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3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Elimination of Cr(VI) from aqueous solution by a new agro-waste material
Şerife Parlayıcı, Erol Pehlivan
Department of Chemical Engineering, Selcuk University, Campus, 42079 Konya, Turkey
E-mail: erolpehlivan@gmail.com
Abstract
The efficiency of Wheat Straw (WS) and modified Wheat Straw (MWS) in removing Cr(VI)
ions from aqueous solution was studied. Batch experiments were designed to obtain Cr(VI)
ion sorption data. The influences of contact time, pH, adsorbent dose and initial chromium
concentration on adsorption process performance was researched and an appropriate
adsorption isotherm of Cr(VI) adsorption on (WS) and (MWS) was determined. The results of
this study showed that adsorption of chromium by (RWS) and (MWS) reached to equilibrium
after 120 min and after that a little change of chromium removal efficiency was observed.
Higher Cr(VI) adsorption was observed at lower pH and maximum Cr(VI) concentration and
lower adsorbent doses. The equilibrium sorption capacity of Cr(VI) ion after 120 min was
28.6 and 81.9 mg/g for (WS) and (MWS) respectively. The investigated adsorbents showed
different adsorption capacities for Cr(VI) ions. Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms have been
used to characterize observed biosorption phenomena of Cr(VI) ions on (MWS). The carboxyl
groups on the surface of (MWS) were primarily responsible for the sorption of Cr(VI) ions.
Keywords: Sorption; Cr(VI); Agricultural by-product; Citric acid
1.INTRODUCTION
Environmental pollution and health by heavy metals is an important economic and
environmental subject in many areas of the world (Köhler et al. 2007). Industrial wastes and
domestic generated have been threating our aquatic environment. Significant amounts of toxic
heavy metals in laden with debris are deposited into the natural aquatic ecosystems (Chen and
Lim 2002). Chromium (Cr) is one of priority pollutants among heavy metals in surface water
and groundwater cycle resulting from numerous industrial activities such as wood
preservatives, textile dyeing, leather tanning, electroplating and metal plating operations.
Cr(VI) containing wastewaters must be lowered to allowable limits before discharging into
the environment ((Sonmez and Aksu 2002; Kobya, 2004).
In recent years, increasing number of publications has been exhibited for the removal of
heavy metals from aqueous medium by using adsorption techniques with different adsorbents
(Chong and Volesky 1995; Chong and Volesky 1995). Studies reveal that various agricultural
waste materials such as materials such as bark, hazelnut shells, peanut hulls, nuts, wood,
soybean hulls, soybean straws, saw dust, walnut shells, osage orange etc. has been tried and
the adsorption capacity of these natural by products and wastes could be enhanced by
chemical modifications (Kobya 2004; Cimino et al. 2000; Hashem et al. 2005; Mohanty et al.
2005; Low et al. 2004; Marshall et al. 2001; Zhu et al. 2008; Raji and Anirudhan 1997; Sud et
al. 2008; Altun and Pehlivan 2012; Pehlivan et al. 2012; Yu et al. 2001). The functional
groups present in agricultural waste biomass such as acetamido, alcoholic, carbonyl, phenol,
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
amido, amino, sulphydryl groups etc. have affinity for chromium ions to form chelates. These
groups have the affinity for Cr(VI) ion. The mechanism of adsorption process includes
chemisorption, complexation, adsorption on surface, electrostatic attraction and ion exchange
etc. (Sud et al. 2008).
The purpose of this research was to gain a fundamental understanding of the chemical and
physical phenomena associated with the binding of Cr(VI) ion to (WS) and (MWS)
biosorbents. So a new group was substituted to (WS). The Cr(VI) ion retention on this
adsorbent has been carried out batch wise where the influence of physico-chemical key
parameters such as the solution pH, the initial metal concentration, contact time, and ionic
strength has been considered.
2.Materials and methods
2.1.Materials
(WS) was collected from vicinity of Konya-Turkey. Straws were ground with Retsch RM 100
model grinding machine. They were ground and sieved to obtain size of 100 µm. Before using
raw straws, they were washed thoroughly with deionized water and dried in air oven at 100
°C for 24 h. All chemicals were of an analytical grade. Double distilled water was used to
prepare all solutions throughout the experiments. Cr(VI) stock solution (from Merck) was
prepared by dissolving K2Cr2O7 salt in double distilled water. Solutions of 0.01 M NaOH
and HCl (from Merck) were used for pH adjustment.
Experimental methods
A series of standard Cr(VI) solution were prepared by appropriate dilution of the stock
solution. A thermostated shaker of GFL 3033 model was used for adsorption experiments.
The pH measurements were performed with Orion 900S2 Model pH meter. For Cr(VI) ion
sorption studies, 40 mg WS was brought in contact with 25 mL of Cr(VI) solution using an
orbital shaker at 25 C. After filtration, the filtrate was analyzed spectrophometrically for
determining the Cr(VI) concentration in the solution phase. The remaining Cr(VI) ion in the
solution was calculated by taking the difference of initial concentration and total Cr(VI)
concentration in the filtrate. The concentrations of Cr(VI) ions in initial and final solutions
were determined spectrophotometrically at 540 nm by UV-visible Spectrophotometer
(Shimadzu UV-1700).
For the determination of Cr(VI), its supernatant was separated from the reaction mixture and
divided into two parts. In one part equilibrium concentration of the Cr(VI) was measured by
adding 1,5 diphenyl carbazide as a complexing agent, whereas the second part was heated up
to 130 C with KMnO4.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Effect of solution initial pH on the Cr (VI) adsorption
Earlier studies have shown that solution pH is an important parameter influencing the
biosorption of Cr(VI) ions (Dönmez and Aksu 2002). Cr(VI) removal was investigated as a
function of solution pH and the result is indicated in Figure 1.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
100
Sorption (%)
75
Cr(VI)
50
Cr(III)
25
0
0
2
4
6
8
pH
Figure 1. Effect of pH on the biosorption of Cr (VI) using (MWS). Biosorption conditions;
initial concentration of Cr (VI): 2x10-3 mol/L, 0.1 g adsorbent, 40 mL of biosorption
medium, temperature: 25 C, contact time: 120 min.
As seen from this figure, the biosorption of Cr(VI) onto (WS) and (MWS) is strongly pHdependent. 82 % of the Cr(VI) adsorbed onto (MWS) from the solution when the optimum pH
was around 2.0. There is a tendency to decrease in the removal when the solution pH is raised
from 2.0 to 5.0 and thereafter the effect becomes negligible. Similar results were reported by
other several workers (Sud et al. 2008). The decrease in the adsorption with the increase in
solution pH may be ascribed to the decrease in electrostatic force of attraction between the
adsorbent and the adsorbate.
It has been verified that Cr(VI) can be easily reduced to Cr(III) in the presence of biosorbents
and in acid media. Although the resarches on the chromium elimination by biosorption are
numerous, few of them have analyzed the combined effect of the retention of Cr(VI) by the
biosorbent and its reduction to Cr(III). There was sorption of Cr(VI) as well as Cr(III) during
sorption of Cr(VI) on the surface of biosorbent. Reduction of Cr(VI) into Cr(III) is also clear
from the aqueous chemistry of Cr(VI) at low pH value. The low pH also accelerates the redox
reactions in aqueous and biosorbent phases, since the protons participate in these reactions.
The mechanisms for the biosorption are: i) the reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) in presence of
the biosorbent and in acid media. ii) the retention of the initially present Cr(VI) by the
biosorbent, as well as of the Cr(III) formed during the reduction process (Sud et al. 2008).
The decrease in Cr(VI) ion removal capacity (WS) and (MWS) at pH > 2.0 may be caused
by hydrolysis accompanying by precipitation of metal hydroxides. This pH dependence of the
binding showed that adsorption, chelation and electrostatic interactions were involved in the
binding mechanism of Cr(VI) by (WS) and (MWS). Indeed, adsorption and chelation
involving hydroxyl functions, close to carboxylated, may increase the binding level of Cr(VI)
ions in addition to the electrostatic interactions taking place. It was confirmed that (WS) and
(MWS) is dominated by negatively charged sites that are largely carboxylated groups with
some weaker acidic groups. At pH values higher than 4, carboxyl groups are deprotonated
and negatively charged. Consequently, the attraction of positively charged metal ions would
be enhanced. At low pH, the surface of (WS) and (MWS) would also be surrounded by
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
hydronium ions, which decrease the Cr(VI) ion interaction with binding sites of the
biosorbent by greater repulsive forces.
3.2. Effect of contact time
100
Sorption (%)
75
50
25
0
0
40
80
120
160
200
240
Contact Time(min)
Figure 2. Effect of contact time on the sorption of Cr (VI) by (MWS). Biosorption conditions;
initial concentration of Cr (VI): 2x10-3 mol/L, 0.1 g adsorbent, 40 mL of biosorption
medium, temperature: 251C, pH 2.0.
The effect of time on the adsorption of Cr(VI) ions by the (WS) and (MWS) was studied by
taking 0.1 g sorbent with 40.0 ml of 0.001 M Cr(VI) solution in the plastic beakers. The
beakers were shaken for different time intervals in a temperature-controlled shaker. Figure 2
showed the effect of contact time on adsorption of Cr(VI) ions using (MWS). The results
showed that the percentage of Cr(VI) ion adsorption by (WS) and (MWS) increased with
increasing time of equilibration and it reached the plateau value at about 120 min.
3.3. Effect of initial Cr(VI) concentration
The Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms were both used to describe observed sorption
phenomena of Cr(VI) on the biosorbents (Altun and Pehlivan 2012; Pehlivan et al. 2012; Yu
et al. 2001). The Langmuir isotherm applies to adsorption on completely homogenous
surfaces with negligible interaction between adsorbed molecules. For a single solute, it is
given by the Freundlich model, which is an empirical model used to describe adsorption in
aqueous systems, was also used to explain the observed phenomena of Cr(VI) biosorption on
(MWS).
The effect of sorbate concentration was shown in Figure 1. In the case of low Cr(VI)
concentrations, the ratio of the initial number of moles of chromium ions to the available
surface area was larger and subsequently the fractional biosorption became independent of
initial concentrations. However, at higher concentrations, the available sites of adsorption
became fewer, and hence the percentage removal of chromium ions depends upon the initial
concentration. The amount of Cr(VI) ions adsorbed per unit mass of the (WS) and (MWS)
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
increased with the initial Cr(VI) concentration as expected. The sorption capacities was 28.6
and 81.9 mg/g for (WS) and (MWS) respectively.
Table 1. Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm parameters of (MWS).
Freundlich Isotherm
a
Langmuir Isotherm
ka
n
R2
Kb
As a
R2
0.925
1.384
0.985
30.90
1.578
0.988
mmol/g dry adsorbent.
The Langmuir model fitted well in the pH range 2.0. We found the Langmuir isotherm, to
have the highest correlation coefficients of 0.988 for (MWS) (Table 1.). It was found that
more than 82% removal of Cr(VI) was achieved using (MWS).
