Elongation
(%)
R0.2 Yield
Strength
105
40
25
Hardness
(HV)
(MPa)
20
In the experiments, tip geometry of the material and revolution per minute
was kept constant, but, travelling speed of the tip was varied (Table 2).
Table 2. Friction stir welding parameters
Material
Pure
Spindle Speed
(rpm)
1250
Traveling Speed
(mm/min)
20
40
63
After cleaning the surface ofthe plates to be joined with the help of bind mold
head to head, friction stir welding was successfully realized. There was neither
distortion nor deformation ofwelded plates after joining process.
Tensile tests were applied to determine the maximum stress values of plates of
welded joints. The tensile samples prepared in accordance with DIN 50109 as
shown in Figure 1 were processed perpendicularly to the welding direction of the
sheets in a CNC milling machine. The tensile tests were carried out at across head
speed of 2 mm/min using an Universal Testing Machine (AG- 50kNG Shimadzu
Autograph, Japan). True stress and strain curves were determined by computer
connected to the device. Threepoint bend tests at 180° were conducted at a
bending speed of 10 mm/min.
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Sarajevo
Fig.1. Samples prepared for tensile test and subsequent measurements
For optical microscope examinations, samples from the base material and welding
region were taken out, before and after welding process. Samples measuring 10 x
20 x 5 mm were cut. The surfaces of the samples were polished by means of
abrasives having a 220, 400, 600, 800 and 1200 grid, respectively. After the
process ofthe last polishing the materials with 10 micron alumina polish, the
sample surfaces were etched in Keller solution with 2 ml hydrofluoric acid (HF),
10 ml nitric acid (HN03) and 88 ml water immersion for 12 seconds. Henceforth,
the structural changes occurring in the junction area were determined. In the
analysis of samples, an optical microscope (Nikon Eclipse U50, Japan) was used.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3. 1. Mechanical Properties
Figure 2 shows the microhardness results of pure aluminum groups.
70
60
50
40
1-I
30
1-II
20
1-III
10
0
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Fig.2. Microhardness distribution of pure aluminum
When hardness of all samples was examined, four different regions of hardness
distribution were found to change significantly. Hardness values of the samples
joined by friction stir welding were higher than those of the base material.
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The samples broke in the HAZ (heat affected zone) region adjacent to the weld
seam, as the tensile tests were applied to the welds. This region was identified as
the thermo-mechanically formed region under the influence of the welding heat.
Maximum Tensile Strength
(N/mm2)
The results of the tensile tests are given in Figure 3.
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1
2
3
Traveling Speed (mm/min)
Fig.3. Maximum tensile strength distributions for pure aluminum
The tensile strength of pure aluminumdecreased with an increase in welding
speed. The reason was that low heat input of HAZ due to increasing travelling
speed caused largedecreases in the HAZ width, the samples experienced fewer
necks which could cause decreases in tensile strength. This was not the case for
pure aluminum. The highest tensile strength for pure aluminum was observed at
the 20 mm/min travelling speed.
Maximum Bending
Strength (N/mm2)
As a result of bending tests, no failure occurred in the weld region. The results of
bending test are given in Figure 4.
195
190
185
180
175
170
165
160
20
63
40
1
2
3
Traveling Speed (mm/min)
Fig.4. Aluminum bending test results for pure aluminum
Charpy test results of pure aluminum welds are given in Figure 5.
10
�Notch Impact
Strength (Joule)
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
50
40
30
20
10
0
1-I
1-II
1-III
Traveling Speed (mm/min)
Figure 5. Charpy test results for pure aluminium
For the Charpy notch impact test, a standard test device with a capacity of 300
Joule was used. A 2 mm deep notch with a 450 angle was opened in the middle of
the specimens which measured 55 x 10 x 5 mm due to the dimensions of the
friction stir welded plates.
3. 2. Microstructure Properties
The schematic cross-section of a typical friction stir weld shows four distinct
zones which are illustrated in Figure 6, as reproduced from another study. Friction
stir welding is a solid state welding method which produces joints below the
melting temperature. Friction stir welding produces a very narrow he at affected
zone compared to other welding methods, because not very high temperatures are
involved in this process.
RCR
HAZ
BM
TMAZ
Fig. 6Macrostructure of the friction stir welding
These areas are the dynamical recrystallized region (RCR), the thermomechanical affected zone (TMAZ), the heat affected zone (HAZ) and the base
material (BM). The following four different regions were thus determined
throughout the experiments:
A: base material
B: he at affected zone (HAZ)
C: thermo-mechanical affected zone (TMAZ)
D: dynamically recrystallized zone (DXZ)
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
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In the DXZ, the grains become smailer as a result of severe deformation and
extrusion, whereas in thermo-mechanical affected zone (TMAZ), the grains were
observed to grow gradually. The fine-grained structure of the dynamical
recrystallized zone (DXZ) contributed to strength and hardness improvement after
welding. The cause of changes in the structures of grain is associated with the heat
of friction.
When the number of revolutions was kept constant and the traveling speed was
increased, in the buffer zone, the widths of the mix of bands gradually increased.
This case can be related to the amount of material transported per unit time and
increasing travelling speed.
This region of intense plastic deformation and high friction temperature is called
as "dynamical recrystallized zone" or "welding center". Dislocation density is
lower and thinner in this region and it is composed of oriented grains. In the
friction stir welding applications of similar types of alloys, this region resembles a
pool of onion rings. The TMAZ zones are shown in the Figures 7, 8.
Fig.7. The microstructural zones of pure aluminium after welding
Fig. 10. Fracture surfaces pure aluminium
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
4. CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from the present investigations ofpure
aluminiumtypes:
Micro-structural analysis indicated an expansion in the size of the heat affected
zone with reduced travelling speed.
In the dynamical recrystallized zone, the grains became smaller as a result of
severe deformation and extrusion while in the thermo-mechanical affected zone,
the grains were observed to grow gradually.
The travelling speed of 40 mm/min produced the best microhardness, bending,
tensile and Charpy test results for all the samples studied, and thus, has to be regarded as the optimum travelling speed.
After complete bending, no microcracks were observed in the weld zones
REFERENCES
ASM Metals Handbook(1979). Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and
Pure Metals, American Society for Metals, Metals park, Ohio.
BozA.,KurtA.(2004). The influence of stirrer geometry on bonding and
mechanical properties in friction stir welding process.Materials and Design(25),
343–347.
FondaR. W.,BingertJ. F., ColliganK. J.(2004). Development of grain structure
during friction stir welding. Scripta Materialia(51), 243–248.
SomasekharanA. C.,MurrL. E.(2004). Microstructures in friction-stir welded
dissimilar magnesium alloys and magnesium alloys to 606l-T6 aluminum
alloy.Materials Characterization(52)49–64.
MeranC.(2006). The joint properties of brass plates by friction stir
welding.Materials and Design(27)719–726.
Ericsson M.(2005). Fatigue strength of friction stir welded joints in
aluminum.Ph.D Thesis, Royal Institute of Technology. Sweden.
SmithC. B.,HinrichsJ. F., CrusanW. Leverett(2003). FSW stirs up welding
process competition.Forming & Fabricating(2)25–31.
David J. E.,(2001). Ship Construction, 5th Edition, Butlerworth-Heinemann, India
StaronP.,KoçakM., WilliamsS., WescottA(2004).Residual stress in friction stirwelded Al sheets, Physica B(350) 491-493.
ÖzsoyM.,KaluçE.(2002). Sürtünen eleman ile birleştirme kaynağının esasları,
Mühendis ve Makine Dergisi (513)21-35 (in Turkish).
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
MertS.,KaluçE. (2003). Sürtünme karıştırma kaynağında kullanılan takımlardaki
gelişmeler.TMMOB Makine Mühendisleri Odası Kaynak Teknolojisi IV.Ulusal
Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, 103-ll5 (in Turkish)
http://tech.plymouth.ac.uk/sme/UoA30/ Weld_Microstructure.PDF
Investigation Of Fracture Toughness Of Calcium Phosphate Coating
Treated Onto Ti6A14V Substrate
İbrahim Aydın1, Hakan Cetinel2, Ahmet Pasinli3
1Celal Bayar University, Vocational Collage, Machine Programme
Manisa, Turkey
2Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering
Manisa, Turkey
3Ege University, Vocational Collage, Machine Programme
İzmir, Turkey
E-mails: ibrahim.aydin@bayar.edu.tr, hakan.cetinel@bayar.edu.tr,
ahmet.pasinli@ege.edu.tr
Abstract
In this study, we aimed to investigate the fracture toughness of the calcium
phosphate (CaP) coating, that was formed with Vickers indentation method, by
the new method with the new patent. The activation process was done with NaOH
+ H2O2 on the Ti6Al4V material surface. Elasticity module, hardness values and
coating thickness of the CaP coating that is formed by activation process was
calculated. SEM micrographs and EDS analysis were gathered of the coating.
Fracture toughness was determined by Vickers indentation. At the end of this
study, fracture toughness (K1C) value for the CaP coating on Ti6A14V that was
activated by NaOH+ H2O2 was found to be 0.43 MPa m1/2.
Keywords: Calcium phosphate, coating, vickers indentation, fracture toughness
Ti6Al4V.
1. INTRODUCTION
Titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) hip prosthesis is a material used in orthopedic implant
production just as widely as bone plates and bone screws (Hench, 1991).
Hydroxiapatite (HA) coatings are used in Ti6Al4V alloys in implant materials in
14
�
Dublin Core
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Extent
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1221
Title
A name given to the resource
Environmental Welding: The Friction Stir Welding
Author
Author
Selim , Sarper Yilmaz
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In this study, microstructural and mechanical properties of pure aluminum joined by friction stir weldingusing different parameters were investigated. Hardness, tensile, bending and impact mechanics tests were applied to the welded samples.In addition, optical and SEM tests were carried out. The effects of the welding progress rate on the microstructure and mechanical properties were investigated in these materials.Then, the optimal conditions for friction stir welding were determined for pure aluminum. Keywords:Friction stir welding, aluminum alloy, microstructure, mechanical properties.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/954854b2ccb70e1b6d4336134ac3ca15.pdf
cfe63acf56033a8b8da519e4c073a0f0
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Turkish
Airlines,
Labor,
Last
Accessed
on
4
30,
http://www.turkishairlines.com/tr-tr/kurumsal/basin-odasi/THY/is-gucu.
2012,
from
Turkish Airlines, Turkish Airlines’ 2010 Annual Report, Last Accessed on 4 27, 2012, from
www.turkishairlines.com/tr-TR/faaliyet-raporu/2010/pdf/tr-thy2010.pdf
Turkish Airlines, The Activity Report of The Board of Directors For the Period 1 January to
31
December
2011,
Last
Accessed
on
4
28,
2012,
from
http://wwwdownload.thy.com/download/investor_relations/annual_reports/faaliyet_raporu_ar
alik_2011.pdf.
Turkish Airlines, The Number of Passengers, Last Accessed on 4 28, 2012, from
http://www.turkishairlines.com/tr-tr/kurumsal/basin-odasi/THY/yolcu-sayisi.
UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development, Sustainable Aviation, Last Accessed
on 04 20, 2012, from
http://www.desd.org.uk/UserFiles/File/new_articles/pro_body_participation/sustainable_aviat
ion/Sustainable-Aviation-full-document.pdf
UN Development of Economic and Social Affairs, Aviation and Sustainable Development,
Last Accessed on 04 25, 2012, from http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd/csd9_bp9.pdf
Upham, P., Maughan, J., Raper, D. And Thomas, C., (2003). Towards Sustainable
Development, Earthscan Publications, 39, 115.
Forecasting Carbon Emission For Turkey: Time Series Analysis
Mehmet Mercan1, Etem Karakaya2
1Hakkari University, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Science
2Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Science
E-mail: mmercan48@gmail.com; mehmetmercan@hakkari.edu.tr, ekarakaya@gmail.com
Abstract
Within the context of sustainable development objectives, reducing greenhouse gas emissions
(GHG) that cause climate change was first discussed and officially negotiated at the 1992 Rio
Conference, which particularly emphasised developed countries to take serious measures.
Then, it was followed by the Kyoto Protocol, which specified national ghg emission reduction
targets for developed countries. With Kyoto Protocol, it was decided for these countries to
reduce global emissions by 5% below 1990 levels compared to 2008-2012 emission levels.
Turkey became a party to the Kyoto Protocol in 2009, yet due to their special circumstances
they did not take any emission reduction commitments.. Negotiations on Post-2012 emission
reduction obligations are still in progress under the UNFCCC umbrella and it is expected to
have emission reduction targets not only by developed countries but also by developing ones.
In this regard, it is important for Turkey to estimate its future ghg emissions, if they have to
take a Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA) for their strategy. There are
various ghg emission estimations for 2020 and the results indicate different emission levels.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Objective of this study is to estimate ghg emission levels for Turkey for 2020 and afterwards
by using time series and regression analysis. Then, appropriate policy implications are
discussed with the result of these findings.
Keywords : Carbon Emissions, Time Series Analysis, climate change policy,emission
projections
1.INTRODUCTION
Global warming and climate change is the common problem of the whole world and
humanity, concerning many sectors including industry, trade, tourism andagriculture. Acting
in coordination, analyzing the elements leading to the problem is important in solving this
issue. As the development levels, energy resources and population structures of countries are
not homogenous, the possible emission reduction rates due to their strategies to combat global
warming, applicable tools and measures taken, would also be different. Tasking the same
amount of green house gas reductionto a developed country and a developing country would
have negative consequences on the economy of the developing country.
Turkeyhas reached a growth trend since 2002 following the introduction of strong economy
programme, and is since among the group of developing countries. In line with her growing
economy, greenhouse gas emission has increased, which is a source ofglobal warming.In her
combat against global warming, it is important for Turkey to choose the most appropriate
tools, which would not harm the economic growth, or keep the damage at a minimum level.
At this point, the NationalGreenhouse Gas Emission Inventoryis the most important reference.
This inventory needs to be prepared annually by each United Nations Climate Change
Framework Convention (UNCCFC) signing country and submitted to the UNCCFC
secretariat. Thanks to this inventory, countries are able to determine greenhouse gas emission
amounts, sources and sectoral breakdown.
2. Climate Change negotiations and Turkey
A member of OECD since 1961, Turkey has been included to ANNEX-I countries group,
primarily responsible for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and at the same time, to
ANNEX-II countries which shall be providing financial and technical assistance to reduce
emissions from the underdeveloped countries. The economic development level of Turkey is
generally lower than both OECD countries, and the other ANNEX II countries. It is not
rational for Turkeyto have the same emission reduction commitment as economically
developed countries. Therefore, Turkey has not signed the CCFC during the 1992 Rio
Conference, even though she approved its principles, claiming she could not fulfil the
commitments.
According to the Kyoto Protocol, ratified in1997 at theConference of Parties 3 and opened to
signature on 16 March 1998, countries in the ANNEX I group are obliged to reduce their
greenhouse gas emissions to under 5% of the1990 levels, between 2008-2012. This target set
by the Kyoto Protocolis being regarded as one of the most important international steps taken
towards limiting the greenhouse gas emissions.
During the 1997 Conference of Parties3 (COP3) in Kyoto, Turkey demanded for CCFC to be
removed from both Annexes, however, as this demand was not accepted, Turkey did not
become a party to Kyoto Protocol. During the Conference of Parties 6 held in the Hague in
2000, Turkey has stated that she would become a side to CCFC as an ANNEX-I country, on
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condition that she is removed from ANNEX II and provided technical assistance, financial
assistance and capacity development, just like the former socialist states transforming to fee
market economies. As part of the decision taken at the Hague Conference, it was accepted for
Turkey to be removed from ANNEX-II, by the following decision taken atConference of
Parties 7 in Marrakech in 2001: “By recognizing the special conditions of Turkey compared
to the other countries listed in ANNEX-I of the convention, it is decided to keep Turkey in
ANNEX-I but remove form ANNEX-II, by decision number26/CP.7” (UNCCFC, 2001: 2).
Following these developments, the law on Turkey to join Climate Change Framework
Convention was signed on 24 May 2004 and Turkey became the 189th country to become a
side to the Climate Change Framework Convention.
The law on Turkey to join Kyoto Protocolwas adopted on 26 August 2009 and Turkeybecame
a side to the Protocol. Not being a side to UNCCFCon the acception date (1997) of the
Protocol, Turkey was not included to the Protocol ANNEX-B list, which defines the
numerical emission limiting or reduction commitments of ANNEX-I Parties. Therefore, there
is no numerical emission limiting or reduction commitment for Turkey during the first
commitment
period
of
the
Protocol,
covering
the
2008-2012
period.
(http://climate.cob.gov.tr/climate/AnaSayfa/BMIDCS.aspx?sflang=tr Access: 07.12.2011).
3. Global Warming Trend, Projectionsand Scenarios
By looking at the data gathered from all the studies on global warming, it is possible to say
that greenhouse gas emissions within the atmosphere are constantly on the rise. According to
the fourth and latest assessment report published by IPCC in 2007; the temperature of the
earth and oceans are increasing, glaciers are melting environmental transformation is taking
place at a very fast speed. As well as the IPCC reports, studies are being held on climate
change in many different countries. As an example; according to the measurements since
1958 by the Government of the United States of America National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration’s observatory located in Hawaii Island’s Mauna Loa Mountain (3500m) in the
middle of Pacific Ocean, carbon-dioxide accumulation within the atmosphere is rising at an
incredible speed (Figure 1). Other than the Mauna Loa observatory, a number of fixed stations
such as Law Dome, Adalie Land, South Pole and Siple, and aeroplanes for certain heights of
the atmosphere, are being constantly used to measure greenhouse gas, and increases in
greenhouse gas emissions are being scientifically set forth (Özçağ, 2011. s:12).