Conclusion
In this study, the toxic Cr(VI) ion biosorption on the inexpensive and efficient biosorbents
from agricultural waste materials have been investigated as replacement strategy for existing
conventional systems. The use of these low cost biosorbents is recommended since they are
relatively cheap or of no cost, easily available, renewable and show highly affinity for Cr(VI)
ions. Literature also reveals that in some cases the modification of the adsorbent increased the
removal efficiency. (WS) both untreated and treated was effective in removal of Cr(VI) ion
from aqueous solutions. Adsorption of Cr(VI) was dependent on its initial concentrations and
pH of the Cr(VI) solution. The results indicate that the optimum pH for the removal of Cr(VI)
ions by (WS) and (MWS) was around 2. Cr(VI) removal was built up; equilibrium conditions
are attained after nearly 2 h. Isothermal data of Cr(VI) sorption on (MWS) can be modeled by
Langmuir isotherm. The data in the linearized forms (Langmuir equation) gave satisfactory
correlation coefficients for a part of the covered concentration range.
REFERENCES
Altun T., Pehlivan E. (2012) Removal of Cr(VI) from aqueous solutions by modified walnut
shells. Food Chemistry, 132, 693–700.
Chen J.P., Lim L.L. (2002) Key factors in chemical reduction by hydrazine for recovery of
precious metals. Chemosphere 49, 363–370.
Chong K.H., Volesky B. (1995) Description of two metal biosorption equilibria by Langmuirtype models. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 47, 451–460.
Cimino G., Passerini A., Toscano G. (2000) Removal of toxic cations and Cr(VI) from
aqueous solution by hazelnut shell. Water Research 34, 2955–2962.
Dönmez G., Aksu Z. (2002) Removal of chromium(VI) from saline wastewaters by
Dunaliella species. Process Biochemistry 38, 751–762.
Hashem A., Abdel-Halim E.S., El-Tahlawy K.F., Hebeish A. (2005) Enhancement of
adsorption of Co (II) and Ni (II) ions onto peanut hulls though esterification using citric acid.
Adsorption Science and Technology 23, 367–380.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Kobya M. (2004) Adsorption, kinetic and equilibrium studies of Cr (VI) by hazelnut shell
activated carbon. Adsorption Science and Technology 22, 51–64.
Köhler S.J., Cubillas P., Rodríguez-Blanco J.D., Bauer C. and Prieto M. (2007) Removal of
cadmium from wastewaters by aragonite shells and the influence of other divalent cations.
Environmental Science & Technology 41, 112–118.
Low K.S., Lee C.K., Mak S.M. (2004) Sorption of copper and lead by citric acid modified
wood. Wood Science and Technology 38, 629–640.
Marshall W.E., Chatters A.Z., Wartelle L.H., McAloon (2001) A., Optimization and
estimated production cost of a citric acid-modified soybean hull ion exchanger. Industrial
Crops and Products 14, 191–199.
Marshall W.E. and Wartella L.H. (2003) Acid recycling to optimize citric acid-modified
soybean hull production. Industrial Crops and Products 18, 177–182.
Mohanty K., Jha M., Biswas M.N., Meikap B.C. (2005) Removal of chromium (VI) from
dilute aqueous solutions by activated carbon developed from Terminalia Arjuna nuts activated
with zinc chloride. Chemical Engineering Science 60, 3049–3059.
Pehlivan E., Pehlivan E., Kahraman H. (2012) Hexavalent chromium removal by Osage
Orange. Food Chemistry, (Accepted).
Raji C. and Anirudhan T.S. (1997) Chromium (VI) adsorption by sawdust: kinetics and
equilibrium. Indian Journal of Chemical Technology 4, 228–236.
Sud D., Mahajan G., Kaur M.P. (2008) Agricultural waste material as potential adsorbent for
sequestering heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions-a review. Bioresource Technology
99(14), 6017–6027.
Yu B., Zhang Y., Shukla A., Shukla S.S., Dorris K.L. (2001) The removal of heavy metals
from aqueous solution by saw dust adsorption. Removal of Pb(II) and comparison of its
adsorption with copper. Journal of Hazardous Materials B84, 83–94.
Zhu B., Fan T., Zhang D. (2008) Adsorption of copper ions from aqueous solution by citric
acid modified soybean straw. Journal of Hazardous Materials 153, 300–308.
Parasitic Diseases And Their Controls In Sustainable Development Of Aquculture Of
Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus Thynnus)
Erol Tokşen, Egemen Nemli,Uğur Değirmenci, Ulviye Karacalar
Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 İzmir, Turkey
E-mails: erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr, egemen.nemli@ege.edu.tr, ugur.degirmenci@ege.edu.tr,
ulviye.karacalar@ege.edu.tr
Abstract
In the last decades Turkish and Mediterranean mariculture has focused its production mainly
on two species, gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.).
41
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Elimination of Cr(VI) from aqueous solution by a new agro-waste material
Author
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Şerife , Parlayıcı
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The efficiency of Wheat Straw (WS) and modified Wheat Straw (MWS) in removing Cr(VI) ions from aqueous solution was studied. Batch experiments were designed to obtain Cr(VI) ion sorption data. The influences of contact time, pH, adsorbent dose and initial chromium concentration on adsorption process performance was researched and an appropriate adsorption isotherm of Cr(VI) adsorption on (WS) and (MWS) was determined. The results of this study showed that adsorption of chromium by (RWS) and (MWS) reached to equilibrium after 120 min and after that a little change of chromium removal efficiency was observed. Higher Cr(VI) adsorption was observed at lower pH and maximum Cr(VI) concentration and lower adsorbent doses. The equilibrium sorption capacity of Cr(VI) ion after 120 min was 28.6 and 81.9 mg/g for (WS) and (MWS) respectively. The investigated adsorbents showed different adsorption capacities for Cr(VI) ions. Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms have been used to characterize observed biosorption phenomena of Cr(VI) ions on (MWS). The carboxyl groups on the surface of (MWS) were primarily responsible for the sorption of Cr(VI) ions. Keywords: Sorption; Cr(VI); Agricultural by-product; Citric acid
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
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Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
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3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
Green Technologies And Strategies
The Detarmination Of The Direction Of Wind According To The Years
İbrahim Aydın, Selim Sarper Yılmaz
Celal Bayar University, Vocational Collage, Machine Programme
Manisa, Turkey
E-mails: ibrahim.aydin@bayar.edu.tr, selim.yilmaz@bayar.edu.tr
Abstract
Renewable energy sources are seen as an important source in meeting the
requirement of energy increasing gradually. One of these most outstanding
renewable energy sources is the wind energy whose technology and usage
develops most rapidly. To be able to make use of the wind energy effectively, it
should be cared that the dominant wind speed direction should be open enough in
surrounding. In this direction, to benefit from these wind tribunes more effectively
the wind measures must be done the montage of these tribunes should also be
done taking into consideration of these dominant open directions.
In this study, the wind measurements have been done hourly for five years and
consequently the dominant wind direction have been found out as North Northeast
(NNE) and East Southeast (ESE). At the same time, it has also been figured out at
the end of the study that there is absolutely no change in the direction of the wind
where it blows dominantly during these five years. In this direction, it has been
seen that there is no effective change in the direction of dominant winds
accordingly in years in that area and a year of measurement would be highly
enough to determine the dominant wind direction in the area.
Keywords: Renewable energy, wind energy, wind direction, wind tribune, wind
speed.
1. INTRODUCTION
Renewable energy resources are seen as an important source with an increasing
interest all over the world in covering the energy requirement owing to the fact
that the environmental problems increase every other day and the fossile energy
sources gradually decrease (Özerdem, 2003). Due to the fossil resources
decreasing day by day and the environmental problems increasing , renewable
energy resources are met with an increasing interest all over the world and seen as
significant sources in meeting the need for energy. The wind energy whose usage
and technology develop most quickly among these renewable energy resources
comes on top of all (Kose and Ozgur, 2004). When that wind energy is both local
source and clean and nature-friendly is taken into consideration, that it has an
important part in solving the problems of our day can be seen (Kose, 2004). When
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
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all these factors are taken into account, trying to compensate the needs with
renewable energy resources will both reduce the environmental pollution and
increase the life span of reserves by limiting the usage amount of fossil resources
which have been decreasing every other day. Consequently, research on these
matters should continually be strengthened and supported (Aydin, 2008).
In this study, the wind measurements have been done hourly for five years and
consequently the dominant wind direction have been found out as North Northeast
(NNE) and East Southeast (ESE). At the same time, it has also been figured out at
the end of the study that there is absolutely no change in the direction of the wind
where it blows dominantly during these five years. In this direction, it has been
seen that there is no effective change in the direction of dominant winds
accordingly in years in that area and a year of measurement would be highly
enough to determine the dominant wind direction in the area.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1.Wind Calculations
In order to be able to make correct calculations in a measuring station, the
locations of the equipments within the measuring stations and the distance
between them are crucial (Ozgur, 2006). These equipments consist of measuring
poles, sensors and data storage units. In measuring stations, the ideal height of the
upper anemometer should be 30 meters above the ground and 20 meters above the
lower anemometer. The direction control apparatus should be placed 1.5 meters
lower than the upper anemometer (Sen, 2003).
In order to design, plan and operate the wind energy systems, it is crucial to know
all the characteristics of the winds in detail. Long lasting reliable data are
necessitated so as to determine the positioning of turbines and the potential of
wind energy (Nogay and Taskin, 2000). Wind velocity calculations are the most
significant and crucial measurings for determining the annul energy savings,
stabilizing the performance and investing the sources of winds (Ackerman and
Soder, 2002). In order to benefit from the wind energy efficiently, the detailed
reports of the wind characteristics should be provided in a particular location. In
order to determine the wind potential of a specific zone, the calculations of the
zone mentioned should be provided at least for a whole year. However, A larger
period than a year will provide you with more accurate assessments.
2.2. The Situation of the Wind Energy in the Province of Manisa
The distribution of the wind stations among the districts in Manisa is displayed in
the figure 1. According to this drawing, the total installed power had reached for
293.80 MW till the October of 2011 in Manisa.
In Turkey, since the January of 2011, 15 wind stations have been installed,
reaching an overall of 72 in the whole country. Akres-Akhisar wind station in
Bekirler village in Manisa-Akhisar formed by the Best-Karesi Energy Company
was opened in 11.09.2011. With the joining of 45 MW installed power in Akhisar
into the overall cycle, the installed energy of Turkey has reached 1600 megawatts,
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
while Turkey’s investment has reached 1.6 billion Euros. Manisa forms almost
%18.36 of Turkey with its 293.80 MW. And this is a very high proportion.
Fig. 1: The distrıbutıon of the wind stations among the distrıcts in Manisa (Aydin,
2012)
3. RESULTS
3.1. Measuring the Directions of Dominating Winds in Manisa
Measuring in which directions the winds are moving predominantly is a crucial
matter in determining the locations of turbines. As a result of hourly
measurements in Manisa for five years, the moving directions and velocity rates
of 8760 winds have been stated. These measure rates obtained with the aid of
Manisa Region Directorship of Meteorology have been exhibited in Excel and by
using this software, it has been possible to determine how many hours, at what
directions and velocity the winds have been blowing for a year. These results have
been evaluated in Excel and the wind rose displayed in the drawing ‘Figure 2-3-45’ has been acquired. As a result of the wind measuring results conducted in
Manisa, the dominating wind direction has been stated as (NNE) North East North
and (ESE) East South East. It has been concluded that during the installation of
the system, it would be more appropriate to pay attention to leaving this particular
direction through which the wind velocity is predominant open in order to benefit
more from the turbine.
In this direction, it has been seen that there is no effective change in the direction
of dominant winds accordingly in years in that area and a year of measurement
would be highly enough to determine the dominant wind direction in the area.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
Fig. 2: Wind Rose(2005)
Fig. 3: Wind Rose (2006)
Fig. 4: Wind Rose (2007)
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Sarajevo
Fig. 5: Wind Rose (2008) (Aydin, 2012)
4. CONCLUSION
In this study, the wind measurements have been done hourly for five years and
consequently the dominant wind direction have been found out as North Northeast
(NNE) and East Southeast (ESE). At the same time, it has also been figured out at
the end of the study that there is absolutely no change in the direction of the wind
where it blows dominantly during these five years. In this direction, it has been
seen that there is no effective change in the direction of dominant winds
accordingly in years in that area and a year of measurement would be highly
enough to determine the dominant wind direction in the area.
REFERENCES
Özerdem, B., The Development and the Future of Wind Energy Practices in
Turkey, 9th Energy Congress Turkey, World Energy Council Turkish National
Commitee, 65-73 s, Izmir,2003.
Köse, R., Özgür, M.A., Research of Wind Energy Potentials in Dumlupınar
University Campus, DPU Science Journal, Issue 5, 187-196 s, Kütahya, 2003.
Köse, R., An evaluation of wind energy potential as a power generation source in
Kütahya, Turkey, Energy Conversion and Management, 45:1631-1641 p,2004.
Aydın, İ., Gaining Electricity with A Small Powerful Autonomous Wind Energy
Circulation, MA Thesis, Dumlupınar University, Kütahya, 2008.
Özgür, M.A., Statistical Analysis of Wind Characteristic and Its Feasibility for
Electricity Production Kütahya, Dissertation, Osman Gazi University, Eskişehir,
2006.
Şen, Ç., Meeting Gokceada’s Need for Electric Energy with Wind Energy, MA
Thesis, Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, 2003.
Noğay, S., Taşkın, S., Power Performence on Wind Turbines, Measurements of
Noise and Velocity, 3rd National Clean Energy Symposium, Volume I, s385.
İstanbul, 2000.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
Ackerman T., Söder, L., An Overvief of Wind Energy - Rewiews Status 2002,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Rewiews, Vol. 6, 67-128 p.,2002.
AWS Scientific Inc., Wind resource assessment handbook, National Renewable
Energy Laboratory, 1997.
Aydın, İ., Yılmaz, S.S., The determination of dominant wind speed to increase
efficiency of wind energy in Manisa province, 1st International Conference on
Architecture and Urban Design, 19-21 April., Tirana-Albania, 2012.
Environmental Welding: The Friction Stir Welding
Selim Sarper Yilmaz1, Bekir Sadık Ünlü2, İbrahim Aydin2
1Celal Bayar University, Vocational High School, Department of Machinery,
45020, Manisa, Turkey
2Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering,
45040, Manisa, Turkey
E-mails: selim.yilmaz@cbu.edu.tr, bekir.unlu@cbu.edu.tr,
ibrahim.aydin@cbu.edu.tr
Abstract
In this study, microstructural and mechanical properties of pure aluminum joined
by friction stir weldingusing different parameters were investigated.
Hardness, tensile, bending and impact mechanics tests were applied to the
welded samples.In addition, optical and SEM tests were carried out. The effects of
the welding progress rate on the microstructure and mechanical properties were
investigated in these materials.Then, the optimal conditions for friction stir
welding were determined for pure aluminum.
Keywords:Friction stir
welding, aluminum alloy, microstructure, mechanical properties.
1. INTRODUCTION
Aluminum metal and its alloys are economical and attractive material due to their
superior mechanical properties. These features include the appearance,
lightness, ease
of production, physical and
mechanical properties and corrosion strength.
Aluminum is
known
for two mechanical properties; namely, lightness and corrosion resistance. The
weight of aluminium is approximately a third of the same volume
steel, aluminum, copper or brass and its specific gravity is 2.7 g/cm3.
Aluminum
has
an
excellent
atmosphere, water, salt water, oil
6
corrosion
resistance
against
and many chemicals.
the
In
�
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Title
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Green Technologies And Strategies The Detarmination Of The Direction Of Wind According To The Years
Author
Author
İbrahim , Aydın
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Renewable energy sources are seen as an important source in meeting the requirement of energy increasing gradually. One of these most outstanding renewable energy sources is the wind energy whose technology and usage develops most rapidly. To be able to make use of the wind energy effectively, it should be cared that the dominant wind speed direction should be open enough in surrounding. In this direction, to benefit from these wind tribunes more effectively the wind measures must be done the montage of these tribunes should also be done taking into consideration of these dominant open directions. In this study, the wind measurements have been done hourly for five years and consequently the dominant wind direction have been found out as North Northeast (NNE) and East Southeast (ESE). At the same time, it has also been figured out at the end of the study that there is absolutely no change in the direction of the wind where it blows dominantly during these five years. In this direction, it has been seen that there is no effective change in the direction of dominant winds accordingly in years in that area and a year of measurement would be highly enough to determine the dominant wind direction in the area. Keywords: Renewable energy, wind energy, wind direction, wind tribune, wind speed.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5388e292703591b76966dfffaf6ef513.pdf
1d924d9fa533e1683eb54378f5438692
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
MertS.,KaluçE. (2003). Sürtünme karıştırma kaynağında kullanılan takımlardaki
gelişmeler.TMMOB Makine Mühendisleri Odası Kaynak Teknolojisi IV.Ulusal
Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, 103-ll5 (in Turkish)
http://tech.plymouth.ac.uk/sme/UoA30/ Weld_Microstructure.PDF
Investigation Of Fracture Toughness Of Calcium Phosphate Coating
Treated Onto Ti6A14V Substrate
İbrahim Aydın1, Hakan Cetinel2, Ahmet Pasinli3
1Celal Bayar University, Vocational Collage, Machine Programme
Manisa, Turkey
2Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering
Manisa, Turkey
3Ege University, Vocational Collage, Machine Programme
İzmir, Turkey
E-mails: ibrahim.aydin@bayar.edu.tr, hakan.cetinel@bayar.edu.tr,
ahmet.pasinli@ege.edu.tr
Abstract
In this study, we aimed to investigate the fracture toughness of the calcium
phosphate (CaP) coating, that was formed with Vickers indentation method, by
the new method with the new patent. The activation process was done with NaOH
+ H2O2 on the Ti6Al4V material surface. Elasticity module, hardness values and
coating thickness of the CaP coating that is formed by activation process was
calculated. SEM micrographs and EDS analysis were gathered of the coating.
Fracture toughness was determined by Vickers indentation. At the end of this
study, fracture toughness (K1C) value for the CaP coating on Ti6A14V that was
activated by NaOH+ H2O2 was found to be 0.43 MPa m1/2.
Keywords: Calcium phosphate, coating, vickers indentation, fracture toughness
Ti6Al4V.
1. INTRODUCTION
Titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) hip prosthesis is a material used in orthopedic implant
production just as widely as bone plates and bone screws (Hench, 1991).
Hydroxiapatite (HA) coatings are used in Ti6Al4V alloys in implant materials in
14
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
order to increase the biocompatibility. Phosphate based HA that forms the
inorganic structure of the human bone and teeth is being used in dentistry since
1970 [Li at all, 2002; Kokuba at all, 1999).
The most important property of HA is its excellent biological compatibility. HA
forms a direct chemical bond with sclerenchyma. In placing the HA particles or
posed blocks to bones; the new tissue forms in 4 to 8 weeks (Bajpai, 1990). HA
pored structure, as the cells grow into the pores, helps the tissues grow into the
implants. Also, acting as a canal system, pores in the HA structure help blood and
other important body fluids reach the bone structure. HA has an absorption rate of
5-10% a year. Studies show that HA implants are first covered with fibrovascular
tissues, and the grown lamella in the tissue turns into bone (Yetkin, 2001).
Osteoconductive properties of HA helps in attaching to the bone. Also HA is
known to have powerful chemical bonding tendencies for bone proteins (Bajpai,
1985). Body reactions are minimum because of the non-toxic properties of HA
(Capello at all, 1997). There are many methods for HA coating. Kokuba et al.
were the first to be able to coat HA on different biomaterials in synthetic body
fluids (SBF) (Taş and Bhaduri, 1999). Tas by changing the values that are
prepared by SBF, obtained calcium HA ceramic dust at the high chemical
homogeneity and purity in pH 7.4 and 37 0C biomimetic conditions (Pasinli at all,
2008).
Different methods such as “R-curve” and “Indentation Fracture Toughness” (on
Vickers hardness device) are used in determining fracture toughness. “Vickers
Indentation” method is prefered, as it is easier for sample preparation and
conduction of the study than the other methods (Neil, 1983; Kim and Kim, 1990).
Zhang et al. (Zhang at all, 2008), Mohammadi et al. (Mohammadi at all, 2007)
and Bharati et al. (Baharati at all, 2009), calculated fracture toughness values on
hidroxyapatite flourated, plasma-sprayed and hydroxyapatite coatings on
Ti6A14V, respectively by using Vickers Indentation method.
In this study, CaP coatings were produced by patented two different activation
processes including NaOH + H2O2 solutions (Pasinli at all, 2010). Elasticity
modules, hardness values and coating thicknesses of the CaP coatings were
measured. Fracture toughness values were calculated by using Vickers indentation
method. It was concluded that coatings produced by the patented new method had
higher fracture toughness values. At the end of this study, fracture toughness
(K1C) value for the CaP coating on Ti6A14V that was activated by NaOH+
H2O2 was found to be 0.43 MPa m1/2.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Preparation and characterization of the coatings
Biocompatible CaP coatings were deposited onto Ti6Al4V as substrate dimension
in
10 x 10 x 1.2 mm. The chemical composition of titanium alloy is
shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1. Chemical composition of Ti alloy substrate (Pasinli at all, 2010)
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
Element
(wt %)
N
0.0030
C
0.0050
H
<0.0005
Fe
0.1000
O
0.0900
Al
6.2100
V
3.8700
Y
<0.0010
Others
<0.3000
Ti
Balance
Firstly, Ti6A14V substrates were washed by detergent water, purified water, and
lastly acetone. In activation process, purified materials were held in 100 mL 5M
NaOH + 0.5 mL H2O2 (30%) solution and 100 mL 5 M NaOH solution in 60 0C
for 24 hours, separately. Then they were washed with purified water and dried in
40 0C for 24 hours. In CaP coating process, implant materials pretreated in the
solution that was prepared as pH 7.4 with lactic acid/lactate buffer according to
SBF values as in Table 2. Meanwhile, fresh SBF fluid was emitted in with
peristaltic pump 150 mg/day. At the end of the process, materials were washed
with purified water and dried in 60 0C for 24 hours.