Figure 1: Development of CO2Density at the Atmosphere
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Source: http://www.licor.com/env/newsline/tag/keeling-curve/, Access: 13.03.2012
The saw shaped graphic at the first part of Figure 1 is being called as the Keeling curve. The
reason for the saw shape is representing the plants absorbing carbon-dioxide from the
atmosphere during the summer months, and giving back during the winter (Madra and Şahin,
2007:30-33).
As it could be viewed from Figure 1, while the CO2 density in the atmosphere between 17501900 increased from 280 ppm (parts per million) to 285 ppm, an increase of just 5ppm, it
increased from 280 ppm to 360 ppm between 1900-2000, an increase of 75 ppm. By
industrialization since the 1900’s, the increase in CO2 density is 15 times the level of the
previous period (http://www.brophy.net/weblog/pivot/entry.php?id=10, Access:27.11.2011).
The annual CO2 emissiondue to fossil fuel consumption was 6.4 GtC (Giga Ton Carbon) in
1990, but during the 2000-2005 period, it increased to 7.2 GtC. The atmospheric density of
Methane, another greenhouse gas, was 715 ppb (parts per billion) in pre-industry period, and
increased to 1732 ppb during the early 1990’s, and in 2005, the figure was 1774 ppb. During
the same period, nitric oxide levels rose from 215 ppb to 317 ppb (IPCC, 2007a: 2-3).
According to Assessment Report 4 (AR4) by IPCC; due to the great increases of the carbondioxide emissions, the average increase in surface temperatures until the year 2100 is
expected to be approximately 3 Co, or somewhere between 2 Coand 4.5 Co. In addition, many
scenarios anticipate that an increase of 0.2 Co/10 years would take place for the next 20 years
(Türkeş, 2007: 50). And it is claimed that sea levels would rise by 0.1 -0.9 metres between
1990 and 2100 (EEA, 2003: 94).
As well as the reports prepared by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to give insight
on the current situation, various scenarios are being prepared on the future of global warming
and on emission reduction. IPCC’s greenhouse gas emission reductionscenarios were included
in its first assessment report in 1990. These initial scenarios, prepared for the 1990-2100
period, were updated with a greater scope and published in 1992. These emissionscenarios
known as “IS92”,deal with atmospheric composition and it’s effects on the climate. The aim
of these studies is; to determine the expected greenhouse gas emission increases until 2100
and the related green house gas rates in the atmosphere; to determine the regional distribution
of changes caused by global warming and rain regimes stemming from increased greenhouse
gasses, by employing these values in various climate models, to determine land and sea
temperatures and to determine the possible consequences of climate change.
Following the initial scenarios, IPCC has accepted to prepare a new emissionscenario in1996.
These new scenarios are named Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES). In
IPCC’sSRES Report published in2001 and 2007, there are four different scenariofamilies.
The details of these scenarios were explained in the 2001 report, and updated in the 2007
report. These scenarios are A1, A2, B1 and B2 scenarios.
A1 Scenario Group is based on the assumption that the world economy would develop rapidly
by the use of new and more effective technologies, population increase would reach its
highest value at mid-centuryand then decrease. The emphasized areas in thisscenario family
are such issues as the interregional intimacy due to the important decreases in regional
differences on income per person, capacity growth, and increase in cultural and social
relations. A1 Scenario group includes sub scenarios on different developments in energy
systems such as A1FI (fossil intense energy technologies), A1T (non fossil-sourced energy
use) and A1B (a balanced distribution between all sources) (IPCC, 2007a: SPM, s:18).
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A2 Scenario Group is based on an unbalanced and slow economic growth with a rapid
increase in population, a non-homogenous world, with a structure where no special measures
are taken against global warmingand environmental change issues.
B1 Scenario Group, is based on the same assumptions as A1 scenarios but anticipates an
economic growth which does not need over consumption of energy, with an emphasis on
service sector. In this scenario, clean technologies based on more effective use of sources
shall be used.
And finally, B2 Scenario Group; it has an approach where economic, social and
environmental capacitiesare mainly solved at a local scale (IPCC, 2007a: SPM, s:18).
IPCC scenarios’ anticipations on world population and economy are given in the below table:
Table1: Economic Estimates of SRES 2001 Scenarios
Per Capita Income
Population
Gross Product
(Billion People)
(Trillion Dollar)
(Developed/Developing
Countries)
2050
2100
2050
2100
2050
2100
A1
8,70
7,04
164,5
518,8
2,8
1,5
A2
11,29
14,71
111,3
248,5
6,6
4,2
B1
8,7
7,04
135,6
328,4
3,6
1,8
B2
9,8
10,3
75,7
198,7
4
3
Scenario
Source: http: //www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/sres/emission/data/allscen.xls, Data: 27.11.2011.
In the Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES) prepared by IPCC, carbon-dioxide
andothergreenhouse gasemissions are predicted to be increased at important levels during the
next century. According to the report, global temperature would rise by 0.2 C 0per 10 years,
for the next 20 years (IPCC, 2007a: 12). Temperature increases and sea level changes
projected for the 21st century are given in Table 1.3.
Table 2: SRES 2090-2099 Estimations by 1980-1990 Data
Temperature Change
Scenario
Change in Sea Level
(C 0 )
(mt)
Estimate
Range
B1
1.8
1.1 - 2.9
0.18 - 0.38
A1T
2.4
1.4 - 3.8
0.20 - 0.45
B2
2.4
1.4 - 3.8
0.20 - 0.43
A1B
2.8
1.7 - 4.4
0.21 - 0.48
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A2
3.4
2.0 - 5.4
0.23 - 0.51
A1FI
4.0
2.4 - 6.4
0.26 - 0.59
Source : IPCC, 2007a. SPM, s.13.
According to (B1) scenario where global warming level is the lowest, it is estimated that the
temperature increase in 2090-2099 period would be 1.8 C0when compared to 1980-1990
period. The temperature increase during the period in subject is expected to be in the range of
1.1 C0and 2.9 C0. According to this scenario, it is calculated that the sea level would rise
between 0.18 - 0.38 metres. And according to the A1FI scenario where global warming level
is at its highest, world surface temperature isexpected to rise by 4 C0, while an increase of
0.26 - 0.59 metres is anticipated in the sea level. This has been shown in Figure 1.6.
Figure 2: Change Trend in Sea Levels
Source: IPCC, 2007a. s:409-410.
In the first part of Figure 2, changes in the sea level based on 1980-1999 are given. The period
covering the years 1800 - 1870 is an estimation, while the figures for the period 1870–2000 is
based on apparatus measurements (Tide Gauge). Sea level change values for the 2000–2100
period have been estimated by using the SRES A1B scenario. The second part of the panel
has been acquired by using the annual mean sea level values. Values for 1870 - 1950 period
have been extracted from Church and White (2006)’s work, while post-1950 values have been
extracted from Holgate and Woodworth (2004), and Leuliette et. al. (2004)’s work, and they
are within 90%confidence interval.
According to SRES Scenarios, the increase in atmosphericdensity of carbon-dioxide emission,
increases the acidity levels of the oceans. According to estimates, PH values of the oceans
would decrease during the 21st Century by 0.14 and 0.35. Lowered pH values of the oceans
means an increase in the acidity levels. With an increased acidity level and temperature,
oceans would lose their ability to absorb carbon over time (IPCC, 2007a. SPM, s:14).
4. Worldwide Trend and Reasons for Increase of Greenhouse Gas Causing Climate
Change
Humankind is faced with the enigma of global warming and climate change, by using the
nature to acquire the raw materials for his never ending demands, using fossil sourced energy
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during production phase, wastes released to the nature during production and consumption
phases, increase in world population, damages occurred to the environment and forests. When
evaluating these situations as a general, global warmingandclimate change issues are human
sourced issues.
In Table3, human sourced distribution of greenhouse gas emissions per country, and the total
amount in a world scale in 2009 have been given. As Table 3 indicates, the top five countries
with highest greenhouse gas emissions are China, America, India, Russia and Japan. These
countries have a total emission of 16,235 Million Tonnes of CO2e, and their share in total
greenhouse gas emission is 51.9%. Turkeyon the other hand, had a CO2e emission of 256
Million Tonnes in2009, and in total greenhouse gas emissions, Turkey’s share is eight per
mille (% 0.8).
Table 3: Countries with High CO2 Emission Levels in 2009 (Mt CO2e)*
1-China
6,831
12-Mexico
399
2-America
5,195
13-Australia
394
3-India
1,585
14-Italy
389
4-Russia
1,532
15-Indonesia
376
5-Japan
1,092
16-South Africa
369
6-Germany
750
17-France
354
7-Iran
533
18-Brazil
337
8-Canada
520
19-Poland
286
9-South Korea
515
20-Spain
283
10-England
465
21-Ukraine
256.39
11- Saudi Arabia
410
22-Turkey
256.31
World Total
28,999
Milyon Ton CO2e
Çin
Amerika
Hindistan
Rusya
Japonya
Almanya
İran
Kanada
Güney Kore
İngiltere
Suudi Arabistan
Meksika
Austuralya
İtalya
Endonezya
Güney Afrika
Fransa
Brezilya
Polonya
İspanya
Ukrayna
Türkiye
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Source : IEA, KWES, 2011, s. 48-57. Values in the table have been created by the authors.
*:Including land use, land use differences, and green house gas reductionchanges of the
forestry sector.
Humanity’s will to damage the nature for a wealthier life, as well as the above mentioned
human sourced factors, are leading to global warmingand climate change. Among the human
sourced environmental issues, we may count fossil sourced energy use, industrialization and
urbanization, population increase, land use changes and agriculture-stock breeding activities.
5. Carbon EmissionScenarios
In this part of the study, before starting with thescenarioimplementations, 2011
macroeconomic variables data for Turkey and general and sectoral carbon emission
projections for the 2011-2020 period will be given.
Figure 3: 1990-2009* TotalEmissions (Mt CO2e)
400
349.6 380.0
350
312.3
297.0
300
286.1
278.1
250
366.5
369.7
329.9
302.8
237.5
200
187.0
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1995
1990
150
Source: TUİK (2011) NationalGreenhouse GasEmission Inventory Reportdata have been
consolidated by the authors.
*: Emission values exclude Lulucf.
As Figure 3 indicates, Turkey’s carbon emission of 187 Mt CO2e in 1990 has increased by
58% and became 297 Mt CO2e in 2000. The rate of increase has slowed down since 2000and
it became 369,7 Mt CO2e in 2009, an increase of 24%. Since 2000’s, with the introduction of
“transition to the strong economy program”, there have been great increases in GNP, export
and import values (for instance; export increase 255%, import 154%andGNP 471% running,
and 34%fixed), but still, emissionincrease was highly reduced in 2000-2009, compared to
1990-2000. We may assume that this decrease was contributed by efficient use of energy, use
of renewable energy, and use of natural gas as fuel type.
In Figure 4, greenhouse gas emissions per sector to be used for the 2009 analysis are given.
These values were prepared by TUİK (2011) for the “NationalGreenhouse
GasEmissionInventory Report”. Electricity production sector (EL) is leading the table with a
93,3 Mt CO2e emission, and makes up 25% of the total emissions. Coal mining (CO) sector is
in second place with 71,1 Mt CO2e emissionand makes up for 19% of the total emissions.
Sectoral transportation (TR) on the other hand has an emission of 45,2 Mt CO2e. When we
look at the top three sectors; electricity production, coal mining and transportation sectors
produce 57% of total emissions. 2002 data indicate that, electricity production, coal mining
and transportation sectors are again occupying the top three places in emissions.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Figure 4: 2009 and 2002* Secoral Emissions (Mt CO2e)
100
93.3
90
80
2009: 369,6 Mt
CO2e
71.1
70
45.2 46.9
31.7
55.1
7.8 6.9
40
35.0
30 24.5
20
26.525.5
20
10
2002: 286,3 Mt
CO2e
50
50
30
72.3
70
60
60
40
80
14.9
0
36.3
20.5 19.7
6.0 5.3
10
11.5
0
AG CO PG RP EL CE PA IS TR OE
AG CO PG RP EL CE PA IS TR OE
2009 Sectoral Emissions (369,6 Mt Co2e)
Source: TUİK (2011) NationalGreenhouse Gas EmissionInventory Report data have been
created and classified by the authors per sector. *:Emission values exclude Lulucf.
Considering Turkey’s TUİK (2011) National Greenhouse Gas EmissionInventory
Report,average greenhouse gas increase rates for the 1990-2009 period is 97.64%and annually
5.13%.With the help of 2002 and 2009 sectoral greenhouse gas distribution, calculated from
“National Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory Report” in Figure 4, we may be able to
calculate sectoral greenhouse gas distributionfor 1990. If we apply the 5.13% increase for the
1990-2009 period to the calculated emissionvalues, we may acquire the sectoral and general
greenhouse gas emissions for the period leading up to 2020, which is given in Table 4.
Table 4: Carbon Emissions (Mt CO2e)* of Sectors per Year
AG CO PG
175
RP EL
CE
PA
IS
TR
OE Total
1990 16,0 36,0 3,9
3,5 47,2
13,4 12,9 7,5
22,9 23,7 187,0
1991 16,8 37,8 4,1
3,6 49,6
14,1 13,5 7,9
24,1 25,0 196,6
1992 17,7 39,7 4,3
3,8 52,1
14,8 14,2 8,3
25,2 26,2 206,3
1993 18,5 41,5 4,5
4,0 54,5
15,5 14,9 8,7
26,4 27,4 215,9
1994 19,3 43,4 4,7
4,2 56,9
16,2 15,5 9,1
27,6 28,6 225,5
1995 20,1 45,2 4,9
4,4 59,3
16,9 16,2 9,5
28,8 29,8 235,1
1996 21,0 47,1 5,1
4,5 61,8
17,5 16,9 9,8
29,9 31,1 244,7
1997 21,8 48,9 5,3
4,7 64,2
18,2 17,5 10,2 31,1 32,3 254,3
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
1998 22,6 50,8 5,5
4,9 66,6
18,9 18,2 10,6 32,3 33,5 263,9
1999 23,4 52,6 5,7
5,1 69,1
19,6 18,8 11,0 33,5 34,7 273,5
2000 24,3 54,5 5,9
5,2 71,5
20,3 19,5 11,4 34,7 35,9 283,1
2001 25,1 56,3 6,1
5,4 73,9
21,0 20,2 11,8 35,8 37,2 292,8
2002 25,9 58,1 6,3
5,6 76,3
21,7 20,8 12,2 37,0 38,4 302,4
2003 26,7 60,0 6,5
5,8 78,8
22,4 21,5 12,5 38,2 39,6 312,0
2004 27,5 61,8 6,7
6,0 81,2
23,1 22,2 12,9 39,4 40,8 321,6
2005 28,4 63,7 6,9
6,1 83,6
23,7 22,8 13,3 40,5 42,0 331,2
2006 29,2 65,5 7,1
6,3 86,0
24,4 23,5 13,7 41,7 43,3 340,8
2007 30,0 67,4 7,4
6,5 88,5
25,1 24,1 14,1 42,9 44,5 350,4
2008 30,8 69,2 7,6
6,7 90,9
25,8 24,8 14,5 44,1 45,7 360,0
2009 31,7 71,1 7,8
6,9 93,3
26,5 25,5 14,9 45,2 46,9 369,7
2010 32,5 72,9 8,0
7,0 95,7
27,2 26,1 15,3 46,4 48,1 379,3
2011 33,3 74,8 8,2
7,2 98,2
27,9 26,8 15,6 47,6 49,4 388,9
2012 34,1 76,6 8,4
7,4 100,6 28,6 27,4 16,0 48,8 50,6 398,5
2013 35,0 78,5 8,6
7,6 103,0 29,3 28,1 16,4 49,9 51,8 408,1
2014 35,8 80,3 8,8
7,7 105,4 29,9 28,8 16,8 51,1 53,0 417,7
2015 36,6 82,2 9,0
7,9 107,9 30,6 29,4 17,2 52,3 54,2 427,3
2016 37,4 84,0 9,2
8,1 110,3 31,3 30,1 17,6 53,5 55,5 436,9
2017 38,3 85,9 9,4
8,3 112,7 32,0 30,8 18,0 54,6 56,7 446,5
2018 39,1 87,7 9,6
8,5 115,2 32,7 31,4 18,3 55,8 57,9 456,2
2019 39,9 89,6 9,8
8,6 117,6 33,4 32,1 18,7 57,0 59,1 465,8
2020 40,7 91,4 10,0 8,8 120,0 34,1 32,7 19,1 58,2 60,3 475,4
Source: TUİK (2011) From the National Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory Report data,
sectoral emissions have been calculated by the authors, and simulation has been applied.*:
Emission values exclude Lulucf.