TABLE 2. Preparation of 2.5 X Lac-SBF (total 2.5 L) (Pasinli at all, 2010)
Reagents
Amount
(g)
CaCl22H2O
2.2973
MgCl26H2O
0.7625
0.9325
12.0533
1.1125
0.1775
5.6708
10.4573
KCl
NaCl
Na2HPO42H2O
Na2SO4
NaHCO3
Na-lactate
1.385)
(70-72%,
Lactic acid (1 M)
16
d:1.375- 40.0 (mL)
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
XRD analyses were performed in order to characterize the coatings. SEM images
and IR spectrums were obtained from the coated surfaces. Thicknesses of the
coatings were measured by using optical microscopy and image analysis
techniques.
2.2. Mechanical properties
In Vickers indentation technique, a certain load is applied onto coating surface by
a diamond pyramid tip. Cracks form in the corners of the indentation track.
Diagonal lengths of the mark and the size of the crack are measured and the
fracture toughness is calculated with the help of Equation 1 (Ponton and Rawlings
at all, 1989). 9.80 N of force was applied on the coating for 10 seconds by using
HVS-1000 Digital Display Microhardness Tester as seen on Figure 1a. As a
result, Vickers hardness value determined and the lengths of cracks were
measured. The crack seen on Figure 1b appeared and the (C) distance of this crack
was measured. Fracture toughness values of the coatings are calculated by using
Equation 1 (Mohammadi at all, 2007; Baharati at all, 2009):
K IC
E
H
1/ 2
P
C 3/ 2
(1)
According to the Equation 1, P is load, E is Young’s modulus measured by using
Shimadzu DUH-211 Dynamic Ultra Microhardness Tester, HV is Vickers
hardness value and C is crack length (Figure 1b). The α value was taken from the
literature as 0.016 (Dukino and Swain, 1992; Chen and Bull, 2006; Shikimaka and
Grabco, 2008).
FIGURE 1. (a) “P” Applied load on the coating and (b) “C” crack length at the
coating.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Characterization of the coatings
The thicknesses of the CaP coatings on the Ti6Al4V substrates were measured as
65 μm for NaOH + H2O2 activation processes. Figure 2 shows the SEM
micrograph of coating surfaces treated and Figure 3 shows the existence of Ca, P,
Ti and V elements on the coating composition determined by EDS analyses.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
FIGURE 2. SEM micrographs of the CaP coating
FIGURE 3. EDS analysis of the CaP coating
3.2. Mechanical properties
Table 3 shows Young’s modulus and Vickers hardness values of the CAP
coatings determined by using Shimadzu DUH-211 Dynamic Ultra Microhardness
Tester and HVS-1000 Digital Display Microhardness Tester, respectively for
NaOH + H2O2 activation processes. Additionally, average immersion depths and
standard deviation values are shown on Table 3.
TABLE 3. Young’s modulus and Vickers hardness of the coatings and average
depth (μm) and standard deviation (μm) in ultra microhardness tests.
Coating
E
(GPa)
CaP coating on NaOH+H2O2 treated
5.26
substrates
18
HV
(GPa)
Average(μ
m)
Standard
Deviation (μm)
1.18
17.04
1.61
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
In Figure 4, the load-depth curves obtained by using Shimadzu DUH-211
Dynamic Ultra Microhardness Tester can be seen for the NaOH + H2O2
activation process.
FIGURE 4. The load-depth curves of the CaP coatings on NaOH+ H2O2 treated
substrate.
Loads applied on coating materials with HVS-1000 Digital Display
Microhardness Tester device and lengths of the resulting cracks (C) and calculated
fracture toughness (K1C) values are shown in Table 4. 9.807 N load was applied
on coating materials. The crack length (C) on CaP surface was 83.69 μm for
NaOH + H2O2 activation processes.
TABLE 4. Applied load, crack length and fracture toughness values of the
coatings
Coating
P (N)
CaP coating on NaOH+H2O2 treated
9.807
substrates
C (μm)
K1C
(MPam1/2)
83.69
0.43
Fracture toughness (K1C) values of the CaP coatings were calculated as 0.43 MPa
m1/2 for NaOH + H2O2 activation processes by using Equation 1.
On their studies, Mohammadi et al. and Bharati et al. have calculated the fracture
toughness values of plasma-sprayed HA coatings on Ti6A14V substrates [13] and
fracture toughness values of HA coating on Ti6A14V materials, respectively.
Similar to ours, Zhang et al. have found the fracture toughness values (K1C) of
HA flourideted coating on Ti6A14V substrate to be, ~0.12 MPa m1/2, ~0.26 MPa
m1/2 and 0.31 MPa m1/2.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
4. CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, fracture toughness (K1C) values of the newly patented CaP
coatings are determined as 0.43 MPa m1/2 for NaOH + H2O2 activation
processes. At the end of this study CaP coatings on the Ti6Al4V substrates
produced by new patented activation methods have higher fracture toughness
values than that of the coatings of Zhang et al.
REFERENCES
Hench LL. J Am Ceram Soc 1991;74:1510.
Li, F., Feng, L., Cui, F.Z., Li, H.D., Schubert, H. A Simple biomimetic method for
Calcium phosphate coating. Surf Coat. Tech. 154 (2002) 88-93.
Kokubo, T., Kim, H.M., Miyaji, F., Takadama, H., Miyazaki, T. Ceramic- metal
and ceramic- polymer composites prepared by a biomimetic process. Comp. Part
A: App. Sci. and Man., 30 (1999) 405-409.
Bajpai, P.K., 1990. Ceramic Amino Acid Composites for Repairing Traumatized
Hard Tissues. In: Handbook of Bioactive Ceramics, vol.II: Ca-P and HA
Ceramics. Yamamuro, T., Hench, L.L., and Wilson-Hench, J., Eds. p. 255-270,
CRC Pres, Bato Raton, FL, 1990.
Yetkin, H., 2001. Ortopedi ve Travmatolojide Biomateryaller. 8th Biomedical
Science and Technology Symposium (BİOMED8), IL02, METU
Ankara/TURKEY, September 5-8, 2001.
Bajpai, P.K., Fuchs, C.M., 1985. Development of a hydroxyapatite bone grout. In:
proceedings of the firet annual scientific session of the academy of surgical
research. San Antonio, Texas, Hall, C.W. Ed. p. 50-54, Pergamon Pres, New
York, NY, 1985.
Capello, W.N., D'Antonio, J.A., Finberg, J.R., Manley, M.T., 1997. HA-coated
total hip femoral components in patients less than fifty years old., Jour. of Bone
Joint Surg., 79A, 1023-1029, 1997.
Tas, A.C., Bhaduri, S.B. Rapid coating of Ti6Al4V at room temperature with a
calcium phosphate solution similar to 10 x SBF, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc., 19 (1999)
2573- 2579.
Pasinli, A., Yıldız, H., Çelik, E., Aksoy, R.S., 2008, Mechanical Properties of
Calcium-Phosphate Coatings on Ti6Al4V Implant Materials by Biomimetic
Method, Electronic Journal of Machine Tecnologies, (4) 1-10, 2008.
Neil, N.A., Raw materials for refractories SiC and Si3N4, Ceramic Engineering
Science and Proceeding, 1983,4[1-2], 186-193.
Kim, D.H. and Kim,C.H., Toughening behaviour of silicon carbide with additions
of yttria and alumina, Journal of American Ceramic Society,1990,73,1431-1434.
Zhang, S., Wang, Y.S., Zeng, X.T., Khor, K.A., Weng, W., Sun, D.E,Evaluation
of adhesion strength and toughness of fluoridated hydroxyapatite coatings. Thin
Solid Films 516 (2008) 5162–5167.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
Mohammadi, Z., Ziaei-Moayyed, A.A., Mesgar, S.M, Adhesive and cohesive
properties by indentation method of plasma-sprayed hydroxyapatite coatings.
Applied Surface Science 253 (2007) 4960–4965.
Bharati, S., Soundrapandian, C., Basu, D., Data, S,Studies on a novel bioactive
glass and composite coating with hydroxyapatite on titanium based alloys: Effect
of γ-sterilization on coating. Journal of the European Ceramic Society 29 (2009)
2527–2535.
Pasinli, A., Yuksel, M., Celik, E., Sener, S., Tas, C.A., 2010. A new approach in
biomimetic synthesis of calcium phosphate coatings using lactic acid-Na lactate
buffered
body
fluid
solution.
Acta
Biomaterialia
2010:
DOI:
10.1016/j.actbio.2009.12.013.
(WO/2009/145741) Calcium Phosphate Coating of Ti6Al4V by a Na-Lactate and
Lactic Acid-Buffered Body Fluid Solution - Pub. No.: WO/2009/145741
International Application No.: PCT/TR2009/000052 Applicants: Pasinli, A.,
Yuksel, M., Havitcioglu, H., Tas, A.C., Aksoy, R.S., Celik, E., Yildiz, H., Toparli,
M., Canatan, A., Sener, S.
Ponton, C.B., Rawlings, R.D., Vickers indentation fracture test. Part 1 Review of
literature and formulation of standardized indentation toughness ewuations, Mater
SCI Tech Ser,1989,Vol.5,Pages:865-872, ISSN:0267-0836.
Dukino, D. R. and Swain, M. V., Comparative measurement of fracture toughness
with berkovich and vickers indenters. J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 1992, 75, 3299–3304.
Chen, J. and Bull, S. J., Assessment of the toughness of thin coatings using
nanoindentation under displacement control. Thin Solid Films, 2006, 494,1–7.
Shikimaka, O. and Grabco, D., Deformation created by Berkovich and Vickers
indenters and its influence on surface morphology of indentations for LiF and
CaF2 single crystals. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 2008, 41, 1–6.
21
�
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Title
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Investigation Of Fracture Toughness Of Calcium Phosphate Coating Treated Onto Ti6A14V Substrate
Author
Author
İbrahim, Aydın
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In this study, we aimed to investigate the fracture toughness of the calcium phosphate (CaP) coating, that was formed with Vickers indentation method, by the new method with the new patent. The activation process was done with NaOH + H2O2 on the Ti6Al4V material surface. Elasticity module, hardness values and coating thickness of the CaP coating that is formed by activation process was calculated. SEM micrographs and EDS analysis were gathered of the coating. Fracture toughness was determined by Vickers indentation. At the end of this study, fracture toughness (K1C) value for the CaP coating on Ti6A14V that was activated by NaOH+ H2O2 was found to be 0.43 MPa m1/2. Keywords: Calcium phosphate, coating, vickers indentation, fracture toughness Ti6Al4V.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/305e930f173d87669c562bd18e4aa9f8.pdf
cca8d2c956a68ffa65da4fb47a3ccb3e
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Riehl R, Baensch H.A (1996) Aquarium Atlas, Publishers of Natural History and Pet Books,
Germany, 1-991.
Schaperclaus W (1991) Fish Diseases Volume 2 A.A Balkema/Rotterdam, 1397.