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As Table 4 indicates, 2009 emission rate was 369,7 Mt CO2e, and according to the 1990-2009
increase scenario of 5.13% (As of 2012, the latest emissionwas given for 2009), this emission
rate is anticipated to become 475,4 Mt CO2e in 2020. This is much lower than 604 Mt CO2e,
foreseen by the Ministry of Environment and Forestry (Ministry of Forestry and Hydraulic
Works) by using the MAED/ENPEP model, however, it is in accordance with the 421 Mt
CO2e value, foreseen by the European Commission using PRIMES model. Considering that
the MAED/ENPEP model does not reflect the energy assumptions reality and that the model
results are different than the actual values, it would be more realistic to use European
Commission’s PRIMES model.
Figure 5: Sektoral and General Emission Forecasts* for the 1990-2009 Period, According to
5.13%EmissionIncrease (Mt CO2e)
500.0
450.0
400.0
350.0
300.0
250.0
200.0
2020
2018
2016
2014
2012
2010
2008
2006
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
1994
1992
1990
150.0
Source: TUİK (2011) National Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory Report data have been
consolidated by the authors. *: Emission values exclude Lulucf.
The increase in greenhouse gas is slower in 2000-2009 when compared to the 1990-2000
period. In 2000-2009 period, greenhouse gasincrease rate was 24,45%, while annual increase
rate was 2,71%’dir. If we were to estimate 2020 emissions based on annual increase rates of
2,71%, we reach the findings given in Table 7.3. As Table 5 indicates, 2009 emission rate was
369,7 Mt CO2e, and by using the 2000-2009 period’s 2.71% increase scenario, this emission
value would reach 458,4 Mt CO2e by 2020.
Table 5: Carbon Emissions (Mt CO2e)* of Sectors per Year
AG CO PG RP EL
177
CE
PA
IS
TR
OE
Toplam
2000 25,4 57,1 6,2 5,5 75,0
21,3 20,5 11,9 36,3 37,7 297,0
2001 26,1 58,7 6,4 5,7 77,0
21,9 21,0 12,3 37,3 38,7 305,1
2002 26,8 60,2 6,6 5,8 79,1
22,4 21,6 12,6 38,3 39,7 313,2
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2003 27,5 61,8 6,7 6,0 81,1
23,0 22,1 12,9 39,3 40,8 321,2
2004 28,2 63,3 6,9 6,1 83,1
23,6 22,7 13,2 40,3 41,8 329,3
2005 28,9 64,9 7,1 6,3 85,2
24,2 23,2 13,6 41,3 42,8 337,4
2006 29,6 66,4 7,2 6,4 87,2
24,8 23,8 13,9 42,3 43,8 345,4
2007 30,3 68,0 7,4 6,6 89,2
25,3 24,4 14,2 43,3 44,9 353,5
2008 31,0 69,5 7,6 6,7 91,3
25,9 24,9 14,5 44,2 45,9 361,6
2009 31,7 71,1 7,8 6,9 93,3
26,5 25,5 14,9 45,2 46,9 369,7
2010 32,4 72,6 7,9 7,0 95,4
27,1 26,0 15,2 46,2 47,9 377,7
2011 33,0 74,2 8,1 7,1 97,4
27,7 26,6 15,5 47,2 49,0 385,8
2012 33,7 75,7 8,3 7,3 99,4
28,2 27,1 15,8 48,2 50,0 393,9
2013 34,4 77,3 8,4 7,4 101,5 28,8 27,7 16,2 49,2 51,0 401,9
2014 35,1 78,8 8,6 7,6 103,5 29,4 28,2 16,5 50,2 52,0 410,0
2015 35,8 80,4 8,8 7,7 105,5 30,0 28,8 16,8 51,2 53,1 418,1
2016 36,5 82,0 8,9 7,9 107,6 30,5 29,4 17,1 52,2 54,1 426,2
2017 37,2 83,5 9,1 8,0 109,6 31,1 29,9 17,5 53,1 55,1 434,2
2018 37,9 85,1 9,3 8,2 111,7 31,7 30,5 17,8 54,1 56,1 442,3
2019 38,6 86,6 9,4 8,3 113,7 32,3 31,0 18,1 55,1 57,2 450,4
2020 39,3 88,2 9,6 8,5 115,7 32,9 31,6 18,4 56,1 58,2 458,4
Source: TUİK (2011) From the National Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory Report data,
sectoral emissions have been calculated by the authors, and simulation has been applied.*:
Emission values exclude Lulucf.
Figure 6: Emission Forecasts for the 1990-2009 Period According to 5.13% EmissionIncrease
* (Mt CO2e)
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500.0
450.0
400.0
350.0
300.0
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
250.0
Source: TUİK (2011) NationalGreenhouse Gas EmissionInventory Report data have been
consolidated by the authors. *: Emission values exclude Lulucf.
6. Carbon Emission Projections
In this part of the study, greenhouse gasemission projections would be made by
mathematical models. By using the 1990-2009 period greenhouse gas amounts published by
TUİK, linear, parabolic, cubic andexponential forecasts have been made and given in Table6.
It is clearly seen that different methods produce different emissionvalues.
Table 6: Greenhouse GasEmission Projections (Mt CO2e)*
Carbon Emission Projections
Year
Linear Model
Parabolic Model
Exponential Model
2010
382,65
386,54
398,16
2011
392,32
397,30
412,38
2012
401,98
408,17
427,11
2013
411,64
419,14
442,37
2014
421,31
430,20
458,17
2015
430,97
441,37
474,54
2016
440,63
452,64
491,49
2017
450,29
464,00
509,05
2018
459,96
475,47
527,24
2019
469,62
487,04
546,07
2020
479,28
498,71
565,58
2021
488,95
510,48
585,78
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2022
498,61
522,34
606,71
2023
508,27
534,31
628,38
2024
517,94
546,38
650,83
2025
527,60
558,55
674,08
2026
537,26
570,82
698,16
2027
546,93
583,19
723,10
2028
556,59
595,66
748,93
2029
566,25
608,23
775,69
2030
575,92
620,90
803,40
Estimating Equations:
LinearEstimating Equation: y = 9,6632x + 179,73
R² = 0,96
ParabolicEstimating Equation: y = 0,0501x2 + 8,612x + 183,59
R² = 0,96
CubicEstimating Equation: y = 0,0238x3 - 0,6996x2 + 15,064x +
170,94
R² = 0,96
ExponentialEstimating Equation: y = 190,52e0,0351x
R² = 0,96
Not:Mathematica and Excel Programs have been used for the estimations made by 1990-2009
data.
*: Emission values exclude Lulucf.
As Table 6 indicates, according to the results reached by the help of linearequation; Turkey’s
greenhouse gas emission would be 430MtCO2e in 2015, 479 MtCO2e in 2020 and575
MtCO2e in2030. According to the results reached by the help of parabolicequation;
Turkey’sgreenhouse gasemission would be 441MtCO2e in 2015, 498 MtCO2e in 2020
and620 MtCO2e in 2030. And according to the findings reached by the help of exponential
equation; Turkey’sgreenhouse gasemission would be474MtCO2e in 2020, 565MtCO2e in
2015 and 803 MtCO2e in 2030.
The acquired findings are much less than the 604 Mt CO2e value forecast by the Ministry of
Environment and Forestry (Ministry of Forestry and Hydraulic Works) by using the
MAED/ENPEP model, however, they are in accordance with the 421 Mt CO2e value,
foreseen by the European Commission using PRIMES model. Considering that the
MAED/ENPEP model does not reflect the energy assumptions reality and that the model
results are different than the actual values, it would be more realistic to use European
Commission’s PRIMES model.
7. Result and Discussion
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
There is no emission reduction commitment for the first Kyoto period covering the
1998-2012 period for Turkey, who is on the full membership process for European Union.
However, Turkey is expected to be committed for the Post-Kyoto period covering post-2012.
Considering that emission reductions would have economic costs, anticipation of emission
trend, the level of commitment and choosing the best policy for emission reduction would be
highly important for the decision makers.
In our study, the anticipated emission trend for Turkeyhas been given by the help of
different mathematical models. According to the findings reached by the help of linear
equation; Turkey’sgreenhouse gasemission would be, 430MtCO2e in 2015, 479 MtCO2e in
2020 and 575 MtCO2e in 2030. This result is in line with the 421 Mt CO2e value for 2020,
forecasted by the European Commission using the PRIMES model. Even though different
methods produce different results, it is thought that the results acquired by the linear equation
are more consistent.
REFERENCES
Church, J. A., and N. J. White, (2006) “A 20th Century Acceleration in Global Sea-Level Rise”.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L01602, doi: 10.1029/2005GL024826.
EEA (2006) “Environmental Statement”, European Environment Agency Report No 8/2006,
Copenhagen, Denmark.
EEA (2007) “Greenhouse Gas Emission Trends and Projections in Europe 2007” European
Environment Agency Report, October 2007, Denmark, (Forthcoming)
EEA (2011) “Greenhause Gas Emission Trends and Projections in Europe 2011: The Fourth Report”,
European Environment Agency, Report Nu: 4, 2011.
Holgate, S. J., and P. L. Woodworth, (2004) Evidence for enhanced coastal sea level rise during the
1990s. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L07305, doi:10.1029/2004GL019626.
IPCC (2007) “Climate change 2007: Mitigation.”, Contribution of Working group III to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B. Metz, O. R. Davidson, P.
R. Bosch, R. Dave, L. A. Meyer (eds)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and
New York, NY, USA.
IPCC (2007a) “The Physical Science Basis”, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and NewYork.
IPCC (2007b) “Climate Change 2007: Mitigation”, Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change”, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and NewYork.
Keeling, C. D. ve Whorf, T. P. (2005) “Atmospheric CO2 concentration (ppmv) Derived From in Situ
Air Samples Collected at Mauna Loa Observatory”, Hawaii.
Leuliette, E. W., R. S. Nerem, and G. T. Mitchum, 2004: Calibration of TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason
Altimeter Data to Construct A Continuous Record of Mean Sea Level Change. Mar. Geodesy, 27(1–
2), 79–94
Madra, Ö. ve Şahin, Ü. (2007) “Küresel Isınma ve İklim Krizi”, İdil Yayıncılık, İstanbul, 2007.
Özçağ, M. (2011) “İnsan Kaynaklı İklim Değişikliği ve Ekonomik Büyüme Türkiye Üzerine Bir
Analiz”, Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bil. Ens. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Aydın, s.12.
www.tuik.gov.tr
http://www.licor.com/env/newsline/tag/keeling-curve/, Access: 13.03.201
181
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1242
Title
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Forecasting Carbon Emission For Turkey: Time Series Analysis
Author
Author
Mehmet , Mercan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Within the context of sustainable development objectives, reducing greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) that cause climate change was first discussed and officially negotiated at the 1992 Rio Conference, which particularly emphasised developed countries to take serious measures. Then, it was followed by the Kyoto Protocol, which specified national ghg emission reduction targets for developed countries. With Kyoto Protocol, it was decided for these countries to reduce global emissions by 5% below 1990 levels compared to 2008-2012 emission levels. Turkey became a party to the Kyoto Protocol in 2009, yet due to their special circumstances they did not take any emission reduction commitments.. Negotiations on Post-2012 emission reduction obligations are still in progress under the UNFCCC umbrella and it is expected to have emission reduction targets not only by developed countries but also by developing ones. In this regard, it is important for Turkey to estimate its future ghg emissions, if they have to take a Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA) for their strategy. There are various ghg emission estimations for 2020 and the results indicate different emission levels.Objective of this study is to estimate ghg emission levels for Turkey for 2020 and afterwards by using time series and regression analysis. Then, appropriate policy implications are discussed with the result of these findings. Keywords : Carbon Emissions, Time Series Analysis, climate change policy,emission projections
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a455d14de69ac48d7a5a6938f65e4db7.pdf
2b15cb99a5969744a34d5c039c97b5cd
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
Green Technologies And Strategies
The Detarmination Of The Direction Of Wind According To The Years
İbrahim Aydın, Selim Sarper Yılmaz
Celal Bayar University, Vocational Collage, Machine Programme
Manisa, Turkey
E-mails: ibrahim.aydin@bayar.edu.tr, selim.yilmaz@bayar.edu.tr
Abstract
Renewable energy sources are seen as an important source in meeting the
requirement of energy increasing gradually. One of these most outstanding
renewable energy sources is the wind energy whose technology and usage
develops most rapidly. To be able to make use of the wind energy effectively, it
should be cared that the dominant wind speed direction should be open enough in
surrounding. In this direction, to benefit from these wind tribunes more effectively
the wind measures must be done the montage of these tribunes should also be
done taking into consideration of these dominant open directions.
In this study, the wind measurements have been done hourly for five years and
consequently the dominant wind direction have been found out as North Northeast
(NNE) and East Southeast (ESE). At the same time, it has also been figured out at
the end of the study that there is absolutely no change in the direction of the wind
where it blows dominantly during these five years. In this direction, it has been
seen that there is no effective change in the direction of dominant winds
accordingly in years in that area and a year of measurement would be highly
enough to determine the dominant wind direction in the area.
Keywords: Renewable energy, wind energy, wind direction, wind tribune, wind
speed.
1. INTRODUCTION
Renewable energy resources are seen as an important source with an increasing
interest all over the world in covering the energy requirement owing to the fact
that the environmental problems increase every other day and the fossile energy
sources gradually decrease (Özerdem, 2003). Due to the fossil resources
decreasing day by day and the environmental problems increasing , renewable
energy resources are met with an increasing interest all over the world and seen as
significant sources in meeting the need for energy. The wind energy whose usage
and technology develop most quickly among these renewable energy resources
comes on top of all (Kose and Ozgur, 2004). When that wind energy is both local
source and clean and nature-friendly is taken into consideration, that it has an
important part in solving the problems of our day can be seen (Kose, 2004). When
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
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all these factors are taken into account, trying to compensate the needs with
renewable energy resources will both reduce the environmental pollution and
increase the life span of reserves by limiting the usage amount of fossil resources
which have been decreasing every other day. Consequently, research on these
matters should continually be strengthened and supported (Aydin, 2008).
In this study, the wind measurements have been done hourly for five years and
consequently the dominant wind direction have been found out as North Northeast
(NNE) and East Southeast (ESE). At the same time, it has also been figured out at
the end of the study that there is absolutely no change in the direction of the wind
where it blows dominantly during these five years. In this direction, it has been
seen that there is no effective change in the direction of dominant winds
accordingly in years in that area and a year of measurement would be highly
enough to determine the dominant wind direction in the area.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1.Wind Calculations
In order to be able to make correct calculations in a measuring station, the
locations of the equipments within the measuring stations and the distance
between them are crucial (Ozgur, 2006). These equipments consist of measuring
poles, sensors and data storage units. In measuring stations, the ideal height of the
upper anemometer should be 30 meters above the ground and 20 meters above the
lower anemometer. The direction control apparatus should be placed 1.5 meters
lower than the upper anemometer (Sen, 2003).
In order to design, plan and operate the wind energy systems, it is crucial to know
all the characteristics of the winds in detail. Long lasting reliable data are
necessitated so as to determine the positioning of turbines and the potential of
wind energy (Nogay and Taskin, 2000). Wind velocity calculations are the most
significant and crucial measurings for determining the annul energy savings,
stabilizing the performance and investing the sources of winds (Ackerman and
Soder, 2002). In order to benefit from the wind energy efficiently, the detailed
reports of the wind characteristics should be provided in a particular location. In
order to determine the wind potential of a specific zone, the calculations of the
zone mentioned should be provided at least for a whole year. However, A larger
period than a year will provide you with more accurate assessments.
2.2. The Situation of the Wind Energy in the Province of Manisa
The distribution of the wind stations among the districts in Manisa is displayed in
the figure 1. According to this drawing, the total installed power had reached for
293.80 MW till the October of 2011 in Manisa.
In Turkey, since the January of 2011, 15 wind stations have been installed,
reaching an overall of 72 in the whole country. Akres-Akhisar wind station in
Bekirler village in Manisa-Akhisar formed by the Best-Karesi Energy Company
was opened in 11.09.2011. With the joining of 45 MW installed power in Akhisar
into the overall cycle, the installed energy of Turkey has reached 1600 megawatts,
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while Turkey’s investment has reached 1.6 billion Euros. Manisa forms almost
%18.36 of Turkey with its 293.80 MW. And this is a very high proportion.
Fig. 1: The distrıbutıon of the wind stations among the distrıcts in Manisa (Aydin,
2012)
3. RESULTS
3.1. Measuring the Directions of Dominating Winds in Manisa
Measuring in which directions the winds are moving predominantly is a crucial
matter in determining the locations of turbines. As a result of hourly
measurements in Manisa for five years, the moving directions and velocity rates
of 8760 winds have been stated. These measure rates obtained with the aid of
Manisa Region Directorship of Meteorology have been exhibited in Excel and by
using this software, it has been possible to determine how many hours, at what
directions and velocity the winds have been blowing for a year. These results have
been evaluated in Excel and the wind rose displayed in the drawing ‘Figure 2-3-45’ has been acquired. As a result of the wind measuring results conducted in
Manisa, the dominating wind direction has been stated as (NNE) North East North
and (ESE) East South East. It has been concluded that during the installation of
the system, it would be more appropriate to pay attention to leaving this particular
direction through which the wind velocity is predominant open in order to benefit
more from the turbine.
In this direction, it has been seen that there is no effective change in the direction
of dominant winds accordingly in years in that area and a year of measurement
would be highly enough to determine the dominant wind direction in the area.