Stoskoph MK (1993) Fish Medicine, W.B. Saunders company, PA, USA, 882.
Takashıma F & Hıbıya T (1995) An Atlas of Fish Histology Normal and Patholological
Features. Second Edition, Kodansa Ltd., Tokyo, 195.
Tokşen E (2000) Ege Bölgesinde Bir Alabalık (Onchorhynchus mykiss) İşletmesinde
Görülen Ichthyophthirius multifiliis Fouget, 1876 Enfeksiyonu ve Tedavisi, Bornova Vet.
Kont. Araşt. Enst. Dergisi, 25 (39) 59-64.
Ventura MT& Paperna I (1985) Histopathology of Ichthyophthirius multifiliis infections in
fishes. Journal of Fish Biology 27, 185-203.
Woo PTK (1995) Fish Diseases and Disorders.CAB International. 200-202.
Researches on Protection, Propagation and Sustainable Usage of Native Bulbous Plants
of Turkey
Özgül Karagüzel1, İbrahim Baktır2, Deniz Hazar3, Gülden Yılmaz2
1 Western Mediterranean Research Institute, Antalya
2Akdeniz University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, Antalya
3Akdeniz University, Kumluca Vocational School, Antalya
E-mail: tezkara@yahoo.com
Abstract
Over 1000 flowering bulbous plants are naturally grown in Turkey. Flowering bulbs
exportation has been in effect for years from Turkey. In recent years, exportation has been
under strict control, it has been realized according to yearly given quota by The Ministry of
Food, Agriculture and Livestocks. Even though the present regulations and status, negligable
amount of illegal wild collections are still going on. A number of researches has been
conduted to prevent illegal collections and meantime to encourage artificial propagations and
sustainable uses. These projects are mainly financed by the concern ministries, research
institutes and universities. A good scale of geophyte exibition garden has been establised in
Yalova Provience to take the interest of people and administrative staff. The present research
projects are mainly concentrated on some well known flowering species such as tulips,
hyacinthus, crocus, stenbergia, iris, fritillaria, snowdrop, lilies so on.
Keywords: Geophytes, sustainability, researches
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
1. INTRODUCTION
Turkey is one of the richest countries in terms of native bulbous plants in the world.
According to the latest research, there are approximately 1000 natural flower bulbs
(geophytes) taxa that grow in Turkey. Due to the studies in recent years the numbers of taxa
in geophytes have increased yaer by year. The conservation of them are very important to
carry these plants for next generation and sustainibility. Turkey has exported native flower
bulbs since the 1883's.Export amount increased since from 1960 and reached to 80 million in
1984. The excessive collection of wild flower bulbs caused unreplaceable damage to many
geophytes. Some measures were taken since from 1984 to protect the species. The amount of
exportation determined according to yearly given quota by the Ministry of Food Agriculture
and Livestocks. Regulation is re-arranged according to the rules of CITES (the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) every year. CITES
studies of Turkey has been shown as an model to the world at the CITES meeting held in
Kenya. Also as a precaution, it was decided to in situ conservation without collected from
nature for 5 consacutive years for the geophytes of under threat. Even though the present
regulations, illegal collections are still going in lesser extent.
In number of natural flower bulbs species which are exported from Turkey is about
twenty. Share of Turkey, on geophyte export to the Netherland is given below. is Galanthus
65 % , Cyclamen 99 % Fritillaria , 99 %, Leucojum 80 %, Anemone 90 %, Eranthis 95
%, Ornithogalum 1 %, Stenbergia 100 % (Ildır 1996).
Snowdrop (Galanthus sp.) is the most important species of the whole geophytes in
Turkey. A number of researches has been done in artifical production of snowdrop and
promising results were obtained. The snowdrop gave the best results in situ propagation and
also 4 year interval were succesfull (Baktır 2010).
A number of researches on cultural production and propagation of geophytes started since
from 1980 at different research institution and universities in Turkey. Also the training Works
have been going on since 1982 for the local people. There are carried out research and
production activities in cooperation with different European countries.
In this paper, the researches about the sustainability and conservation of natural flower
bulbs are summarized.
2. Research Studies on Propagation and Protection of Geophytes in Turkey
Bulbous plants are perennial plants and they are propagated from seed or an
underground organ mostly herbaceous such as a bulb, tuber, corm or rhizome. Tissue culture
techniques is used as a vegetative propagation method.
One of the most important projects carried out in some geophytes were
supported by TUBİTAK 1007 between 2006-2009. At the end of the project the collected
Iris, Fritillaria, Hyacinthus, Lilium, Nectaroscordum, Tulips, Pancratium and Colchicum
species have been conserved in the collection gardens of respective institutes in Yalova
province. In the second part of the project is existing gen pools species from other countries
and standart varieties will be expanded, by using selection, mutation and hybridization
techniques new candidate varieties will be developed. Also, with this project has been
established geophyte garden in Turkey. In this period, the other research projects are mainly
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
concentrated on some well known flowering species such as Crocus, Stenbergia, Galanthus,
Ornithogalum, Cyclamen so on.
Furthermore several studies was conducted on different propagation methods of
various species. Chipping and twin scaling methods in Leucojum aestivum (Aksu et al. 2002)
chipping and twin scaling methods in Galanthus elwesii (Zencirkıran and Mengüç 2002,
Kahraman and Özzambak 2006), chipping and twin scaling in Narcissus serotinus
(Zeybekoğlu and Özzambak 2012), chipping and twin scaling methods in Ornithogalum sp.
(Karaguzel et al. 2012), chipping in Narcissus pseudonarcissus (Ertekin et al. 2010),
different cutting methods in Muscari muscarimi (Arslan et al. 2012), seed propagation in
Cyclamen sp.(Aksu et al. 2002), seed propagation in Crocus sp. (Haspolat 2012) were
investigated.
Also many research studies have been carried out on in vitro micropropagation of
geophytes in recent years. Micropropagation of some native flower bulbs such as Galanthus
elwesii and Galanthus ikariae (Ellialtıoğlu et al. 1998), Orchis (Gümüş et al. 2006),
Pancratium maritimum (Gümüş and Ellialtıoğlu 2006), Ornithogalum (Ozel and Khawar,
2007, Ozel et al. 2008, Nasırcılar et al. 2011), Fritillaria (Gürlek and Özcan 2012), Stenbergia
fischeriana (Mirici et al. 2005, Karaoğlu et al. 2012), Muscari mirum (Nasırcılar et al. 2011),
Polianthes tuberosa (Yıldırım et al. 2010), Cyclamen sp.(Mendi et al. 2010) and endemic İris
galactica (Uzun et al. 2012) has been reported.
3. RESULTS
Turkish flower industry has become a dynamic sector developing
constantly. The production areas and the amount of export are increased year after year. The
measures taken on propagation studies for sustainability of natural flower bulbs with % 7
share in this sector are promising. In this review, propagation studies on natural flower bulbs
in Turkey, are given. After this, increase of reserches on breeding of geophyte species are
important. At the same time given training for the protection of species should be continuous.
REFERENCES
Aksu E., Görür G. and Çelikel F. (2002). A Study on Cultural Propagation of Leucojum
aestivum Bulbs Using Vegetative Methods. II. National Ornamental Plants Congress. P: 2934. ANTALYA.
Aksu .E., Görür, G. and Çelikel F. (2002). A study on Cultural Propagation of Leucojum
aestivum Bulbs By Using Vegetative Methods. II. National Ornamental Plants Congress.p:2934. .ANTALYA
Alp Ş. and Koyuncu M. (2012). Geophytes taxa Described From Turkey in Recent Years. XI.
International Symposium on Flower Bulbs and Herbaceous Perennials. Abstract Book. 162 p.
ANTALYA.
Arslan N., İpek, A., Rahimi, A. and İpek, G. (2012). The Effects of Different Bulb Size and
Cutting Methods on Some Proporties of Muscari muscarimi Medius. XI. International
Symposium on Flower Bulbs and Herbaceous Perennials. Abstract Book. P: 238. ANTALYA
Baktır,2010. Koruma Altındaki Geofitlerle İlgili Türkiye'deki CITES Bilim Kurulunun
Faaliyetleri. IV. Süs Bitkileri Kongresi..p: 1-4. MERSİN.
102
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Ellialtıoğlu Ş., Tıpırdamaz, R. and Çakırlar H. (1998). Possibilities of In Vitro
Propagation of galanthus (Galanthus elwesii Hooker Fil.)
Ertekin M., Çorbacı, Ö.L. and Yazgan, M. ( 2010). Propagation of Narcissus pseudonarcissus
cv.’Golden Harvest by Chipping Method. IV. National Ornamental Plants Congress.p:6674.MERSİN.
Gümüş C., Sezik, E. and Ellialtıoğlu Ş. (2006). Investigations on In Vitro Propagation of
Some Orchid Species (Orchidaceae sp.) Used for Obtaining Salep, Growing in West Black
Sea Region. III. National Ornamental Plants Congress.p:179-187. İZMİR
Gümüş C. and Ellialtıoğlu Ş. (2006). Possibilities of In Vitro Propagation of Sand Lily
(Pancratium maritimum). III. National Ornamental Plants Congress.p:435-441. İZMİR
Gürlek D. and Özcan S. (2012). In Vitro Bulblet Maturation in Fritillaria imperialis L. and
Fritillaria persica L. XI. International Symposium on Flower Bulbs and Herbaceous
Perennials. Abstract Book. P: 118. ANTALYA
Haspolat, G. (2012). Seed Germination of Some Crocus Species in Western Anatolia. XI.
International Symposium on Flower Bulbs and Herbaceous Perennials. Abstract Book. P:
127. ANTALYA
Ildır, S.(1996). Süs Bitkileri Doğal Çiçek Soğanları Raporu. DPT: VII. Beş Yıllık Kalkınma
Planı Özel İhtisas Alt Komisyonu raporu, Yayın no: DPT: 2464.ANKARA.
Kahraman Ö and Özzambak E. (2006). Possibilities of Propagations Tecniques in Snowdrop
Bulbs and Soilless Culture Cultivation. III. National Ornamental Plants Congress.p:166173.İZMİR
Karaguzel Ö., Aydinşakir, K.Kaya A.S.,, Dal, B., Kazaz S., Göktürk, R.S. (2012). Cultural
Propagation of Ornithogalum Species Grown in Western Mediterranean Region. XI.
International Symposium on Flower Bulbs and Herbaceous Perennials. Abstract Book. P:
131. ANTALYA
Karaoğlu, C., Özcan, S., Khawar, K.M. and Gürlek, D. (2012). Using Tissue Culture
Methods for Introduction of Sternbergia lutea (L.) ker-Gawl.ex.Sprengel From Its Natural
Habitat to Continental Climate of Central Anatolia. XI. International Symposium on Flower
Bulbs and Herbaceous Perennials. Abstract Book. P: 170. ANTALYA
Mendi Y. Yalçın, İzgü, T., Çömlekçioğlu, S., Koçak, M., Çürük, P. And Tagipor, E. (
2010). In Vitro Regeneration of Cyclamen (Cyclamen sp.). III. National Ornamental Plants
Congress.p:82-87. İZMİR
Mirici S, Parmaksız İ, Özcan S, Sancak C, Uranbey S, Sarıhan E.O, Gümüşcü A, Gürbüz
B, Arslan N (2005). Efficient in vitro bulblet regeneration from immature embryos of
endangered Stenbergia fischeriana. Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult. 80:239-246.