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Sarajevo
Fig. 2: Wind Rose(2005)
Fig. 3: Wind Rose (2006)
Fig. 4: Wind Rose (2007)
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Sarajevo
Fig. 5: Wind Rose (2008) (Aydin, 2012)
4. CONCLUSION
In this study, the wind measurements have been done hourly for five years and
consequently the dominant wind direction have been found out as North Northeast
(NNE) and East Southeast (ESE). At the same time, it has also been figured out at
the end of the study that there is absolutely no change in the direction of the wind
where it blows dominantly during these five years. In this direction, it has been
seen that there is no effective change in the direction of dominant winds
accordingly in years in that area and a year of measurement would be highly
enough to determine the dominant wind direction in the area.
REFERENCES
Özerdem, B., The Development and the Future of Wind Energy Practices in
Turkey, 9th Energy Congress Turkey, World Energy Council Turkish National
Commitee, 65-73 s, Izmir,2003.
Köse, R., Özgür, M.A., Research of Wind Energy Potentials in Dumlupınar
University Campus, DPU Science Journal, Issue 5, 187-196 s, Kütahya, 2003.
Köse, R., An evaluation of wind energy potential as a power generation source in
Kütahya, Turkey, Energy Conversion and Management, 45:1631-1641 p,2004.
Aydın, İ., Gaining Electricity with A Small Powerful Autonomous Wind Energy
Circulation, MA Thesis, Dumlupınar University, Kütahya, 2008.
Özgür, M.A., Statistical Analysis of Wind Characteristic and Its Feasibility for
Electricity Production Kütahya, Dissertation, Osman Gazi University, Eskişehir,
2006.
Şen, Ç., Meeting Gokceada’s Need for Electric Energy with Wind Energy, MA
Thesis, Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, 2003.
Noğay, S., Taşkın, S., Power Performence on Wind Turbines, Measurements of
Noise and Velocity, 3rd National Clean Energy Symposium, Volume I, s385.
İstanbul, 2000.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
Ackerman T., Söder, L., An Overvief of Wind Energy - Rewiews Status 2002,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Rewiews, Vol. 6, 67-128 p.,2002.
AWS Scientific Inc., Wind resource assessment handbook, National Renewable
Energy Laboratory, 1997.
Aydın, İ., Yılmaz, S.S., The determination of dominant wind speed to increase
efficiency of wind energy in Manisa province, 1st International Conference on
Architecture and Urban Design, 19-21 April., Tirana-Albania, 2012.
Environmental Welding: The Friction Stir Welding
Selim Sarper Yilmaz1, Bekir Sadık Ünlü2, İbrahim Aydin2
1Celal Bayar University, Vocational High School, Department of Machinery,
45020, Manisa, Turkey
2Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering,
45040, Manisa, Turkey
E-mails: selim.yilmaz@cbu.edu.tr, bekir.unlu@cbu.edu.tr,
ibrahim.aydin@cbu.edu.tr
Abstract
In this study, microstructural and mechanical properties of pure aluminum joined
by friction stir weldingusing different parameters were investigated.
Hardness, tensile, bending and impact mechanics tests were applied to the
welded samples.In addition, optical and SEM tests were carried out. The effects of
the welding progress rate on the microstructure and mechanical properties were
investigated in these materials.Then, the optimal conditions for friction stir
welding were determined for pure aluminum.
Keywords:Friction stir
welding, aluminum alloy, microstructure, mechanical properties.
1. INTRODUCTION
Aluminum metal and its alloys are economical and attractive material due to their
superior mechanical properties. These features include the appearance,
lightness, ease
of production, physical and
mechanical properties and corrosion strength.
Aluminum is
known
for two mechanical properties; namely, lightness and corrosion resistance. The
weight of aluminium is approximately a third of the same volume
steel, aluminum, copper or brass and its specific gravity is 2.7 g/cm3.
Aluminum
has
an
excellent
atmosphere, water, salt water, oil
6
corrosion
resistance
against
and many chemicals.
the
In
�
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Title
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Green Technologies And Strategies The Detarmination Of The Direction Of Wind According To The Years
Author
Author
İbrahim , Aydın
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Renewable energy sources are seen as an important source in meeting the requirement of energy increasing gradually. One of these most outstanding renewable energy sources is the wind energy whose technology and usage develops most rapidly. To be able to make use of the wind energy effectively, it should be cared that the dominant wind speed direction should be open enough in surrounding. In this direction, to benefit from these wind tribunes more effectively the wind measures must be done the montage of these tribunes should also be done taking into consideration of these dominant open directions. In this study, the wind measurements have been done hourly for five years and consequently the dominant wind direction have been found out as North Northeast (NNE) and East Southeast (ESE). At the same time, it has also been figured out at the end of the study that there is absolutely no change in the direction of the wind where it blows dominantly during these five years. In this direction, it has been seen that there is no effective change in the direction of dominant winds accordingly in years in that area and a year of measurement would be highly enough to determine the dominant wind direction in the area. Keywords: Renewable energy, wind energy, wind direction, wind tribune, wind speed.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
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3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Importance of carrying capacity for sustainable trout culture: the case of “bagci balik”
Fatih Güleç1, Yusuf Güner1, Tolga Şahin2
1Ege Üniversitesi, Su Ürünleri Fakültesi, 35080 İzmir
2Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, Su Ürünleri Fakültesi, 17100 Çanakkale
Abstract
Trout is a fish species that is produced widely all over the world and it has an important place
in the aquaculture industry. For the sustainable development of the trout culture, it is need to
determine how much fish can be stocked per unit volume (carrying capacity). Over-stocking
could threaten fish welfare and sustainable use of environmental resources. Estimating of
carrying capacity is necessary both to minimize these adverse impacts on fish and
environment, and in terms of sustainable use of water resources. In this study, carrying
capacity of a commercial land based trout farm in Koycegiz (Mugla/TURKEY) was
investigated. Two methods were used to calculate carrying capacity and compared with each
other: “Oxygen requirement based carrying capacity” and “Metabolic waste based carrying
capacity”. The mean values of studied water quality parameters that used in calculations were
measured as; 14.12 ± 0.72 °C for temperature, 7.78 ±0.20 for pH, 10.1 ± 0.93 mg/l for
oxygen, 3,05 ± 0,84 m3 s-1 for flow rate. The annual production capacity was calculated
with these measured parameters. By the observed data, the carrying capacities of the farm
were found respectively with based on oxygen requirement as 538.42 ± 196.22 tonnes; and
based on metabolic waste as 1113.4 ± 463.7 tonnes per years. According to the results that
obtained from the study, there was significant difference between two carrying capacity
estimation methods. However when the oxygen levels of the water were examined, in some
months the negative values, that could adversely affect the life and growth of the trouts, were
observed. Fort this reason, to reduce the limiting effect of the oxygen and reach maximum
carrying capacity; it is needed to be integrated oxygenation or aeration systems into the
production ponds. On the other hand, for the sustainable use of the environmental sources in
the facilities engaged in production according to the metabolic waste based carrying capacity,
it is important to use advanced water filtration systems.
Keywords: Carrying capacity, land-based trout culture, water quality.
1.INTRODUCTION
Aquaculture is a farming method of aquatic animals and plants for nutrition, stocks
enrichment, making ornaments, hobby activities, and for scientific studies in a controlled or
semi-controlled manner, by human (Çelikkale, et al., 1999). Today, it is a rapidly growing
industry especially in terms of animal food. The combined result of development in
aquaculture worldwide and the expansion in global population is that the average annual per
capita supply of food fish from aquaculture for human consumption has increased by ten
times, from 0.7 kg in 1970 to 7.8 kg in 2008, at an average rate of 6.6 percent per year(FAO,
2010). According to data obtained from the FAO, in 2010, total global aquaculture
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
production (quantity) is 73 million tonnes. The value of the world aquaculture harvest,
excluding aquatic plants, is estimated at US$110.1 billion in 2009 (FAO, 2010). Turkey’s
total fisheries production is 653 thousand tons and 167 thousand tons of total production
comes from aquaculture. More than half of the amount of aquaculture (51%) is due to the
trout culture, and the value of production is around US$ 207 million (TUIK, 2010).
Sustainability has great importance for the aquculture industry as in all sectors. At this point,
the condition of the water is one of the vital criteria for aquaculture enterprises that are at the
top level of the production cycle. Aquaculture can be made depending on the the physical,
chemical and biological properties of water. These criteria should be in optimum standards
fort he sustainable aquaculture. Rate of flow and quality of incoming water are the first
parameters to be dealt with in establishing suitable living conditions for fish. (Penneli and
Mclean, 1996). Because, the water that is used for aquaculture, both brings oxygen to the
aquaculture environment and also provides removal of the accumulated wastes (Balık, et al.,
2002). On the other hand, estimating the carrying capacity of the farm, is an important criteria
to be considered. Carrying capacity is usually expressed in terms of quantity of fish per unit of
water flow (loading rate) or per cubic meter of rearing space (density) (Hinshaw, 2000).
Carrying capacity has an important influence on the success of aquaculture operations. The
appropriate stocking level is ascertained in carrying capacity studies (Frechette, 2005). Many
studies have demonstrated an effect of stocking density on various aspects of the welfare of
farmed fish (Wedemeyer, 1997). In intensive aquaculture fishes are usually reared at high
densities, which has led to concerns about welfare of the fish, so there is a need for the
development of reliable stocking density guidelines (Adams, et al., 2007; Ashley, 2007; Ellis,
et al., 2002; Huntingford, et al., 2006). Several causative mechanisms have been proposed to
explain why high densities negatively affect growth and feed utilization. The biochemical,
behavioural, and physiological changes induced by high stress levels are presumed to be
energetically costly, affecting the amount of energy available for growth (Barton and Iwama,
1991; Pickering, 1992; Vijayan and Leatherland, 1998; Wendelaar, 1997). High rearing
density in itself may further reduce access to feed, thereby reducing feed intake and directly
affecting growth (Alanara and Brannas, 1996; Boujard et al., 2002; Marchand and Boisclair,
1998). Incorrect Carrying capacity aplications both affect negatively to fish welfare and cause
environmental issues. This is the biggest obstacle in front of the goal of sustainable
aquaculture. Therefore, it is necessary to estimate the carrying capacity so good to reflect the
facts.
In this study, carrying capacity of a commercial land based trout farm in Koycegiz
(Mugla/TURKEY) was investigated. For the sustainable use of Yuvarlak Çay, the optimum
capacity and the maximum capacity had been calculated with both formulas.
2.Materials and methods
2.1.Experimental area
The study was conducted in a commercial trout farm that was located on Yuvarlakçay Stream
in Fethiye/Koycegiz. The commercial farm aimed to produce 900 tons trout per year in its
project. For the sustainable trout farming on this stream continuously, optimum and maximum
amount of fish, that could be stocked in the farm, was estimated.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
2.2.Fish material
The farmed fish species in the trout enterprise, was rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
(Walbaum, 1792), and the production period that was used in the farm, from egg to market
size.
Method
A number of different formulas have been devised to calculate carrying capacities, taking into
account oxygen consumption, growth rate of fish, feeding rates, water volume and
temperature, and other factors. Dissolved oxygen and ammonia (un-ionized) concentrations
are the primary limiting factors in the culture systems, with oxygen normally the more critical
(Hinshaw, 2000). Therefore carrying capacity (stock density) of the fish farms, can be
estimated with the amount of oxygen consumed by fish or methabolic wastes of the fish. To
be able to make this calculation, it is important to know amount of the feed given to fish.
Because, the single artificial input is the feed to the fish that grown in the farm and to the
natural environment (Balık, et al., 2002). In the calculations; two criteria are taken into
consideration: The oxygen rate that fish need to metabolize the feed and the amount of
ammonia released by digestion of feed the environment. In this study the approach of
Brannon, (1991), calculating carrying capacity of trout farming with oxygen and metabolic
wastes based methods.
2.3.Oxygen-Based Carrying Capacity Estimation
The optimum carrying capacity according to water flow rate and the dissolved oxygen in the
water was calculated by the following formula:
N = (0,25) / ( 0,00143 x Of)
p=R/N
*N
: L /min required/kg of fish feed
*0,25
: kg O2 to metabolize 1 kg of fish feed
*0,00143
: conversion constant
*Of
: inlet oxygen minus outflow oxygen (Oa - Ob)
*p
: kg of food fed
*R
: total rate of flow in L / min.
Mechabolic waste-Based Carrying capacity Estimation
The maximum amount of fish that could be produced by increasing the amount of oxygen in
the water, was calculated with this method.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Table 1. NH3 percentage of Total Ammonia Relationship to pH and Temperature
Temp
(°C)
pH
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
4
0.01
0.03
0.12
0.37
1.10
3.39
8
0.02
0.05
0.16
0.50
1.58
4.82
12
0.02
0.07
0.21
0.68
2.12
6.40
16
0.03
0.09
0.29
0.92
2.86
8.52
20
0.04
0.13
0.40
1.24
3.83
11.18
N = (0,032 x r) / (0,00143 x 0,02)
p =R/N
*N
: L / min. required/kg of food fed
*0,032
: kg NH3 + NH4+ produced/kg of food fed
*r
: % NH3 of total ammonia present (Table 1. NH3 percentage of Total
Ammonia Relationship to pH and Temperature(Brannon, 1991).
*0,00143
: conversion constant
*0,02
: ppm max. NH3
*p
: kg of food fed
*R
: total rate of flow in L/min
To use in the calculations, temperature(°C), flow rate (L/s), oxygen (mg/L) and the other
chemical water parameters were measured regularly every month.
Table 2. Monthly measured water parameters used in the calculations
Parameters
Ma
y
Jun
e
July Aug
.
Sep
.
Oct. Nov
.
Dec
.
Jan.
Feb
.
Mar
.
Apr
.
Flow Rate 2,88 2,38 2,3
(m3/s)
4
1,94
1,9
8
2,7
4
2,91
3,09
4,1
3
4,0
9
4,05
4,04
Temperatur
e (°C)
14,3
14,
5
14
13,7
13,5
12,
5
13,
7
14,2
14,2
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14,7 15,3 14,
8
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
pH
8,1
NH3 (%)
7,9
8,1
7,6
7,4
7,6
7,8
7,8
7,7
7,8
7,8
7,8
3,20 2,09 3,2
3
0,98
0,6
5
0,9
8
1,49
1,55
1,1
5
1,5
5
1,94
1,94
Oxygen
(mg/l)
9,3
9,3
8,9
9,9
10,
0
11,
7
10,3
10,4
11,
0
9,5
9,3
11,6
Oxygen
(mg/l)
4,0
4,2
5,7
5,12
3,8
5
4,9
7
4,97
6,35
8,0
1
6,3
6,51
7,77
(discharged
from ponds)
3.Results and Discussion
3.1.Carrying Capacity
According to “Oxygen-Based Carrying Capacity Estimation” method, it was calculated
between May to April with the varying flow rate in the ongrowing ponds, respectively; 212.5
, 175.6 , 156.6 , 163.1 , 169.8, 315.0 , 264.7 , 295.3 , 406.0, 315.8 , 298.8 , 457.7 tons trout
could be farmed in the months (Table 3. The total amount of fish produced by month (tons)
The sample enterprise could make two production in a year. When the carrying capacity was
calculated; 198,77± 24,58 tons trout could be farmed in the one production period and in the
second period; 339,72 ± 30,64 tons. It was estimated that totally 538,49±55,22 tons of trout
could be produced per year.
According to the calculation of “Mechabolic waste-Based Carrying Capacity Estimation”
method, that is taken into consideration the percentage of toxic NH3 in the total ammonia;
respectively; 241.3, 305.3, 194.2, 529.5, 816.8, 747.9, 520.5, 534.6, 966.3, 707.6, 559.1,
557.7 tons fish could be farmed (Table 3. The total amount of fish produced by month (tons).
472,50 ± 109,01 tons trout could be farmed in the one production period and 640,97 ± 70,65
tons in the second period. It was estimated that totally 1113,47 ± 179,98 tons of trout could
be produced per year.
Table 3. The total amount of fish produced by month (tons)
May June July
Capacity
(tonnes/ye
ar)
68
Aug
.
Sep.
Oct.
Nov
.
Dec. Jan.
Feb.
Mar
.
Apr.
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Based on 212,
oxygen
5
175,
6
156,
6
163,
1
169,
8
315
264,
7
295,
3
406
315,
8
298,
8
457,
7
Based on 241,
ammonia
3
305,
3
194,
2
529,
5
816,
8
747,
9
520,
5
534,
6
966,
3
707,
6
559,
1
557,
7
Figure 1. Estimated carrying capacities calculated with oxygen based and ammonia based
methods between May to April.
4.CONCLUSION
One of the most important issues is to measure water properties. While doing this the physical
and chemical parameters should be known. Beveridge (2004), previously reported that any
increase in temperature affected the metabolism, oxygen consumption and also increased
activity of fish. Optimal on-growing temperature level was reported between 10-15 °C by
Sedgwick, (1985) , and in addition to this between 12-18 °C by Çelikkale, (1988). In this
study, the water temperature ranged between 12,5-15,3 °C and the average temperature level
in the ponds was 14,12 ± 0,21 °C (Table 2). The temperature level did not adversely affect the
development of the fish.
Çelikkale, 1988 reported that 100 – 150 kg rainbow trout could be farmed with 1 L.s-1 . In
this study the avarage flow rate was measured 3.05 ± 0.24 m3.s-1. Additionally, water flow
rate was reduced during the experimental period due to very low rainfall in that season.