Nasırcılar, A, Mirici, S, Karagüzel, Ö, Eren, Ö, Baktır, İ (2011). In vitro propagation of
endemic and endangered Muscari mirum from different explant types. Turk J Bot. 35, 37-43.
Ozel ÇA, Khawar KM (2007). In vitro bulblet regeneration of Ornithogalum oligophyllum
E.D. Clarke Using twing scale bulb explants. propagation of ornamental plants. Prop. Orn.
Pla. 7(2): 82-88.
Ozel ÇA, Khawar KM, Karaman S, Ateş MA, Arslan O (2008). Efficient in vitro
multiplication in Ornithogalum ulouphyllum Hand.-Mazz. from twin scale explants. Sci. Hort.
116: 109-112.
103
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Uzun S., İlbaş A.İ., İpek A., Beyzi E.Uranbey, S. and Arslan, N. (2012). In Vitro Propagation
of Endemic Iris galactica Immature Zygotic. XI. International Symposium on Flower Bulbs
and Herbaceous Perennials. Abstract Book. P: 109. ANTALYA.
Yıldırım Z., Öztürk G. and Esen, M. (2010). Propagation of Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.)
in In Vitro Conditions. III. National Ornamental Plants Congress.p:98-102. İZMİR
Zencirkıran M.and Mengüç A. (2002).The Effects of Twin Scale and Chipping
Techniques on Bulblet Production in Galanthus elwesii Hook. II. National Ornamental
Plants Congress.p: 24-28.ANTALYA.
Zeybekoğlu E. and Özzambak E, 2012. XI. International Symposium on Flower Bulbs and
Herbaceous Perennials. Abstract Book. P: 225. ANTALYA.
Sustainable Collection of Laurel (Laurus nobilis L.) Leaves in Antalya Province
Deniz Hazar1 Ibrahim Baktir2
Ozgul KaraguzeL3
Levent Ht4
1*Akdeniz University, Kumluca Vocational School
2 Akdeniz University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture
3Bati Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute
4Antalya Forest Department
E-mail: dhazar@akdeniz.edu.tr
Abstract
Laurel (Laurus nobilis L.) is an evergreen shrub which belongs to the Lauraceae family. It
grows naturally along the entire coastal line of Turkey up to altitude of 1200 m. Laurel has
been regarded as an important medicinal and aromatic plant for years in the Mediterranean
Basin. Meantime, it is also often used as an ornamental plant in parks and gardens because it
is very much suitable to pruning and to give the desired forms. Turkey provides about 97% of
the world’s laurel leaf need. It is one of the top five plants collected from nature and exported
from Turkey. However, there are some serious problems about the production system of
laurel. Laurel production is done in conventional methods by local people. These areas are
under threat due to overgrazing and uncontrolled collection. Ultimately, laurel growing areas
have been exploited. In recent years, the researches related to sustainable use of laurel have
increased. In this study it was investigated the researches conducted to sustainable use of
laurel in Sırtkoy, Manavgat district and some other districts of Antalya. The aim of these
studies was to develop an inventory method and to prepare management plans to be used by
forest service and regional people. The cut shoots and leaves of laurel should be controlled
and they should not be cut from the same locations every year. The rotation must be strictly
applied in every 3 or 4 years intervals. Leaf collections should be done by experienced people
in right period of the years and the leaves should be dried in a proper way.
Keywords: Laurel, leaf, sustainability
104
�
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1233
Title
A name given to the resource
Researches on Protection, Propagation and Sustainable Usage of Native Bulbous Plants of Turkey
Author
Author
Özgül , Karagüzel
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Over 1000 flowering bulbous plants are naturally grown in Turkey. Flowering bulbs exportation has been in effect for years from Turkey. In recent years, exportation has been under strict control, it has been realized according to yearly given quota by The Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestocks. Even though the present regulations and status, negligable amount of illegal wild collections are still going on. A number of researches has been conduted to prevent illegal collections and meantime to encourage artificial propagations and sustainable uses. These projects are mainly financed by the concern ministries, research institutes and universities. A good scale of geophyte exibition garden has been establised in Yalova Provience to take the interest of people and administrative staff. The present research projects are mainly concentrated on some well known flowering species such as tulips, hyacinthus, crocus, stenbergia, iris, fritillaria, snowdrop, lilies so on. Keywords: Geophytes, sustainability, researches
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8baa25009e901fe680307f6920548120.pdf
8b5d6b5c9c93125755c07d9b7f1f8b79
PDF Text
Text
Mirici S, Parmaksız İ, Özcan S, Sancak C, Uranbey S, Sarıhan E.O, Gümüşcü A, Gürbüz
B, Arslan N (2005). Efficient in vitro bulblet regeneration from immature embryos of
endangered Stenbergia fischeriana. Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult. 80:239-246.
Nasırcılar, A, Mirici, S, Karagüzel, Ö, Eren, Ö, Baktır, İ (2011). In vitro propagation of
endemic and endangered Muscari mirum from different explant types. Turk J Bot. 35, 37-43.
Ozel ÇA, Khawar KM (2007). In vitro bulblet regeneration of Ornithogalum oligophyllum
E.D. Clarke Using twing scale bulb explants. propagation of ornamental plants. Prop. Orn.
Pla. 7(2): 82-88.
Ozel ÇA, Khawar KM, Karaman S, Ateş MA, Arslan O (2008). Efficient in vitro
multiplication in Ornithogalum ulouphyllum Hand.-Mazz. from twin scale explants. Sci. Hort.
116: 109-112.
Uzun S., İlbaş A.İ., İpek A., Beyzi E.Uranbey, S. and Arslan, N. (2012). In Vitro Propagation
of Endemic Iris galactica Immature Zygotic. XI. International Symposium on Flower Bulbs
and Herbaceous Perennials. Abstract Book. P: 109. ANTALYA.
Yıldırım Z., Öztürk G. and Esen, M. (2010). Propagation of Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.)
in In Vitro Conditions. III. National Ornamental Plants Congress.p:98-102. İZMİR
Zencirkıran M.and Mengüç A. (2002).The Effects of Twin Scale and Chipping
Techniques on Bulblet Production in Galanthus elwesii Hook. II. National Ornamental
Plants Congress.p: 24-28.ANTALYA.
Zeybekoğlu E. and Özzambak E, 2012. XI. International Symposium on Flower Bulbs and
Herbaceous Perennials. Abstract Book. P: 225. ANTALYA.
Indoor Air Quality Of Some Social Areas In Konya City Center, Turkey
Yusuf Alparslan Argun1, Sukru Dursun2, Mehmet Emin Argun2,*
1 Aksaray University, Institute of Science, Environmental Engineering Dept.
2 Selcuk University, Engineering Faculty, Environ. Eng. Dep. 42003-Konya-Turkey
E-mails: sdursun@selcuk.edu.tr; argun@selcuk.edu.tr.
Abstract
Indoor activities, building characteristics and outdoor climatic conditions have all affected
indoor environment air quality. Some peoples, especially young and unemployed persons
spend on about 90 % of their times indoor environment. Indoor air quality has direct effect on
human health. One of the most important parameter for indoor air quality is particulate matter
(PM2.5). Therefore, determination of personal exposure to particulate matter (PM2.5) in these
areas especially in café is predicted to be key role. Long exposure to particulate matters may
lead to numerous diseases.
In this study, particulate matter was determined in different social areas at the morning and
evening for 30-sec. intervals during 15 minutes. Study area is heavily urbanized by a lot of
buildings and also surrounded by roads with intensive traffic circulation. It was concluded
382
�from this study that some parameters such as ventilation, people circulation, ceiling height,
construction shape and floor level have affected the measured concentration of particulate
matter. The analyses have evaluated by personal Particle Meter equipment. Different
conditions of the cafes for the PM values are also evaluated. Maximum and minimum PM2.5
concentrations were obtained as 3.485 μg/m3 for a Hubble-Bubble Cafe and 23 μg/m3 for a
Book Store. Numbers of obtained data were found to be higher than the EPA‘s standards for
indoor environment. EPA established that PM concentration should be lower than 20 g/m3
for indoors. Turkey has only outdoor air quality limitations for PM10 which is about 150
μg/m3 for long exposure and 300 μg/m3 for short exposure
Keywords: indoor air quality, particulate matter, human health.
1.INTRODUCTION
Indoor environment air quality is interacted and affected by the local outdoor air, specific
building characteristics and indoor activities (Stranger et al., 2007; 2008). Peoples lived in the
city center spend on about 90 % of their times indoor environment (Soysal and Demiral,
2007). Some peoples in Turkey especially young and unemployed persons spend most of their
spare time at social areas such as cafe, coffeehouses, internet café, shopping stores and book
stores. Therefore, determination of personal exposure to air pollution in these areas especially
in café is predicted to be key role (Stranger et al., 2008). PM2.5 is generally identified as
particulate matter having diameter less than 2.5 m which is mostly result of human activities,
food cooking operations, diesel engine exhaust and dust from wood burning (Zheng et al.,
2002). Long exposure to particulate matters may lead to some respiratory diseases changing
from basic couch and allergy to more serious lung diseases namely pneumoconiosis (Jones et
al., 2002; Kim et al., 2005).
Establishment of certain PM limitation becomes a necessity for government. However, the
PM limitations for indoor air quality have been newly established and a lot of governments
have even no arrangement. Table 1 shows the EPA limitations for indoors and concluded that
PM concentration should be lower than 20 g/m3 (EPA, 2001; Gonullu et al., 2002). Turkey
has only outdoor air quality limitations for PM10 which is about 150 μg/m3 for long exposure
and 300 μg/m3 for short exposure (Anon., 1986).
Table 1: Maximum indoor air quality limits according to EPA (EPA, 2001; Gonullu et al.,
2002)
Indoor pollutants
Maximum allowable concentrations
Carbonmonoxide (CO)
< 9 ppm
Carbondioxide (CO2)
< 800 ppm
Mould
It should be equal outdoor level
Formaldehyde
< 20 μg/m3
383
�Total volatile comp.
< 200 μg/m3
4-phenil cyclohexan (4-PC)
< 3 μg/m3
Total particulate matter (PM)
< 20 μg/m3
Regular pollutants
< national indoor standard
Other pollutants
< 5% of limit
2.Materials and Methods
Determination of particulate matter in 13 social areas at three different regions in the city
center of Konya (Turkiye) was investigated. These areas are surrounded by roads with
intensive buildings and traffic circulation. During each sampling period, PM2.5
concentrations were measured using a personal Particle Meter (personal Data RAM,
pDR1200, MIE Inc., Bedford, MA, 2000) in the study areas. The obtained data recorded at
30-sec. intervals during 15 minutes (Turkish Standards for air sampling). The map of study
areas is given in Figure 1. Table 2 also shows some information about measuring points.