The dissolved oxygen (DO) level in the water is another important criteria in the estimating of
carrying capacity of the trout farm. Çelikkale, (1988); Edwards, (1987); and Stevenson,
(1984); reported that the DO level had to be more than 6 mg.L-1 for the rainbow trout
farming. The levels of DO varied between 8,9 and 11.7 mg.L-1 at farm inlet during the study
and the lowest DO at the pond outlet was observed in September (3.85 mg.L-1) (Table 2).
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
This value was found to be below the limit of DO concentration for rainbow trout farming (5
mg.L-1) as recommended by Belaud, (1995). Additional oxygenation systems were used to
solve lower DO problem, in the farm.
The present study showed that carrying capacity (stock density) of a trout farm was related
with water parameters. Although, the presence of suitable water temperature for trout farming,
the water parameters limited production. In the first method, oxygen was the significant
limited parameters for carrying capacity. Especially between May and September, the oxygen
levels decreased due to reduced water flow and as a result of this, amounts of the production
in those months were minimum. Although this farm was allowed to produce 900 tons of trout,
maximum 538,49±55,22 tons of rainbow trout could be farmed due to the low oxygene levels.
The problem of low oxygen levels for carrying capacity can be solved with by adding
alternative oxygenation systems. Aerators were used in this farm but it was observed that the
aerators were not sufficient and suitable capacity. Toxicity of total ammonia in water, was the
most important parameter that limiting carrying capacity. By using additional oxygenation
systems, the carrying capacities were increased between May and September. But maximum
carrying capacity was determinated by using the second method. By using the second
calculation method, the maximum production and carrying capacity was observed 1113,47 ±
179,98 tons per year.
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The Effect Of Water Temperature On Spawning Out Of Season In Rainbow Trout,
Oncorhynchus Mykiss
Yusuf Güner1, Halit Bayrak2, Fatih Güleç1
1Ege Üniversitesi, Su Ürünleri Fakültesi, 35080 İzmir
2SuleymanDemirel University, Mehmet Süreyya Demiraslan M.Y.O, 32510 Isparta
Abstract
Salmonid culture is a production sector with widespread throughout the world. Different
stocks of rainbow trout spawn in certain months of the year in hatcheries. This seasonality of
spawning imposes considerable constraints on trout farming because the consequent
restrictions on the supply of eggs and fry make it difficult for on-growing farm to maintain a
continuity of production of table-size fish throughout the year. Hatcheries should artificially
control the spawning time of their broodfish so that batches of eggs and fry might be
produced all year round. The modification of spawning time are possible using manipulation
of photoperiod. This series of studies were carried out in order to identify the effects of
varying water temperature on the ovulation of rainbow trout be exposed to photoperiodic
manipulation. This study was carried out in two different facilities. In the first facility, the
photoperiod regime was only consisted of constant short days (LD 6:18). The water
temperature had been changed between 7.5 and 15 °C during the the experiment in this
facility. In the second facility, it had been changed between 11 – 25.5 °C. The broodstock was
seperated into two different group. These photoperioded regims consist of constant short
days(LD 6:18) and altered photoperiod (LD 18:6 from February until May, then LD 12:12
from May until June, then LD 6:18 from June until November) which are acted to advanced
spawning. In both experiments, photoperiod regimes changed the maturation time regardless
of water temperature. However, when the water temperature is high, modulating effects of the
temperature on the maturation and ovulation time were observed. When the spawning time
modified to June – August, ovary growth and egg survival rate had been reduced by the
temperature effect ( >14 °C). It was found that the egg quality decreased when the water
temperature was 17 °C although the eggs could been removed from the fish. Based on the
72
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1228
Title
A name given to the resource
Importance of carrying capacity for sustainable trout culture: the case of “bagci balik”
Author
Author
Fatih , Güleç
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Trout is a fish species that is produced widely all over the world and it has an important place in the aquaculture industry. For the sustainable development of the trout culture, it is need to determine how much fish can be stocked per unit volume (carrying capacity). Over-stocking could threaten fish welfare and sustainable use of environmental resources. Estimating of carrying capacity is necessary both to minimize these adverse impacts on fish and environment, and in terms of sustainable use of water resources. In this study, carrying capacity of a commercial land based trout farm in Koycegiz (Mugla/TURKEY) was investigated. Two methods were used to calculate carrying capacity and compared with each other: “Oxygen requirement based carrying capacity” and “Metabolic waste based carrying capacity”. The mean values of studied water quality parameters that used in calculations were measured as; 14.12 ± 0.72 °C for temperature, 7.78 ±0.20 for pH, 10.1 ± 0.93 mg/l for oxygen, 3,05 ± 0,84 m3 s-1 for flow rate. The annual production capacity was calculated with these measured parameters. By the observed data, the carrying capacities of the farm were found respectively with based on oxygen requirement as 538.42 ± 196.22 tonnes; and based on metabolic waste as 1113.4 ± 463.7 tonnes per years. According to the results that obtained from the study, there was significant difference between two carrying capacity estimation methods. However when the oxygen levels of the water were examined, in some months the negative values, that could adversely affect the life and growth of the trouts, were observed. Fort this reason, to reduce the limiting effect of the oxygen and reach maximum carrying capacity; it is needed to be integrated oxygenation or aeration systems into the production ponds. On the other hand, for the sustainable use of the environmental sources in the facilities engaged in production according to the metabolic waste based carrying capacity, it is important to use advanced water filtration systems. Keywords: Carrying capacity, land-based trout culture, water quality.
Date
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2012-05-31
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Mirici S, Parmaksız İ, Özcan S, Sancak C, Uranbey S, Sarıhan E.O, Gümüşcü A, Gürbüz
B, Arslan N (2005). Efficient in vitro bulblet regeneration from immature embryos of
endangered Stenbergia fischeriana. Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult. 80:239-246.
Nasırcılar, A, Mirici, S, Karagüzel, Ö, Eren, Ö, Baktır, İ (2011). In vitro propagation of
endemic and endangered Muscari mirum from different explant types. Turk J Bot. 35, 37-43.
Ozel ÇA, Khawar KM (2007). In vitro bulblet regeneration of Ornithogalum oligophyllum
E.D. Clarke Using twing scale bulb explants. propagation of ornamental plants. Prop. Orn.
Pla. 7(2): 82-88.
Ozel ÇA, Khawar KM, Karaman S, Ateş MA, Arslan O (2008). Efficient in vitro
multiplication in Ornithogalum ulouphyllum Hand.-Mazz. from twin scale explants. Sci. Hort.
116: 109-112.
Uzun S., İlbaş A.İ., İpek A., Beyzi E.Uranbey, S. and Arslan, N. (2012). In Vitro Propagation
of Endemic Iris galactica Immature Zygotic. XI. International Symposium on Flower Bulbs
and Herbaceous Perennials. Abstract Book. P: 109. ANTALYA.
Yıldırım Z., Öztürk G. and Esen, M. (2010). Propagation of Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.)
in In Vitro Conditions. III. National Ornamental Plants Congress.p:98-102. İZMİR
Zencirkıran M.and Mengüç A. (2002).The Effects of Twin Scale and Chipping
Techniques on Bulblet Production in Galanthus elwesii Hook. II. National Ornamental
Plants Congress.p: 24-28.ANTALYA.
Zeybekoğlu E. and Özzambak E, 2012. XI. International Symposium on Flower Bulbs and
Herbaceous Perennials. Abstract Book. P: 225. ANTALYA.
Indoor Air Quality Of Some Social Areas In Konya City Center, Turkey
Yusuf Alparslan Argun1, Sukru Dursun2, Mehmet Emin Argun2,*
1 Aksaray University, Institute of Science, Environmental Engineering Dept.
2 Selcuk University, Engineering Faculty, Environ. Eng. Dep. 42003-Konya-Turkey
E-mails: sdursun@selcuk.edu.tr; argun@selcuk.edu.tr.
Abstract
Indoor activities, building characteristics and outdoor climatic conditions have all affected
indoor environment air quality. Some peoples, especially young and unemployed persons
spend on about 90 % of their times indoor environment. Indoor air quality has direct effect on
human health. One of the most important parameter for indoor air quality is particulate matter
(PM2.5). Therefore, determination of personal exposure to particulate matter (PM2.5) in these
areas especially in café is predicted to be key role. Long exposure to particulate matters may
lead to numerous diseases.
In this study, particulate matter was determined in different social areas at the morning and
evening for 30-sec. intervals during 15 minutes. Study area is heavily urbanized by a lot of
buildings and also surrounded by roads with intensive traffic circulation. It was concluded
382
�from this study that some parameters such as ventilation, people circulation, ceiling height,
construction shape and floor level have affected the measured concentration of particulate
matter. The analyses have evaluated by personal Particle Meter equipment. Different
conditions of the cafes for the PM values are also evaluated. Maximum and minimum PM2.5
concentrations were obtained as 3.485 μg/m3 for a Hubble-Bubble Cafe and 23 μg/m3 for a
Book Store. Numbers of obtained data were found to be higher than the EPA‘s standards for
indoor environment. EPA established that PM concentration should be lower than 20 g/m3
for indoors. Turkey has only outdoor air quality limitations for PM10 which is about 150
μg/m3 for long exposure and 300 μg/m3 for short exposure
Keywords: indoor air quality, particulate matter, human health.
1.INTRODUCTION
Indoor environment air quality is interacted and affected by the local outdoor air, specific
building characteristics and indoor activities (Stranger et al., 2007; 2008). Peoples lived in the
city center spend on about 90 % of their times indoor environment (Soysal and Demiral,
2007). Some peoples in Turkey especially young and unemployed persons spend most of their
spare time at social areas such as cafe, coffeehouses, internet café, shopping stores and book
stores. Therefore, determination of personal exposure to air pollution in these areas especially
in café is predicted to be key role (Stranger et al., 2008). PM2.5 is generally identified as
particulate matter having diameter less than 2.5 m which is mostly result of human activities,
food cooking operations, diesel engine exhaust and dust from wood burning (Zheng et al.,
2002). Long exposure to particulate matters may lead to some respiratory diseases changing
from basic couch and allergy to more serious lung diseases namely pneumoconiosis (Jones et
al., 2002; Kim et al., 2005).
Establishment of certain PM limitation becomes a necessity for government. However, the
PM limitations for indoor air quality have been newly established and a lot of governments
have even no arrangement. Table 1 shows the EPA limitations for indoors and concluded that
PM concentration should be lower than 20 g/m3 (EPA, 2001; Gonullu et al., 2002). Turkey
has only outdoor air quality limitations for PM10 which is about 150 μg/m3 for long exposure
and 300 μg/m3 for short exposure (Anon., 1986).
Table 1: Maximum indoor air quality limits according to EPA (EPA, 2001; Gonullu et al.,
2002)
Indoor pollutants
Maximum allowable concentrations
Carbonmonoxide (CO)
< 9 ppm
Carbondioxide (CO2)
< 800 ppm
Mould
It should be equal outdoor level
Formaldehyde
< 20 μg/m3
383
�Total volatile comp.
< 200 μg/m3
4-phenil cyclohexan (4-PC)
< 3 μg/m3
Total particulate matter (PM)
< 20 μg/m3
Regular pollutants
< national indoor standard
Other pollutants
< 5% of limit
2.Materials and Methods
Determination of particulate matter in 13 social areas at three different regions in the city
center of Konya (Turkiye) was investigated. These areas are surrounded by roads with
intensive buildings and traffic circulation. During each sampling period, PM2.5
concentrations were measured using a personal Particle Meter (personal Data RAM,
pDR1200, MIE Inc., Bedford, MA, 2000) in the study areas. The obtained data recorded at
30-sec. intervals during 15 minutes (Turkish Standards for air sampling). The map of study
areas is given in Figure 1. Table 2 also shows some information about measuring points.
Figure 1: The map of study areas in the city center of Konya
3.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Average and maximum PM2.5 concentration at the morning and evening periods are
summarized in Table 3. Measuring point 1 is a pizza cafe where some types of pizzas,
macaronis and other fast foods produced in. Average and maximum PM concentrations of this
point were 34 μg/m3 and 112 μg/m3 at the morning and 338 μg/m3 and 575 μg/m3 at the
evening, respectively (Figure 2). The probable reason of this relatively high PM level may be
due uprising of adsorbed dusts from the sponge covering furniture and chairs by ventilation of
the area. Some extra peak values were observed at the end of the evening measuring period
probably due to dust of flour and entering some people group.
384
�The highest levels among all measuring point were obtained in MP2, MP4 and MP8 as 3485,
1812 and 1208 μg/m3, respectively. These points are hubble-bubble (nargile in Turkish) cafe
and therefore a lot of smokes might be present. The high values may be a result of these
smokes. It was also concluded that sponge covering of furniture, hanging of carpets on the
walls and wavy structures of the cafe (MP2) caused to increase of PM concentration. Also, for
MP 8, the basement conditions could decrease ventilation and altered PM concentrations.
Table 2: Physical conditions of measuring points
Measuri
ng Point Type of MP
(MP)
Approx
area (m2)
Ceiling
Height
(m)
Number
of floor
Measuring
floor
1
Pizza cafe
40
2.3
5
Ground
2
Hubblebubble
100
3
Coffee house
90
4
Hubblebubble
80
5
Internet cafe
100
2.7
4
Ground
6
Coffee house
90
2.9
5
1st floor
7
Shop
200
3.5
5
Ground
8
Hubblebubble
100
9
Coffee house
90
2.9
5
2nd floor
10
Tea house
30
3.0
5
Ground
11
Billiards
saloon
160
12
Book store
110
3.0
4
Ground
13
Restaurant
90
2.7
4
Ground
2.4
2.8
3.0
2.2
3.1
5
6
6
6
2
Ground
1st floor
Ground
Basement
1st flor
Table 3: Average and maximum PM2.5 concentration at the morning and evening periods for
each sampling point
Sampling
385
Morning measurement
Evening Measurement
�Point
TWA
(mg/m3)
MAX
(mg/m3)
TWA
(mg/m3)
MAX
(mg/m3)
1
0.034
0.112
0.338
0.575
2
0.606
1.066
1.765
3.485
3
0.068
0.162
0.109
0.198
4
0.726
1.291
1.279
1.812
5
0.051
0.118
0.058
0.138
6
0.043
0.096
0.066
0.358
7
0.060
0.235
0.061
0.146
8
0.586
0.734
0.853
1.208
9
0.065
0.120
0.087
0.233
10
0.041
0.102
0.118
0.429
11
0.082
0.213
0.181
0.350
12
0.023
0.053
0.033
0.100
13
0.100
0.262
0.178
0.312
386
�0,6
Concentration(mg/m3)
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0
150
300
450
600
750
Time (second)
Evening
Morning
0
150
300
900
3,5
Concentration(mg/m3)
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
450
600
750
Time (second)
Evening
Morning
900
Figure 2: PM2.5 concentration of measuring point 1 (MP1) and 2 (MP2) at the morning and
evening periods.
387
�2
Concentration(mg/m3)
1,8
1,6
1,4
1,2
1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
0
150
300
450
600
750
Time (second)
Evening
Morning
900
Figure 3: PM2.5 concentration of (MP3) and (MP4) at the morning and evening periods.
The measuring results obtained from the coffee houses (MP3, 5, 6, 9) were generally low
levels according to hubble-bubble and pizza cafes although they were still a little higher than
EPA‘s limit for indoor PM concentration. The relatively low levels may be a result of good
ventilation, wooden furniture and not smoking.
388
�Figure 4: PM2.5 concentration of (MP5) and (MP6) at the morning and evening periods.
389
�0,14
Concentration(mg/m3)
0,12
0,1
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
0
150
300
450
600
750
Time (second)
Evening
Morning
900
Figure 5: PM2.5 concentration of (MP7) and (MP8) at the morning and evening periods.
Shopping centers such as MP 7 and MP 12 are generally large, crowd and having huge human
circulation during the day. Therefore, it may be expected that these types of areas have high
particulate matter concentration. However, measuring results showed that good ventilation,
high ceiling and clean conditions might lead to lower PM concentration.
Billiards saloon (MP 11) had also high particulate matters according to measuring results such
as 213 μg/m3 for morning and 350 μg/m3 for evening measurements. Playing billiards,
backgammon, and cards by a lot of peoples caused to increase the PM concentration of this
place.
In a restaurant (MP 13), average and maximum particulate matter concentrations were 100
μg/m3 and 262 μg/m3 at the morning and 178 μg/m3 and 312 μg/m3 at the evening
measurements, respectively. This may be due to cooking processes and high circulation of
people during the day.
390
�0,4
Concentration(mg/m3)
0,35
0,3
0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
0
0
150
300
450
600
750
Time (second)
Evening
Morning
900
Figure 6: PM2.5 concentration of (MP9) and (MP10) at the morning and evening periods.
391
�Concentration(mg/m3)
0,3
0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
0
0
150
300
450
600
750
Time (second)
Evening
Morning
900
0
150
300
900
Concentration(mg/m3)
0,12
0,1
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
450
600
750
Time (second)
Evening
Morning
Figure 7: PM2.5 concentration of (MP11) and (MP12) at the morning and evening periods.
0,35
Concentration(mg/m3)
0,3
0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
0
0
150
300
450
600
750
Time (second)
Evening
Morning
900
Figure 8: PM2.5 concentration of (MP13) at morning and evening periods.
4.CONCLUSION
Particulate matters (PM2.5) were determined in 13 different social areas at the morning and
evening. The major sources of the particles in the measuring points were obtained as hubblebubble and tobacco smoke. Therefore, health effects of smoking at indoor environment were
forced the government to arrange prohibitions against to stop smoking in indoor environment
in Turkey. Some particle sources resulted from kitchen such as flour dust and cooking gas
392
�were also determined to be major source of particulate matter in the restaurants and pizza
cafe. In addition, particle transport from outside via doors, windows or gaps of the building
and therefore outdoor weather situation may have also effect on the particulate matter increase
(Estekova et. al., 2010). It was also concluded from this study that some parameters such as
ventilation, people circulation, ceiling height, construction shape and located floor have
affected the measured concentration of particulate matter.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author thanks the Selcuk University Research Fund (SU-BAP) for its financial support to
symposium attendance.
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air quality in primary schools in Antwerp, Belgium, Indoor Air, 18, 454–463.
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Hekimlik Bülteni, 6, 221-226.
Zheng, M., Cass, G.R., Schauer, J.J. and Edgerton, E.S. (2002) Source apportionment of
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Indoor Air Quality Of Some Social Areas In Konya City Center, Turkey
Author
Author
Yusuf , Alparslan Argun
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Indoor activities, building characteristics and outdoor climatic conditions have all affected indoor environment air quality. Some peoples, especially young and unemployed persons spend on about 90 % of their times indoor environment. Indoor air quality has direct effect on human health. One of the most important parameter for indoor air quality is particulate matter (PM2.5). Therefore, determination of personal exposure to particulate matter (PM2.5) in these areas especially in café is predicted to be key role. Long exposure to particulate matters may lead to numerous diseases. In this study, particulate matter was determined in different social areas at the morning and evening for 30-sec. intervals during 15 minutes. Study area is heavily urbanized by a lot of buildings and also surrounded by roads with intensive traffic circulation. It was concluded from this study that some parameters such as ventilation, people circulation, ceiling height, construction shape and floor level have affected the measured concentration of particulate matter. The analyses have evaluated by personal Particle Meter equipment. Different conditions of the cafes for the PM values are also evaluated. Maximum and minimum PM2.5 concentrations were obtained as 3.485 μg/m3 for a Hubble-Bubble Cafe and 23 μg/m3 for a Book Store. Numbers of obtained data were found to be higher than the EPA‘s standards for indoor environment. EPA established that PM concentration should be lower than 20 g/m3 for indoors. Turkey has only outdoor air quality limitations for PM10 which is about 150 μg/m3 for long exposure and 300 μg/m3 for short exposure Keywords: indoor air quality, particulate matter, human health.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/27988e8de5c88dde9e43f9bd2e40268f.pdf
9017381796b1f7c1c00f6f74a633093e
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Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Dudu Evren, Ü., Ç. Kanlıtepe, C. Çıracı, G. Dönmez, 2001. Tuz Göl,’nden (Konya-Türkiye)
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Su Ürünleri Dergisi, 1. Alg Teknoloji Sempozyumu p, 225-232 (In Turkish).
Durmaz, Y., Gökpınar Ş., 2006. Dunaliella salina (Chlorophyceae) Büyümesi Üzerine
Tuzluluğun Etkileri. E.Ü. Su Ürünleri Dergisi, pp:121-124.
Garcia, F., Freile-Pelegrin, Y., Robledo, D., 2007. Physilogical characterization of Dunaliella
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Springer-Verlag, New York, pp:328.
Lamers, P.P., Janssen, M., De Vos, C.H.R., Bino, J.R. and Wijffels, R.H. 2008. Exploring and
exploiting carotenoid accumulation in Dunaliella salina for cell-factory applications. Cell
Press, pp:631.
Kaçka, A., Dönmez, G., 2008. Isolation of Dunaliella spp. from a hypersaline lake and their
ability to accumulate glyserol. Bioresource Technology, pp.8348.
Massyuk, 1973. Morphology, taxonomy, ecology and geographic distribution
of the genus DunaliellaTeod. and prospects for its potential
utilisation. Kiev: Naukova Dumka. Massyuk. pp. 312.
Taherzadeh, M.J., Adler, L., Liden, G., 2002. Strategies for enhancing fermentative
production of glycerol-a review. Enzyme Microbiol. Technol. 31, 53–66.
Wang, Z.X., Zhuge, J., Fang, H., Prior, B.A., 2001. Glycerol production by microbial
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Interactions between chemicals used in aquaculture and environment in terms of
sustainable development
Muhammet Altunok , Fatih Gülec , Zerife Peker , Klaus Kümmerer
Abstract
Aquaculture that is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and
aquatic plants, is the fastest growing animal production sector in the world. Global production
from aquaculture for human consumption amounted to 73 million tonnes and the value of
US$ 110 billion in 2009 and comprised almost fifty percent of the world’s fish supply.
Aquaculture, thus, plays an important role in global efforts towards eliminating malnutrition
and brings significant health benefits by nutritional well-being. It significantly dominates
most devoloping countries in terms of contribution to development by increasing gross
domestic product, providing employment opportunities and improving incomes.
The potentially adverse impacts of aquaculture that is also threat the sustainability when the
sector grows unregulated or under poor management, is of considerable current environmental
118
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
and public interest in the world. Besides eutrophication and genetically modified organisms
(GMOs), the main environmental pressure associated with intensive aquaculture is chemicals
(antibiotics, hormones, fungicides, pesticides, antifoulants, anaesthetics and disinfectants)
used in aquaculture. The intensive systems are often associated with various greater use of
different types of antibiotics and chemicals generate very different effects on the environment,
mainly on water and sediment quality (nutrient and organic matter loads), natural aquatic
communities (toxicity, community structure, biodiversity), and microorganisms (alteration of
microbial communities, drug resistant strains).
The interactions between humans, antibiotics, bacteria, fish and aquatic environments are
poorly understood and recent studies show a significant pollution of surface waters with
antibiotics and other chemicals which are potential risk to drinking waters. Moreover, as a
vicious circle and often as well, aquaculture is also negatively affected by pollution of water
supplies by other human activities (ie: agriculture and industrial activities).
The environmental approach to sustainable development can control the use of chemicals to
eliminate or reduce any negative effects to an acceptable level. Sustainability requires global
action, and therefore an effective solution can be achieved on the basis of environmentallyfriendly management systems towards social-ecological aquaculture to integrate aquaculture,
environment and society locally and globally. This paper, consequently, addresses the
relevance of the environmental approach to the role of aquaculture in sustainable
development.
Keywords: Aquaculture, Chemicals, Antibiotics, Environment, Sustainable Development
1.INTRODUCTION
Securing a safe and sustainable food supply for an increasing population is one of the world's
biggest challenges. Fish and aquatic organisms provide an important source of protein. But,
global population demand for aquatic food products is increasing while traditional wildcapture fisheries have reached a plateau.
Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and
aquatic plants in ponds and large net-cages. Farming of aquatic organisms is becoming an
important source of food in both international trade and subsistence sectors. After growing
steadily for the last four decades, it is now a substantial global industry supplying nearly half
of the world's supply of fishery products (fish and other aquatic organisms) consumed as
food. It may be an alternative supply to the increasing demand for aquatic products, strong
international competition, constant change in consumer needs and expectations, and also
depletion of fisheries, providing to reduce the pressure on wild stocks. In terms of its
economic productivity, the contribution of aquaculture to trade, both local and international, is
also increasing. The aquaculture industry has a potential for further development, but there are
some problems with environmental concerns and market instability, locally and globally.
Eutrophication, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), chemical pollution, exotic species
wild fish stocks and pathogens are some examples of the main environmental impact concerns
associated with intensive aquaculture (Naylor et al. 2000). Under potential risk of these
impacts, without any rules in context of ecological assessment and sustainable practices, it is
not to be expected that aquaculture will continue to supply the demand for aquatic products
for a long time.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
At this time of strong public concern throughout the world particularly about the impact of
aquaculture on human health and environment especially regarding the use of chemicals are
reflected in the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (FAO 1995). In this Code
there are several advices, such as the promoting effective farm and fish health management
practices (favouring hygienic measures and vaccines), the ensuring safe, effective and
minimal use of chemicals (e.g. therapeutants, hormones and drugs, antibiotics and other
disease control chemicals), regulating the use of chemical inputs in aquaculture (if they are
hazardous to human health and the environment).
Status and scope of aquaculture
Overall, 80 percent of the world fish stocks are reported as fully exploited or overexploited
and are thus unable to withstand additional fishing pressure. The continuing depletion of the
world’s fish stocks has led to an increasing demand for aquatic food from aquaculture which
has been expanded rapidly worldwide.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the global total production of
fish, crustaceans and molluscs, including wild capture and aquaculture, reached to
approximately 145 million tonnes in 2009 consisted of 90 million tonnes captured which has
been stayed level since 2001, plus 55 million tonnes produced by farms (Figure 1).
Aquaculture production has continued increasing at an average annual growth rate of 6.1
percent from 34.6 million tonnes in 2001 to current level and the value of aquaculture
production was estimated at USD 105.3 billion in 2009. It is the fastest growing sector of the
food economy. About 84 percent of total fishery production (121.8 million tonnes in 2009)
was used for direct human consumption. Global per capita consumption has been increased
steadily and reached to an average of 18 kg in 2009 with the share of aquaculture production
in total food supply at 46 percent. According to FAO projections, it is estimated that in order
to maintain the current levels of consumption, an additional 40 million tonnes of seafood will
be required by 2030 and global aquaculture production will need to reach minimum 80
million tonnes by 2050 (FAO, 2007). According to the international marketing records 38.5
percent (live weight equivalent) was exported in 2009 and the value reached USD 96.0
billion. The share of developing countries in this percent was 50.6 percent by value and 60.1
percent by quantity (live weight equivalent) in 2009.
Figure 1. Trends in world aquaculture production (FAO, 2010)
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All of these statistics show the important role of aquaculture in global efforts against hunger
and malnutrition for both developed and developing countries by supplying fish and other
aquatic products contain excellent animal protein and other essential fatty acids, vitamins and
minerals. It also contributes to food availability to improve global food security. In terms of
food quality, aquatic products bring significant health benefits and contribute to nutritional
well-being.
It can also make important contributions to the social and economic development of countries
through improving incomes, providing employment opportunities and increasing the effective
use of resources. It significantly contributes to the national gross domestic products in many
developing countries. This may provide a more productive investment opportunity for local
resources as well as playing important socio-economic role in rural regions.
2.What is sustainability or sustainable development?
In general, "sustainability" and "sustainable development" is a concept to guarantee a liveable
environment for all people in the long term. In this concept, aquaculture is highly diverse and
consists of a broad spectrum of species, systems and practices. Thus, several indicators, codes
and guidelines for sustainable development in aquaculture have been evaluated in recent years
(Folke and Kautsky, 1989; Subasinghe et al., 2009). Mostly these indicators can generally be
grouped into two main categories: Ecological and socio-economical indicators. Ecologic
indicators are aiming preservation of a functional environment, while socio-economic
criterions are to provide clear economic advantages for aquaculture farmers and social equity
to improve the community's welfare in the long term.
There is still little known, how sustainability can be increased in aquaculture and there is no
complete practicable criteria to certify the sustainability status of aquaculture operations.
According to the criteria systems in previous evaluations, sustainable development is an
integrative framework involving ecological, economical and social sustainability. Although,
all may seem of equal importance, the current focus is primarily on the economy to achieve
the competitiveness. However, environmental issue is a very important part of the
development process as no activity in aquaculture will take place if there is not good quality
water resources left. Economy and society fundamentally rise up on the natural world and
resources, and these are serving to improve the standing of environmental concerns.
Therefore, sustainable development in aquaculture industry must be environmentally friendly
that means conserving land, water and wildlife resources.
Along with too much complexity in sustainable development of aquaculture, there are many
concerns about environmental indicators containing two important components, resource use
and pollution. In this respect, the sustainable use of natural resources was described by EU
Commission in 6th Environmental Action Programme (6 EAP) as: "the consumption of
resources and their associated impacts cannot exceed the carrying capacity of the environment
and the linkages between economic growth and resource use must be limited". Water
resources are essential for life and health besides food and other products put huge demands.
Globally, the problem of water shortage is getting worse as the needs for clean water increase
in agriculture, industry and households because wastage and pollution is alarming critical
limits day by day. Therefore, everyone must be a part of efforts to conserve and protect the
water resources.
Aquaculture will continue to play an increasing role in fishery products to meet the globally
rising demand but the chemicals used in aquaculture put pressure on the environment around
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the world (Costello et al., 2001). As a result of technical development and incorporation of
advanced technology much of the fish farming systems have moved from extensive to
intensive systems that pose environmental risks and threats to the surrounding ecosystem in
rivers, water reservoirs and oceans. Much scientific literatures have identified the
environmental risks and impacts of the farming of aquatic organisms in open systems
(Costello et al., 200; Buschmann et al., 2009).
Another important concern is intensification implies increasing the number of individuals and
increase potential for the spread of pathogens. This spreading is requiring greater use of inputs
(e.g. disinfectants, drugs) and greater generation of waste products presenting a global threat
to both the aquatic environment and consumer safety (Kümmerer, 2009). To date, however,
aquacultural chemicals have not been paid sufficient attention to the significant risks that
would accompany the growth of the industry.
Chemical inputs and current situation of chemical usage in aquaculture
Table 1: Analysis of the chemical usage in aquaculture.
Wide range of potentially hazardous chemicals used in aquaculture
operations.
Strengths
Disease problems worldwide.
Uncontrolled and high local use of aquacultural chemicals.
Inefficient control and regulations for chemical usage in aquaculture
There is insufficient monitoring of chemical residues for aquatic products.
Technical knowledge of chemical analysis specific to aquaculture
practices is limited.
Weaknesses
Concept of carrying capacity models to aquaculture systems are nonexistent for certain locations and particularly closed basins in countries.
There is no certification system and guidelines developed for
environmentally sound and sustainable aquaculture and not harmonized
worldwide.
Lack of successful environmentally friendly aquaculture demonstration
sites for extension purposes nationally.
Sustainable and environmentally sound aquaculture practices will reduce
the pressures on environment.
Opportunities
Increasing awareness in local and international.
Generating public environmental awareness and education
Developing of technology and knowledge on the chemicals used in
aquaculture.
Inefficient waste management in aquaculture.
Threats
There is still no monitoring system for aquacultural chemicals in
environment.
Lack of institutional infrastructure to facilitate sustainable aquaculture
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development.
Low technical level of fish farmers.
Lack of knowledge of the environmental impacts of aquacultural
chemicals.
The aquaculture industry is a kind of agricultural sector and chemicals developed originally
for animal husbandry but now it common use in both. The chemicals are also essential for
increased and controlled production of progeny in hatcheries, increased feeding efficiency,
improvement of survival rates, control of pathogens and diseases, and reduction in transport
stress (Howe et al., 1995). However, effects of chemicals on the aquatic environment have not
been specifically evaluated. The lack of data on their use has complicated the problem. The
chemicals used in aquaculture includes soil and water treatments, fertilisers, disinfectants,
herbicides, antibacterial agents, other therapeutants, pesticides, feed additives, anaesthetics
and hormones.
Antifoulants: are used on solid surfaces, ropes and generally on nets in cage aquaculture
systems. Even if the antifoulants are generated and used for protection of boat surfaces, they
are also used to treat nets and this usage must be of concern if used in fish culture.
Disinfectants: are applied as external treatment for fish and especially for eggs and fry. These
agents are applied directly in aquatic environment and some of them could be very
persistently toxic to aquatic life at low concentrations such as formalin. Farmers will be
ensure that the potential for contamination of the environment will be able to minimised.
Pesticides: generally are used to control ectoparasits in fish culture. Some of them such as
organophosphates may produce vital effects on the health of farm workers.
Anaesthetics: are used in stripping of broods and during transport of fish in aquaculture to
sedate and calm the aquatic organisms.
Hormones: plays an important role to control and induce ovulation for the control of
reproduction as well as sex control for mono-sex production in aquaculture.
Veterinary pharmaceuticals: are applied in aquaculture as medicated feed and diluted in water
and most of them are preferred to prophylactic use rather than against diseases in many
countries. Therefore, using of these therapeutic agents are controlled by drug licensing
programmes, monitoring of limits on tissue residues and for environmental residues to
minimise the risks in terms of human and environmental health.
Heavy use of antibiotics in aquaculture:
Antimicrobials have been applied in aquaculture for over 50 years and its use has grown both
in numbers and quantity, as the problem of diseases has increased. Although they were highly
successful at first, improper using led to problems, and concern is now centred on treatment
failures. Moreover, it is now an expanding problem for human and animal health and for the
environment.
Antimicrobial compounds are persistent and can exhibit toxicity in sediments, and can
therefore affect the natural microbial community near aquaculture sites (Herwig and Gray,
1997). This residue potential may disturb the balance of the environmental micro-flora. One
of the major concerns with use of antibiotics (from any source) is the potential for bacteria to
develop resistance to the compounds and for the resistance traits to be manifested in other
bacteria including human pathogens (Guardabassi et al., 2000). Treatments may fail for
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several reasons, but probably the most consistent and fundamental cause of their failure is the
emergence of resistant bacteria. The risk posed to human health by disturbance of the
gastrointestinal flora, selection of resistant strains and allergies is also addressed elsewhere.