Figure 1: The map of study areas in the city center of Konya
3.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Average and maximum PM2.5 concentration at the morning and evening periods are
summarized in Table 3. Measuring point 1 is a pizza cafe where some types of pizzas,
macaronis and other fast foods produced in. Average and maximum PM concentrations of this
point were 34 μg/m3 and 112 μg/m3 at the morning and 338 μg/m3 and 575 μg/m3 at the
evening, respectively (Figure 2). The probable reason of this relatively high PM level may be
due uprising of adsorbed dusts from the sponge covering furniture and chairs by ventilation of
the area. Some extra peak values were observed at the end of the evening measuring period
probably due to dust of flour and entering some people group.
384
�The highest levels among all measuring point were obtained in MP2, MP4 and MP8 as 3485,
1812 and 1208 μg/m3, respectively. These points are hubble-bubble (nargile in Turkish) cafe
and therefore a lot of smokes might be present. The high values may be a result of these
smokes. It was also concluded that sponge covering of furniture, hanging of carpets on the
walls and wavy structures of the cafe (MP2) caused to increase of PM concentration. Also, for
MP 8, the basement conditions could decrease ventilation and altered PM concentrations.
Table 2: Physical conditions of measuring points
Measuri
ng Point Type of MP
(MP)
Approx
area (m2)
Ceiling
Height
(m)
Number
of floor
Measuring
floor
1
Pizza cafe
40
2.3
5
Ground
2
Hubblebubble
100
3
Coffee house
90
4
Hubblebubble
80
5
Internet cafe
100
2.7
4
Ground
6
Coffee house
90
2.9
5
1st floor
7
Shop
200
3.5
5
Ground
8
Hubblebubble
100
9
Coffee house
90
2.9
5
2nd floor
10
Tea house
30
3.0
5
Ground
11
Billiards
saloon
160
12
Book store
110
3.0
4
Ground
13
Restaurant
90
2.7
4
Ground
2.4
2.8
3.0
2.2
3.1
5
6
6
6
2
Ground
1st floor
Ground
Basement
1st flor
Table 3: Average and maximum PM2.5 concentration at the morning and evening periods for
each sampling point
Sampling
385
Morning measurement
Evening Measurement
�Point
TWA
(mg/m3)
MAX
(mg/m3)
TWA
(mg/m3)
MAX
(mg/m3)
1
0.034
0.112
0.338
0.575
2
0.606
1.066
1.765
3.485
3
0.068
0.162
0.109
0.198
4
0.726
1.291
1.279
1.812
5
0.051
0.118
0.058
0.138
6
0.043
0.096
0.066
0.358
7
0.060
0.235
0.061
0.146
8
0.586
0.734
0.853
1.208
9
0.065
0.120
0.087
0.233
10
0.041
0.102
0.118
0.429
11
0.082
0.213
0.181
0.350
12
0.023
0.053
0.033
0.100
13
0.100
0.262
0.178
0.312
386
�0,6
Concentration(mg/m3)
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0
150
300
450
600
750
Time (second)
Evening
Morning
0
150
300
900
3,5
Concentration(mg/m3)
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
450
600
750
Time (second)
Evening
Morning
900
Figure 2: PM2.5 concentration of measuring point 1 (MP1) and 2 (MP2) at the morning and
evening periods.
387
�2
Concentration(mg/m3)
1,8
1,6
1,4
1,2
1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
0
150
300
450
600
750
Time (second)
Evening
Morning
900
Figure 3: PM2.5 concentration of (MP3) and (MP4) at the morning and evening periods.
The measuring results obtained from the coffee houses (MP3, 5, 6, 9) were generally low
levels according to hubble-bubble and pizza cafes although they were still a little higher than
EPA‘s limit for indoor PM concentration. The relatively low levels may be a result of good
ventilation, wooden furniture and not smoking.
388
�Figure 4: PM2.5 concentration of (MP5) and (MP6) at the morning and evening periods.
389
�0,14
Concentration(mg/m3)
0,12
0,1
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
0
150
300
450
600
750
Time (second)
Evening
Morning
900
Figure 5: PM2.5 concentration of (MP7) and (MP8) at the morning and evening periods.
Shopping centers such as MP 7 and MP 12 are generally large, crowd and having huge human
circulation during the day. Therefore, it may be expected that these types of areas have high
particulate matter concentration. However, measuring results showed that good ventilation,
high ceiling and clean conditions might lead to lower PM concentration.
Billiards saloon (MP 11) had also high particulate matters according to measuring results such
as 213 μg/m3 for morning and 350 μg/m3 for evening measurements. Playing billiards,
backgammon, and cards by a lot of peoples caused to increase the PM concentration of this
place.
In a restaurant (MP 13), average and maximum particulate matter concentrations were 100
μg/m3 and 262 μg/m3 at the morning and 178 μg/m3 and 312 μg/m3 at the evening
measurements, respectively. This may be due to cooking processes and high circulation of
people during the day.
390
�0,4
Concentration(mg/m3)
0,35
0,3
0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
0
0
150
300
450
600
750
Time (second)
Evening
Morning
900
Figure 6: PM2.5 concentration of (MP9) and (MP10) at the morning and evening periods.
391
�Concentration(mg/m3)
0,3
0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
0
0
150
300
450
600
750
Time (second)
Evening
Morning
900
0
150
300
900
Concentration(mg/m3)
0,12
0,1
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
450
600
750
Time (second)
Evening
Morning
Figure 7: PM2.5 concentration of (MP11) and (MP12) at the morning and evening periods.
0,35
Concentration(mg/m3)
0,3
0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
0
0
150
300
450
600
750
Time (second)
Evening
Morning
900
Figure 8: PM2.5 concentration of (MP13) at morning and evening periods.
4.CONCLUSION
Particulate matters (PM2.5) were determined in 13 different social areas at the morning and
evening. The major sources of the particles in the measuring points were obtained as hubblebubble and tobacco smoke. Therefore, health effects of smoking at indoor environment were
forced the government to arrange prohibitions against to stop smoking in indoor environment
in Turkey. Some particle sources resulted from kitchen such as flour dust and cooking gas
392
�were also determined to be major source of particulate matter in the restaurants and pizza
cafe. In addition, particle transport from outside via doors, windows or gaps of the building
and therefore outdoor weather situation may have also effect on the particulate matter increase
(Estekova et. al., 2010). It was also concluded from this study that some parameters such as
ventilation, people circulation, ceiling height, construction shape and located floor have
affected the measured concentration of particulate matter.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author thanks the Selcuk University Research Fund (SU-BAP) for its financial support to
symposium attendance.
REFERENCES
Stranger, M., Potgieter-Vermaak, S.S. and R. Van Grieken (2007) Comparative overview of
indoor air quality in Antwerp, Environ. Int., 33, 6.
Stranger, M., Potgieter-Vermaak, S.S. and R. Van Grieken (2008) Characterization of indoor
air quality in primary schools in Antwerp, Belgium, Indoor Air, 18, 454–463.
Soysal, A. and Demiral, Y. (2007) Kapalı Ortam Hava Kirliliği (in Turkish), TSK Koruyucu
Hekimlik Bülteni, 6, 221-226.
Zheng, M., Cass, G.R., Schauer, J.J. and Edgerton, E.S. (2002) Source apportionment of
PM2.5 in the Southeastern United States using solvent-extractable organic compounds as
tracers, Environ Sci Technol, 36, 2361-2371.
Jones, T., Blackmore, P., Leach, M., Bérubé, K., Sexton K. and Richards, R. (2002)
Characterization of airborne particles collected within and proximal to an opencast coalmine:
South Wales, U.K. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 75, 293–312.
Kim, J.H., Lim,D.H., Kim, J.K., Jeong S.J. and Son, B.K. (2005) Effects of Particulate Matter
(PM10) on The Pulmonary Function of Middle-School Children, J Korean Med Sci. 20, 4245.
EPA (2001), Case Study Two: EPA‘s Research Triangle Park Laboratory Facility.
Gonullu, M.T., Bayhan, H., Avşar, Y. and Arslankaya, E. (2002) YTÜ şevket sabancı
kütüphane binası iç ortam havasındaki partiküllerin incelenmesi (In Turkish), Harran
University 4.GAP Engineering Symposium, 1384-1389.
Anonymous (1986), Air Quality Control Regulation (In Turkish), Turkish Official Gazete No:
19269 and date: 2.11.1986.
Estekova, A., Stevulova, N. and Kubincova, L. (2010) Particulate matter investigation in
indoor environment, Global NEST Journal, 12, 20-26.
393
�
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1272
Title
A name given to the resource
Indoor Air Quality Of Some Social Areas In Konya City Center, Turkey
Author
Author
Yusuf , Alparslan Argun
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Indoor activities, building characteristics and outdoor climatic conditions have all affected indoor environment air quality. Some peoples, especially young and unemployed persons spend on about 90 % of their times indoor environment. Indoor air quality has direct effect on human health. One of the most important parameter for indoor air quality is particulate matter (PM2.5). Therefore, determination of personal exposure to particulate matter (PM2.5) in these areas especially in café is predicted to be key role. Long exposure to particulate matters may lead to numerous diseases. In this study, particulate matter was determined in different social areas at the morning and evening for 30-sec. intervals during 15 minutes. Study area is heavily urbanized by a lot of buildings and also surrounded by roads with intensive traffic circulation. It was concluded from this study that some parameters such as ventilation, people circulation, ceiling height, construction shape and floor level have affected the measured concentration of particulate matter. The analyses have evaluated by personal Particle Meter equipment. Different conditions of the cafes for the PM values are also evaluated. Maximum and minimum PM2.5 concentrations were obtained as 3.485 μg/m3 for a Hubble-Bubble Cafe and 23 μg/m3 for a Book Store. Numbers of obtained data were found to be higher than the EPA‘s standards for indoor environment. EPA established that PM concentration should be lower than 20 g/m3 for indoors. Turkey has only outdoor air quality limitations for PM10 which is about 150 μg/m3 for long exposure and 300 μg/m3 for short exposure Keywords: indoor air quality, particulate matter, human health.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5350f703b28bb8058bc2df15ef561ead.pdf
599ff1882bf9d1cf5aafec29e7116094
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
Ackerman T., Söder, L., An Overvief of Wind Energy - Rewiews Status 2002,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Rewiews, Vol. 6, 67-128 p.,2002.
AWS Scientific Inc., Wind resource assessment handbook, National Renewable
Energy Laboratory, 1997.
Aydın, İ., Yılmaz, S.S., The determination of dominant wind speed to increase
efficiency of wind energy in Manisa province, 1st International Conference on
Architecture and Urban Design, 19-21 April., Tirana-Albania, 2012.
Environmental Welding: The Friction Stir Welding
Selim Sarper Yilmaz1, Bekir Sadık Ünlü2, İbrahim Aydin2
1Celal Bayar University, Vocational High School, Department of Machinery,
45020, Manisa, Turkey
2Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering,
45040, Manisa, Turkey
E-mails: selim.yilmaz@cbu.edu.tr, bekir.unlu@cbu.edu.tr,
ibrahim.aydin@cbu.edu.tr
Abstract
In this study, microstructural and mechanical properties of pure aluminum joined
by friction stir weldingusing different parameters were investigated.