Quantities of antibiotics used in aquaculture are small compared to other forms of food
production and published data show the use of antibiotics in aquaculture has been diminishing
in some areas by regulations. Despite the low relative usage of antibiotics in aquaculture
compared to other food production systems, their use remains an issue of concern as
aquaculture is often practiced in relatively pristine environments and the exact quantities
applied directly to water.
All of the chemicals were not originally developed for aquaculture use and environmental
residues have been ignored. Therefore, it is difficult to estimate the size of risk because of the
lack of knowledge on the biological responses to chemical residues in receiving waters and on
the concentrations in farm's surrounding environment (sea, effluents and sediments). It is also
little known that fates of chemicals in the aquaculture system and the residues in cultured and
wild organisms. The picture is yet more bleak for environment with regard to the interactive
effects of multiple chemicals in relation to biological effects.
Human health and environmental concerns regarding the use of chemicals in aquaculture are
reflected in the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (FAO 1995). In this Code
there are several advices, such as the promoting effective farm and fish health management
practices (favouring hygienic measures and vaccines), the ensuring safe, effective and
minimal use of chemicals (e.g. hormones, therapeutants, antibiotics and other disease control
chemicals), regulating the use of chemical inputs in aquaculture (if they are hazardous to
human health and the environment).
A demonstration of an aquaculture activity from Turkey
Aquaculture has been developed in Turkey rapidly. Commercial aquaculture production in
marine and inland waters takes place all over the country. By 1995 there are approximately
800 fish farms (mainly producing rainbow trout) in inland waters and 400 marine fish farms
(mainly seabream and seabass) in operation in the country. However, little detailed
information is available on the environmental impacts of this industry.
Environmental assessment strategies for aquaculture operations were developed and proven in
some countries. However, the application of such strategies would be inappropriate without
modification and adaptation to the ecological particularities of the environments where
aquaculture operations located. Problems and antimicrobials vary from farm to farm (e.g.
cultured species, diseases, different capacities of surrounding environments, climate, level of
eutrophication, composition and diversity of fauna and flora) and require site-specific
environmental risk assessments.
Available data show that large quantities of antibiotics have been applied in the aquaculture
operations in Turkey. As being reference for local intensity, the selected river basin is located
in the south-western of Turkey. There are 16 trout fish farms in various capacities (totaly
appr. 10.000 tonnes/year), including family farms (100 tonnes/year) and businesses (3.000
tonnes/year).
Figure 1. Fish farms on Esen River in Fethiye (Turkey)
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Antimicrobials and disinfectants are generally used
prophylactically and therapeutically in these farms;
Oxytetracycline (appr. 700-800kg/year),Tribrissen
(Sulphadiazine/Trimethoprim) (appr. 750 kg/year),
erythromycin (appr. 400 kg/year) and the others
which are used appr. 100-200 kg/year, e.g.
enroflaxacin, amoxicillin, doxycyline, florfenicol
and last one is formaldehyde used as a disinfectant
(appr. 3500 liter/year), (Altunok, personal
communication). Previously published literatures
suggest that, in general, only 20-30% of antibiotics
are actually taken up by fish from medicated food;
thus, approximately 70-80% reaches the
environment (Samuelsen, 1989). For example, the
apparent oral bioavailability of oxytetracycline in
rainbow trout was reported approximately 5-6% (Björklund and Bylund, 1990). Some of these
chemicals and compounds have considerable adverse environmental effects, and, therefore
their use in aquaculture must be carefully assessed. The fate of such compounds should be
carefully addressed locally. Since the environmental impacts and risks are site-specific,
environmental approach to sustainable aquaculture development requires the integration of its
economic, environmental and social components at local levels towards global motion
planning.
3. Sustainability criterions regarding to chemicals
The limited availability of natural resources coupled with increasing demand for fishery foods
the need to move forward in aquaculture to become more sustainable. Compared to other
animal production systems, aquaculture is put under special pressure to become more
sensitive to environment because the industry uses important natural resources (freshwater,
rivers, wetlands, coastal and open ocean areas). The aquaculture industry is working towards
reducing use of chemicals and other artificial substances but there is still not effective
precautions and conservation plans regarding to chemical use in aquaculture for the most part
of the world. Thus, it appears that global efforts are needed to promote more judicious use of
chemicals in aquaculture. These efforts should focus on;
-increasing the investment on aquaculture
-alternative environment-friendly substances and methods of treatment,
- developing of vaccines
-developing welfare conditions for fish and other aquatic animals,
-developing an overall management system that is widely applicable throughout the world, to
monitor and control the chemicals.
-using of the chemicals in a manner that does not constitute a hazard to human health and the
environment and in accordance with the appropriate legislation.
-legislations must be strict and include every possible usage of chemicals (e.g. antibiotics may
be used on prescription from a veterinarian for the therapeutic (not prophylactic) treatment.
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-the regulation of discharges. In this regard, site specific discharge conditions may include
limits on the location, maximum biomass, types and quantities of chemicals due to
requirement for monitoring water and sediment quality locally.
- Increasing government support to encourage organic and alternative aquatic food farming.
4.CONCLUSION
At present, the fish farms do not treat their effluents and discharge them to the environment
increasing the environmental pollution worldwide. Pollution of water resources due to
chemicals plays primary role in ecosystem degradation, but chemical analyses alone may not
be sufficient to describe the adverse effects of the complex mixtures of chemicals present at
contaminated sites. The potential utility of biomarkers for monitoring both environmental
quality and the health of organisms inhabiting polluted ecosystems has received increasing
attention during the recent years. The complexity of these issues and often the lack of data
concerning their effects on aquatic environment as well as the lack of monitoring at field
situations and surveillance systems, are the factors limiting the risk analysis process. In
addition, the direct consequence of this lack of data is that many hazardous chemicals are not
classified, and are therefore sold without appropriate labels or safety data sheets. Thus, many
chemicals are used in the workplace while their potential effects on the health of workers
exposed to them and on the environment are barely known, or known too late. This
insufficiency of data is more pronounced in the most of countries, especially where
technology and resources are limited or less available. Therefore, it is urgently needed to be
determining the actual quantitative risk of aquaculture chemicals in the environment locally.
Furthermore, the policy of safe and effective use of chemicals must be developed.
Appropriate strategies must be chosen, according to individual requirements for country’s and
region’s. Strengthening research efforts and programs for human training and development, as
well as enhancing mechanisms for information exchange and technology transfer, may be
encouraged through international collaboration. The development of an appropriate and
effective impact assessment and monitoring system for aquatic farms is essential in order to
ensure the sustainable development of aquaculture, while taking into consideration other
aspects of integrated management of the areas, including tourism, fishery, other industries and
environmental protection.
REFERENCES
Bjorklund, H. and G. Bylund. 1990. Temperature-related absorption and excretion of
oxytetracycline in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri R.). Aquaculture 84: 363-372.
Buschmann, A., Cabello, F., Young, K., Carvajal, J., Varela, D.A., Henríquez, L. 2009.
Salmon aquaculture and coastal ecosystem health in Chile: Analysis of regulations,
environmental impacts and bioremediation systems. Ocean & Coastal Management 52 (2009)
243–249.
Costello, M. J., Grant, A., Davies, I. M., Cecchini, S., Papoutsoglou, S., Quigley, D. &
Saroglia, M. 2001. The control of chemicals used in aquaculture in Europe. Journal of
Applied Ichthyology 17, 173-180.
FAO, 1995. Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. Food and Agricultural Organization
of the United Nations, Rome, 41pp.
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FAO. 2007. The role of aquaculture in sustainable development. Thirty-fourth Session. 17-24
November 2007, C 2007/INF/16 Rome. FAO. 10 pp.
FAO. 2010. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. Rome. 197 pp.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1820e/i1820e.pdf
Guardabassi, L., A. Dalsgaard, M. Raffatellu and J. Olsen. 2000. Increase in the prevalence of
oxolinic acid resistant Acinetobacter spp. observed in a stream receiving the effluent from a
freshwater trout farm following the treatment with oxolinic acid-medicated feed. Aquaculture
188: 205-218.
Folke. C., N. Kautsky. 1989. The role of ecosystems for a sustainable development of
aquaculture. Ambio 18: 234-243
Herwig, R.P., and J.P. Gray. 1997. Microbial response to antibacterial treatment in marine
microcosms. Aquaculture 152: 139-154.
Howe, G.E., L.L. Marking, T.D. Bills and T.M. Schreier. 1995. Efficacy and toxicity of
formalin solutions containing paraformaldehyde for fish and egg treatments. The Progressive
Fish Culturist 57: 147-152.
Kümmerer, K. 2009. Antibiotics in the aquatic environment – A review – Part I.
Chemosphere 75 (2009) 417–434.
Naylor, R. L., Goldburg, R. J., Primavera, J. H., Kautsky, N., Beveridge, M. C. M., Clay, J.,
Folke, C., Lubchenco, J., Mooney, H. and Troell, M. 2000. Effect of aquaculture on world
fish supplies, Nature, vol. 405, pp. 1017-24.
Samuelsen, O.B. 1989. Degradation of oxytetracycline in seawater at two different
temperatures and light intensities, and the persistence of oxytetracycline in the sediment from
a fish farm. Aquaculture, 83, 7–16.
Subasinghe, R., Soto, D. and Jia, J. 2009. Global aquaculture and its role in sustainable
development. Reviews in Aquaculture, 1: 2–9
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Table 1 Monthly descriptive statistics and estimated parameters of length-weight relationships for both sexes of S. aurita in the Izmir Bay (central
Aegean Sea) from November 2004 to October 2005. (M: male, F: female, n: number of individuals, a and b: parameters of length-weight
relationships, 95% C.I of a and b: 95% confidence intervals of a and b, r2: regression coefficient).
Weight characteristics
TL Range
Mean TL
W Range
Mean W
(±SD)
Months
Sex
n
(cm)
(±SD)
(g)
November
2004
M
55
19.8-23.5
21.67±1.
07
F
91
18.7-23.5
21.69±1.
16
M
119
19.0-24.0
F
129
M
December
January 2005
February
128
Length characteristics
Relationship parameters
a
95% CI of a
b
95% CI of r2
b
56.43-96.72 77.62±13.9
8
0.0020
0.00190.0021
3.425 2.7034.147
0.87
4
47.80116.77
81.22±15.6
8
0.0021
0.00100.0032
3.429 2.8993.959
0.88
0
20.04±1.
16
45.46117.10
58.78±14.4
7
0.0018
0.00070.0029
3.453 3.0613.845
0.93
6
18.8-25.5
20.49±1.
56
42.84138.40
64.41±21.0
5
0.0007
0.00040.0010
3.762 3.5024.022
0.97
3
44
21.2-25.3
22.56±1.
01
72.30107.95
85.83±11.2
4
0.0500
0.00590.0941
2.389 1.9092.869
0.66
2
F
102
21.7-25.6
23.22±0.
90
102.31143.32
94.25±13.9
0
0.0023
0.00060.0040
3.380 2.9043.856
0.88
6
M
92
18.1-25.3
21.22±1.
37.15-
68.06±20.6
0.0006
0.0002-
3.777 3.327-
0.94
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
March
April
May
June
July
129
71
131.12
7
0.0010
4.227
0
F
90
18.7-24.6
21.85±1.
50
42.70123.23
73.32±19.0
3
0.0008
0.00040.0012
3.715 3.3334.097
0.95
4
M
75
21.6-23.8
22.75±0.
65
83.88119.52
94.67±10.4
6
0.0067
0.00550.0079
3.058 2.3003.816
0.69
3
F
62
22.5-25.0
23.37±0.
83
91.52132.22
102.84±12.
40
0.0083
0.00710.0095
2.989 2.1353.843
0.87
5
M
129
20.4-23.6
22.03±0.
97
62.40-94.87 77.29±11.4
7
0.0064
0.00080.0120
3.035 2.3773.693
0.83
3
F
74
21.3-24.6
22.68±1.
18
96.16112.47
89.63±14.4
6
0.0361
0.00360.0686
2.501 2.0132.989
0.62
7
M
63
22.1-24.6
23.13±0.
83
96.67129.17
106.70±9.8
3
0.1361
0.00690.2653
2.121 1.8832.359
0.68
1
F
72
21.5-25.6
23.79±1.
04
84.97150.75
121.58±16.
77
0.0060
0.00170.0103
3.130 2.6703.590
0.93
0
M
20
20.3-23.7
22.47±1.
68
62.72101.50
91.55±26.4
1
0.0073
0.00720.0074
2.789 2.3093.269
0.89
6
F
81
19.7-25.7
23.38±1.
90
64.54141.00
102.39±22.
55
0.0262
0.00580.0466
2.619 2.1273.111
0.91
7
M
136
18.1-21.1
19.59±0.
99
44.10-64.39 53.52±7.33
0.0203
0.01110.0295
2.645 2.3412.949
0.95
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
August
September
October
Overall
130
F
91
18.0-22.6
20.37±1.
57
41.36-80.63 60.74±14.6
3
0.0074
0.00220.0126
2.984 2.5203.448
0.95
4
M
56
15.0-26.5
20.57±3.
33
23.48165.29
73.26±41.0
5
0.0024
0.00190.0029
3.389 3.2573.521
0.99
6
F
84
14.2-28.5
24.55±3.
95
22.39205.80
140.47±57.
74
0.0044
0.00220.0066
3.215 2.8993.531
0.96
3
M
26
16.6-23.9
20.26±2.
61
30.88109.14
66.86±28.5
3
0.0016
0.00070.0025
3.517 3.1253.909
0.99
1
F
78
19.1-25.6
22.98±1.
96
53.84138.82
103.53±26.
64
0.0048
0.00230.0073
3.174 2.8423.506
0.96
6
M
106
19.6-22.0
20.75±0.
53
64.85-87.35 77.02±5.12
0.1010
0.04230.1597
2.189 1.8052.573
0.70
7
F
60
19.5-22.0
21.02±0.
58
71.71-91.73 80.06±5.88
0.0624
0.02130.1035
2.350 1.9182.782
0.79
8
M
921
15.0-26.5
21.32±1.
73
23.48165.29
77.06±21.3
6
0.0033
0.00240.0042
3.279 3.1093.449
0.87
3
F
1014
14.2-28.5
22.29±2.
08
22.39205.80
90.87±31.2
7
0.0025
0.00190.0031
3.375 3.2293.521
0.90
7
M+F 1935
14.2-28.5
21.81±1.
97
22.39205.80
84.03±27.6
7
0.0027
0.00220.0032
3.340 3.2323.448
0.89
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
All the LLRs values are given in Table 3. The values for coefficient of determination (r2) for
all the length-length parameters of male, female and combined were ˃0.9, and highly
significant (p˂0.001). LLRs were measured as TL=a+bFL, FL=a+bSL and SL=a+bTL
equation in all sexes and combined. In all the samples together, LLRs are as follows:
TL=-1.3284+1.2087FL, FL=1.4623+0.9581SL and SL=0.0000+0.8382TL. The results further
indicated that LLRs were highly inter correlated (r2˃0.9, p˂0.01).
Table 3 Length-length relationships between total length (TL), fork length (FL) and standart
length (SL) of S. aurita in the Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) from November 2004 to
October 2005 (n: number of individuals, a: intercept, b: slope, r2: regression coefficient).
Sex
Equation
n
a
b
r2
-1.0161
1.1915
0.984
1.1368
0.9761
0.984
SL = a + bTL
0.0000
0.8462
0.999
TL = a + bFL
-1.4792
1.2168
0.975
1.6747
0.9469
0.974
SL = a + bTL
0.0000
0.8330
0.999
TL = a + bFL
-1.3284
1.2087
0.980
1.4623
0.9581
0.980
0.0000
0.8382
0.999
TL = a + bFL
Male
Female
All
FL = a + bSL
FL = a + bSL
FL = a + bSL
SL = a + bTL
921
1014
1948
REFERENCES
Avşar, D., (1998). Fisheries biology and population dynamics. University of Cukurova,
Faculty of Fisheries, Adana, Turkey, pp. 303 (in Turkish).
Bagenal, T.B., & Tesch, F.W., (1978). Age and growth. In: Methods for assessment of fish
production in fresh waters, 3 rd edn. T. Begenal (Ed.). IBP Handbook No. 3, Blackwell
Science Publications, Oxford, 101-136.
Binohlan, C.; Froese, R., & Pauly, D., (1998). The length-length table. In: R. Froese, D. Pauly
(Editors). Fishbase 1998: Concept, Design and Data Sources. ICLARM, Manila, pp. 124.
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Erkoyuncu, I., (1995). Fisheries biology and population dynamics. Ondokuz Mayıs
University, Faculty of Fisheries, Sinop, Turkey, pp. 265 (in Turkish).
Froese, R. (2006). Cubelaw, condition factor and weight-length relationships: history, metaanalysis and recommendations. J.Appl.Ichthyol. 22, 241-253.
Gonçalves, J.M.S., Bentes, L., Lino, P.G., Ribeiro, J., & Canaroo, A.V.M., (1997). Weightlength relationships for selected fish species of the small-scale demersal fisheries of the south
and south and southwest coast of Portugal. Fish. Res., 30(3), 253-256.
Koutrakis, E.T., & Tsikliras, A.C., (2003). Length-weight relationships of fishes from three
northern Aegean estuarine systems (Greece). J. Appl. Ichthyol. 19, 258-260.
Lalèyè, P.A., (2006). Length-weight and length-length relationships of fshes from the Ouémé
River in Bénin(West Africa). J. Appl. Ichthyol. 22, 330-333.
Moutopoulos, D.K., & Stergiou, K.I., (2002). Length-weight and length-length relationships
of fish species of the Aegean Sea (Greece). J. Appl. Ichthyol. 18(3), 200-203.
Pauly, D., (1993). Fishbyte section editorial. Naga, the ICLARM Quarterly, 16, pp. 26.
Petrakis, G., & Stergiou, K.I., (1995). Weight-length relationships for 33 fish species in Greek
waters. Fish. Res. 21, 465-469.
Wootton, R.J., (1990) Ecology of teleost fishes. Chapman and Hall, London.
Could government legalize illegal settlement by improving their energy efficiency?
Janjusevic Jelena, Begovic Radojevic Milica,
UNDP, Podgorica; Montenegro
Abstract
In recent months we are faced with serious budget problems in Montenegro, the solution of
which, among other things is seen in reducing the number of employees in state
administration. On the other hand, the costs of living are significantly above the disposable
budget of households. Particular problem is the high cost of electricity, which recently
132
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Interactions between chemicals used in aquaculture and environment in terms of sustainable development
Author
Author
Muhammet , Altunok
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Aquaculture that is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic plants, is the fastest growing animal production sector in the world. Global production from aquaculture for human consumption amounted to 73 million tonnes and the value of US$ 110 billion in 2009 and comprised almost fifty percent of the world’s fish supply. Aquaculture, thus, plays an important role in global efforts towards eliminating malnutrition and brings significant health benefits by nutritional well-being. It significantly dominates most devoloping countries in terms of contribution to development by increasing gross domestic product, providing employment opportunities and improving incomes. The potentially adverse impacts of aquaculture that is also threat the sustainability when the sector grows unregulated or under poor management, is of considerable current environmental and public interest in the world. Besides eutrophication and genetically modified organisms (GMOs), the main environmental pressure associated with intensive aquaculture is chemicals (antibiotics, hormones, fungicides, pesticides, antifoulants, anaesthetics and disinfectants) used in aquaculture. The intensive systems are often associated with various greater use of different types of antibiotics and chemicals generate very different effects on the environment, mainly on water and sediment quality (nutrient and organic matter loads), natural aquatic communities (toxicity, community structure, biodiversity), and microorganisms (alteration of microbial communities, drug resistant strains). The interactions between humans, antibiotics, bacteria, fish and aquatic environments are poorly understood and recent studies show a significant pollution of surface waters with antibiotics and other chemicals which are potential risk to drinking waters. Moreover, as a vicious circle and often as well, aquaculture is also negatively affected by pollution of water supplies by other human activities (ie: agriculture and industrial activities). The environmental approach to sustainable development can control the use of chemicals to eliminate or reduce any negative effects to an acceptable level. Sustainability requires global action, and therefore an effective solution can be achieved on the basis of environmentallyfriendly management systems towards social-ecological aquaculture to integrate aquaculture, environment and society locally and globally. This paper, consequently, addresses the relevance of the environmental approach to the role of aquaculture in sustainable development. Keywords: Aquaculture, Chemicals, Antibiotics, Environment, Sustainable Development
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
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-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5388e292703591b76966dfffaf6ef513.pdf
1d924d9fa533e1683eb54378f5438692
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
MertS.,KaluçE. (2003). Sürtünme karıştırma kaynağında kullanılan takımlardaki
gelişmeler.TMMOB Makine Mühendisleri Odası Kaynak Teknolojisi IV.Ulusal
Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, 103-ll5 (in Turkish)
http://tech.plymouth.ac.uk/sme/UoA30/ Weld_Microstructure.PDF
Investigation Of Fracture Toughness Of Calcium Phosphate Coating
Treated Onto Ti6A14V Substrate
İbrahim Aydın1, Hakan Cetinel2, Ahmet Pasinli3
1Celal Bayar University, Vocational Collage, Machine Programme
Manisa, Turkey
2Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering
Manisa, Turkey
3Ege University, Vocational Collage, Machine Programme
İzmir, Turkey
E-mails: ibrahim.aydin@bayar.edu.tr, hakan.cetinel@bayar.edu.tr,
ahmet.pasinli@ege.edu.tr
Abstract
In this study, we aimed to investigate the fracture toughness of the calcium
phosphate (CaP) coating, that was formed with Vickers indentation method, by
the new method with the new patent. The activation process was done with NaOH
+ H2O2 on the Ti6Al4V material surface. Elasticity module, hardness values and
coating thickness of the CaP coating that is formed by activation process was
calculated. SEM micrographs and EDS analysis were gathered of the coating.
Fracture toughness was determined by Vickers indentation. At the end of this
study, fracture toughness (K1C) value for the CaP coating on Ti6A14V that was
activated by NaOH+ H2O2 was found to be 0.43 MPa m1/2.
Keywords: Calcium phosphate, coating, vickers indentation, fracture toughness
Ti6Al4V.
1. INTRODUCTION
Titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) hip prosthesis is a material used in orthopedic implant
production just as widely as bone plates and bone screws (Hench, 1991).
Hydroxiapatite (HA) coatings are used in Ti6Al4V alloys in implant materials in
14
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
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order to increase the biocompatibility. Phosphate based HA that forms the
inorganic structure of the human bone and teeth is being used in dentistry since
1970 [Li at all, 2002; Kokuba at all, 1999).
The most important property of HA is its excellent biological compatibility. HA
forms a direct chemical bond with sclerenchyma. In placing the HA particles or
posed blocks to bones; the new tissue forms in 4 to 8 weeks (Bajpai, 1990). HA
pored structure, as the cells grow into the pores, helps the tissues grow into the
implants. Also, acting as a canal system, pores in the HA structure help blood and
other important body fluids reach the bone structure. HA has an absorption rate of
5-10% a year. Studies show that HA implants are first covered with fibrovascular
tissues, and the grown lamella in the tissue turns into bone (Yetkin, 2001).
Osteoconductive properties of HA helps in attaching to the bone. Also HA is
known to have powerful chemical bonding tendencies for bone proteins (Bajpai,
1985). Body reactions are minimum because of the non-toxic properties of HA
(Capello at all, 1997). There are many methods for HA coating. Kokuba et al.
were the first to be able to coat HA on different biomaterials in synthetic body
fluids (SBF) (Taş and Bhaduri, 1999). Tas by changing the values that are
prepared by SBF, obtained calcium HA ceramic dust at the high chemical
homogeneity and purity in pH 7.4 and 37 0C biomimetic conditions (Pasinli at all,
2008).
Different methods such as “R-curve” and “Indentation Fracture Toughness” (on
Vickers hardness device) are used in determining fracture toughness. “Vickers
Indentation” method is prefered, as it is easier for sample preparation and
conduction of the study than the other methods (Neil, 1983; Kim and Kim, 1990).
Zhang et al. (Zhang at all, 2008), Mohammadi et al. (Mohammadi at all, 2007)
and Bharati et al. (Baharati at all, 2009), calculated fracture toughness values on
hidroxyapatite flourated, plasma-sprayed and hydroxyapatite coatings on
Ti6A14V, respectively by using Vickers Indentation method.
In this study, CaP coatings were produced by patented two different activation
processes including NaOH + H2O2 solutions (Pasinli at all, 2010). Elasticity
modules, hardness values and coating thicknesses of the CaP coatings were
measured. Fracture toughness values were calculated by using Vickers indentation
method. It was concluded that coatings produced by the patented new method had
higher fracture toughness values. At the end of this study, fracture toughness
(K1C) value for the CaP coating on Ti6A14V that was activated by NaOH+
H2O2 was found to be 0.43 MPa m1/2.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Preparation and characterization of the coatings
Biocompatible CaP coatings were deposited onto Ti6Al4V as substrate dimension
in
10 x 10 x 1.2 mm. The chemical composition of titanium alloy is
shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1. Chemical composition of Ti alloy substrate (Pasinli at all, 2010)
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
Element
(wt %)
N
0.0030
C
0.0050
H
<0.0005
Fe
0.1000
O
0.0900
Al
6.2100
V
3.8700
Y
<0.0010
Others
<0.3000
Ti
Balance
Firstly, Ti6A14V substrates were washed by detergent water, purified water, and
lastly acetone. In activation process, purified materials were held in 100 mL 5M
NaOH + 0.5 mL H2O2 (30%) solution and 100 mL 5 M NaOH solution in 60 0C
for 24 hours, separately. Then they were washed with purified water and dried in
40 0C for 24 hours. In CaP coating process, implant materials pretreated in the
solution that was prepared as pH 7.4 with lactic acid/lactate buffer according to
SBF values as in Table 2. Meanwhile, fresh SBF fluid was emitted in with
peristaltic pump 150 mg/day. At the end of the process, materials were washed
with purified water and dried in 60 0C for 24 hours.
TABLE 2. Preparation of 2.5 X Lac-SBF (total 2.5 L) (Pasinli at all, 2010)
Reagents
Amount
(g)
CaCl22H2O
2.2973
MgCl26H2O
0.7625
0.9325
12.0533
1.1125
0.1775
5.6708
10.4573
KCl
NaCl
Na2HPO42H2O
Na2SO4
NaHCO3
Na-lactate
1.385)
(70-72%,
Lactic acid (1 M)
16
d:1.375- 40.0 (mL)
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
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XRD analyses were performed in order to characterize the coatings. SEM images
and IR spectrums were obtained from the coated surfaces. Thicknesses of the
coatings were measured by using optical microscopy and image analysis
techniques.
2.2. Mechanical properties
In Vickers indentation technique, a certain load is applied onto coating surface by
a diamond pyramid tip. Cracks form in the corners of the indentation track.
Diagonal lengths of the mark and the size of the crack are measured and the
fracture toughness is calculated with the help of Equation 1 (Ponton and Rawlings
at all, 1989). 9.80 N of force was applied on the coating for 10 seconds by using
HVS-1000 Digital Display Microhardness Tester as seen on Figure 1a. As a
result, Vickers hardness value determined and the lengths of cracks were
measured. The crack seen on Figure 1b appeared and the (C) distance of this crack
was measured. Fracture toughness values of the coatings are calculated by using
Equation 1 (Mohammadi at all, 2007; Baharati at all, 2009):
K IC
E
H
1/ 2
P
C 3/ 2
(1)
According to the Equation 1, P is load, E is Young’s modulus measured by using
Shimadzu DUH-211 Dynamic Ultra Microhardness Tester, HV is Vickers
hardness value and C is crack length (Figure 1b). The α value was taken from the
literature as 0.016 (Dukino and Swain, 1992; Chen and Bull, 2006; Shikimaka and
Grabco, 2008).
FIGURE 1. (a) “P” Applied load on the coating and (b) “C” crack length at the
coating.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Characterization of the coatings
The thicknesses of the CaP coatings on the Ti6Al4V substrates were measured as
65 μm for NaOH + H2O2 activation processes. Figure 2 shows the SEM
micrograph of coating surfaces treated and Figure 3 shows the existence of Ca, P,
Ti and V elements on the coating composition determined by EDS analyses.
17
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
FIGURE 2. SEM micrographs of the CaP coating
FIGURE 3. EDS analysis of the CaP coating
3.2. Mechanical properties
Table 3 shows Young’s modulus and Vickers hardness values of the CAP
coatings determined by using Shimadzu DUH-211 Dynamic Ultra Microhardness
Tester and HVS-1000 Digital Display Microhardness Tester, respectively for
NaOH + H2O2 activation processes. Additionally, average immersion depths and
standard deviation values are shown on Table 3.
TABLE 3. Young’s modulus and Vickers hardness of the coatings and average
depth (μm) and standard deviation (μm) in ultra microhardness tests.
Coating
E
(GPa)
CaP coating on NaOH+H2O2 treated
5.26
substrates
18
HV
(GPa)
Average(μ
m)
Standard
Deviation (μm)
1.18
17.04
1.61
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
In Figure 4, the load-depth curves obtained by using Shimadzu DUH-211
Dynamic Ultra Microhardness Tester can be seen for the NaOH + H2O2
activation process.
FIGURE 4. The load-depth curves of the CaP coatings on NaOH+ H2O2 treated
substrate.
Loads applied on coating materials with HVS-1000 Digital Display
Microhardness Tester device and lengths of the resulting cracks (C) and calculated
fracture toughness (K1C) values are shown in Table 4. 9.807 N load was applied
on coating materials. The crack length (C) on CaP surface was 83.69 μm for
NaOH + H2O2 activation processes.
TABLE 4. Applied load, crack length and fracture toughness values of the
coatings
Coating
P (N)
CaP coating on NaOH+H2O2 treated
9.807
substrates
C (μm)
K1C
(MPam1/2)
83.69
0.43
Fracture toughness (K1C) values of the CaP coatings were calculated as 0.43 MPa
m1/2 for NaOH + H2O2 activation processes by using Equation 1.
On their studies, Mohammadi et al. and Bharati et al. have calculated the fracture
toughness values of plasma-sprayed HA coatings on Ti6A14V substrates [13] and
fracture toughness values of HA coating on Ti6A14V materials, respectively.
Similar to ours, Zhang et al. have found the fracture toughness values (K1C) of
HA flourideted coating on Ti6A14V substrate to be, ~0.12 MPa m1/2, ~0.26 MPa
m1/2 and 0.31 MPa m1/2.
19
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
4. CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, fracture toughness (K1C) values of the newly patented CaP
coatings are determined as 0.43 MPa m1/2 for NaOH + H2O2 activation
processes. At the end of this study CaP coatings on the Ti6Al4V substrates
produced by new patented activation methods have higher fracture toughness
values than that of the coatings of Zhang et al.
REFERENCES
Hench LL. J Am Ceram Soc 1991;74:1510.
Li, F., Feng, L., Cui, F.Z., Li, H.D., Schubert, H. A Simple biomimetic method for
Calcium phosphate coating. Surf Coat. Tech. 154 (2002) 88-93.
Kokubo, T., Kim, H.M., Miyaji, F., Takadama, H., Miyazaki, T. Ceramic- metal
and ceramic- polymer composites prepared by a biomimetic process. Comp. Part
A: App. Sci. and Man., 30 (1999) 405-409.
Bajpai, P.K., 1990. Ceramic Amino Acid Composites for Repairing Traumatized
Hard Tissues. In: Handbook of Bioactive Ceramics, vol.II: Ca-P and HA
Ceramics. Yamamuro, T., Hench, L.L., and Wilson-Hench, J., Eds. p. 255-270,
CRC Pres, Bato Raton, FL, 1990.
Yetkin, H., 2001. Ortopedi ve Travmatolojide Biomateryaller. 8th Biomedical
Science and Technology Symposium (BİOMED8), IL02, METU
Ankara/TURKEY, September 5-8, 2001.
Bajpai, P.K., Fuchs, C.M., 1985. Development of a hydroxyapatite bone grout. In:
proceedings of the firet annual scientific session of the academy of surgical
research. San Antonio, Texas, Hall, C.W. Ed. p. 50-54, Pergamon Pres, New
York, NY, 1985.
Capello, W.N., D'Antonio, J.A., Finberg, J.R., Manley, M.T., 1997. HA-coated
total hip femoral components in patients less than fifty years old., Jour. of Bone
Joint Surg., 79A, 1023-1029, 1997.
Tas, A.C., Bhaduri, S.B. Rapid coating of Ti6Al4V at room temperature with a
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Pasinli, A., Yıldız, H., Çelik, E., Aksoy, R.S., 2008, Mechanical Properties of
Calcium-Phosphate Coatings on Ti6Al4V Implant Materials by Biomimetic
Method, Electronic Journal of Machine Tecnologies, (4) 1-10, 2008.
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Solid Films 516 (2008) 5162–5167.
20
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Mohammadi, Z., Ziaei-Moayyed, A.A., Mesgar, S.M, Adhesive and cohesive
properties by indentation method of plasma-sprayed hydroxyapatite coatings.
Applied Surface Science 253 (2007) 4960–4965.
Bharati, S., Soundrapandian, C., Basu, D., Data, S,Studies on a novel bioactive
glass and composite coating with hydroxyapatite on titanium based alloys: Effect
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2527–2535.
Pasinli, A., Yuksel, M., Celik, E., Sener, S., Tas, C.A., 2010. A new approach in
biomimetic synthesis of calcium phosphate coatings using lactic acid-Na lactate
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body
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Acta
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(WO/2009/145741) Calcium Phosphate Coating of Ti6Al4V by a Na-Lactate and
Lactic Acid-Buffered Body Fluid Solution - Pub. No.: WO/2009/145741
International Application No.: PCT/TR2009/000052 Applicants: Pasinli, A.,
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M., Canatan, A., Sener, S.
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21
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Title
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Investigation Of Fracture Toughness Of Calcium Phosphate Coating Treated Onto Ti6A14V Substrate
Author
Author
İbrahim, Aydın
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In this study, we aimed to investigate the fracture toughness of the calcium phosphate (CaP) coating, that was formed with Vickers indentation method, by the new method with the new patent. The activation process was done with NaOH + H2O2 on the Ti6Al4V material surface. Elasticity module, hardness values and coating thickness of the CaP coating that is formed by activation process was calculated. SEM micrographs and EDS analysis were gathered of the coating. Fracture toughness was determined by Vickers indentation. At the end of this study, fracture toughness (K1C) value for the CaP coating on Ti6A14V that was activated by NaOH+ H2O2 was found to be 0.43 MPa m1/2. Keywords: Calcium phosphate, coating, vickers indentation, fracture toughness Ti6Al4V.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)