Hardness, tensile, bending and impact mechanics tests were applied to the
welded samples.In addition, optical and SEM tests were carried out. The effects of
the welding progress rate on the microstructure and mechanical properties were
investigated in these materials.Then, the optimal conditions for friction stir
welding were determined for pure aluminum.
Keywords:Friction stir
welding, aluminum alloy, microstructure, mechanical properties.
1. INTRODUCTION
Aluminum metal and its alloys are economical and attractive material due to their
superior mechanical properties. These features include the appearance,
lightness, ease
of production, physical and
mechanical properties and corrosion strength.
Aluminum is
known
for two mechanical properties; namely, lightness and corrosion resistance. The
weight of aluminium is approximately a third of the same volume
steel, aluminum, copper or brass and its specific gravity is 2.7 g/cm3.
Aluminum
has
an
excellent
atmosphere, water, salt water, oil
6
corrosion
resistance
against
and many chemicals.
the
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addition, electrical and thermal conductivity of aluminum is superior. In addition,
the strengths of some aluminum alloys are higher than strength of structural steels
(ASM Metals Handbook, 1979).
Friction stir welding (CCT) is a solid-state welding technique developed
bythe Welding Institute (Cambridge, United Kingdom) in 1991 and is used for the
combination of the non-ferrous metals and alloys. Although friction stir welding
can be used to combine a large number of materials, the first studies and the
industrial interest have focused on the combination of aluminum alloys.
Friction stir welding has become an important and rapidly developing welding
technique in combining these alloys (Boz and Kurt, 2004; Fonda, Bingert and
Colligan, 2004; Somasekharan and Murr, 2004; Meran, 2006)
In friction stir welding, tools which are cylindrical, rotating, inexhaustible, and
hard, has got a tip in thecenter and is composed of a shoulder. The tip of the
tools is firmly immersed in between the two workpieces to be welded and brought
forehead to forehead firmly. During the welding, while the tip is going forward in
a rotational movement, the shoulder moves towards the welding in contact with
the upper surface (Meran, 2006; Ericsson, 2005; Smith, Hinrichs; Crusan and
Leverett 2003; Butlerworth-Heinemann,2001; Staron,Koçak, Williams and
Wescott, 2004).
Friction stir welding of welding connections found in the welding region is a
typical form
of onion
rings and weld
metal, as the
format consists
of many variables. This format depends on the type of alloy being welded and the
parameters of welding process (Özsoy and Kaluç, 2002).
The
position
of
the half-circles on
the
surface of
the
tool during rotation and forward movement provides necessary heat for the
welding and pushes hot metal on the surface and appears to stay on the surface.
The continuous nature of welding provides the consistency of semi-circular rings
and the distance between the rings is equal to the distance the tool travels during
one rotation. The material is pushed towards the sides and back in a semicircular ring during each rotation of the tool. There is more mixing near the upper
surface. All these results lead the researchers to the idea that the process
mentioned is an extrusion process (Mert and Kaluç2003). Although the
main material or the material resistant to heat is far from the welding point, they
are affected by the thermal cycle of the process. But this does not affect the
microstructural or mechanical properties(http://tech.plymouth.ac.uk/sme/UoA30/
Weld_Microstructure.PDF).
The objectives of this study are to investigate mechanical properties of pure Al, to
study the hardenability of welding region and the region under the heat effect, to
further investigate internal structures of these regions and the resistance value of
welded parts.
2. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
Plates of 5 mm x 110 mm x 300 mm size were processed using an universal
milling machine. Afterwards, 8 mm thick base material was placed on the milling
table. After clamping the plates to be joined on the metal sheet base, the material
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was ready for welding process. The mechanical characteristics of the materials
used in the experiments are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of materials used in the experiments
Material
Pure
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
Break
Elongation
(%)
R0.2 Yield
Strength
105
40
25
Hardness
(HV)
(MPa)
20
In the experiments, tip geometry of the material and revolution per minute
was kept constant, but, travelling speed of the tip was varied (Table 2).
Table 2. Friction stir welding parameters
Material
Pure
Spindle Speed
(rpm)
1250
Traveling Speed
(mm/min)
20
40
63
After cleaning the surface ofthe plates to be joined with the help of bind mold
head to head, friction stir welding was successfully realized. There was neither
distortion nor deformation ofwelded plates after joining process.
Tensile tests were applied to determine the maximum stress values of plates of
welded joints. The tensile samples prepared in accordance with DIN 50109 as
shown in Figure 1 were processed perpendicularly to the welding direction of the
sheets in a CNC milling machine. The tensile tests were carried out at across head
speed of 2 mm/min using an Universal Testing Machine (AG- 50kNG Shimadzu
Autograph, Japan). True stress and strain curves were determined by computer
connected to the device. Threepoint bend tests at 180° were conducted at a
bending speed of 10 mm/min.
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Fig.1. Samples prepared for tensile test and subsequent measurements
For optical microscope examinations, samples from the base material and welding
region were taken out, before and after welding process. Samples measuring 10 x
20 x 5 mm were cut. The surfaces of the samples were polished by means of
abrasives having a 220, 400, 600, 800 and 1200 grid, respectively. After the
process ofthe last polishing the materials with 10 micron alumina polish, the
sample surfaces were etched in Keller solution with 2 ml hydrofluoric acid (HF),
10 ml nitric acid (HN03) and 88 ml water immersion for 12 seconds. Henceforth,
the structural changes occurring in the junction area were determined. In the
analysis of samples, an optical microscope (Nikon Eclipse U50, Japan) was used.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3. 1. Mechanical Properties
Figure 2 shows the microhardness results of pure aluminum groups.
70
60
50
40
1-I
30
1-II
20
1-III
10
0
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Fig.2. Microhardness distribution of pure aluminum
When hardness of all samples was examined, four different regions of hardness
distribution were found to change significantly. Hardness values of the samples
joined by friction stir welding were higher than those of the base material.
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The samples broke in the HAZ (heat affected zone) region adjacent to the weld
seam, as the tensile tests were applied to the welds. This region was identified as
the thermo-mechanically formed region under the influence of the welding heat.
Maximum Tensile Strength
(N/mm2)
The results of the tensile tests are given in Figure 3.
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1
2
3
Traveling Speed (mm/min)
Fig.3. Maximum tensile strength distributions for pure aluminum
The tensile strength of pure aluminumdecreased with an increase in welding
speed. The reason was that low heat input of HAZ due to increasing travelling
speed caused largedecreases in the HAZ width, the samples experienced fewer
necks which could cause decreases in tensile strength. This was not the case for
pure aluminum. The highest tensile strength for pure aluminum was observed at
the 20 mm/min travelling speed.
Maximum Bending
Strength (N/mm2)
As a result of bending tests, no failure occurred in the weld region. The results of
bending test are given in Figure 4.
195
190
185
180
175
170
165
160
20
63
40
1
2
3
Traveling Speed (mm/min)
Fig.4. Aluminum bending test results for pure aluminum
Charpy test results of pure aluminum welds are given in Figure 5.
10
�Notch Impact
Strength (Joule)
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
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50
40
30
20
10
0
1-I
1-II
1-III
Traveling Speed (mm/min)
Figure 5. Charpy test results for pure aluminium
For the Charpy notch impact test, a standard test device with a capacity of 300
Joule was used. A 2 mm deep notch with a 450 angle was opened in the middle of
the specimens which measured 55 x 10 x 5 mm due to the dimensions of the
friction stir welded plates.
3. 2. Microstructure Properties
The schematic cross-section of a typical friction stir weld shows four distinct
zones which are illustrated in Figure 6, as reproduced from another study. Friction
stir welding is a solid state welding method which produces joints below the
melting temperature. Friction stir welding produces a very narrow he at affected
zone compared to other welding methods, because not very high temperatures are
involved in this process.
RCR
HAZ
BM
TMAZ
Fig. 6Macrostructure of the friction stir welding
These areas are the dynamical recrystallized region (RCR), the thermomechanical affected zone (TMAZ), the heat affected zone (HAZ) and the base
material (BM). The following four different regions were thus determined
throughout the experiments:
A: base material
B: he at affected zone (HAZ)
C: thermo-mechanical affected zone (TMAZ)
D: dynamically recrystallized zone (DXZ)
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In the DXZ, the grains become smailer as a result of severe deformation and
extrusion, whereas in thermo-mechanical affected zone (TMAZ), the grains were
observed to grow gradually. The fine-grained structure of the dynamical
recrystallized zone (DXZ) contributed to strength and hardness improvement after
welding. The cause of changes in the structures of grain is associated with the heat
of friction.
When the number of revolutions was kept constant and the traveling speed was
increased, in the buffer zone, the widths of the mix of bands gradually increased.
This case can be related to the amount of material transported per unit time and
increasing travelling speed.
This region of intense plastic deformation and high friction temperature is called
as "dynamical recrystallized zone" or "welding center". Dislocation density is
lower and thinner in this region and it is composed of oriented grains. In the
friction stir welding applications of similar types of alloys, this region resembles a
pool of onion rings. The TMAZ zones are shown in the Figures 7, 8.
Fig.7. The microstructural zones of pure aluminium after welding
Fig. 10. Fracture surfaces pure aluminium
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4. CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from the present investigations ofpure
aluminiumtypes:
Micro-structural analysis indicated an expansion in the size of the heat affected
zone with reduced travelling speed.
In the dynamical recrystallized zone, the grains became smaller as a result of
severe deformation and extrusion while in the thermo-mechanical affected zone,
the grains were observed to grow gradually.
The travelling speed of 40 mm/min produced the best microhardness, bending,
tensile and Charpy test results for all the samples studied, and thus, has to be regarded as the optimum travelling speed.
After complete bending, no microcracks were observed in the weld zones
REFERENCES
ASM Metals Handbook(1979). Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and
Pure Metals, American Society for Metals, Metals park, Ohio.
BozA.,KurtA.(2004). The influence of stirrer geometry on bonding and
mechanical properties in friction stir welding process.Materials and Design(25),
343–347.
FondaR. W.,BingertJ. F., ColliganK. J.(2004). Development of grain structure
during friction stir welding. Scripta Materialia(51), 243–248.
SomasekharanA. C.,MurrL. E.(2004). Microstructures in friction-stir welded
dissimilar magnesium alloys and magnesium alloys to 606l-T6 aluminum
alloy.Materials Characterization(52)49–64.
MeranC.(2006). The joint properties of brass plates by friction stir
welding.Materials and Design(27)719–726.
Ericsson M.(2005). Fatigue strength of friction stir welded joints in
aluminum.Ph.D Thesis, Royal Institute of Technology. Sweden.
SmithC. B.,HinrichsJ. F., CrusanW. Leverett(2003). FSW stirs up welding
process competition.Forming & Fabricating(2)25–31.
David J. E.,(2001). Ship Construction, 5th Edition, Butlerworth-Heinemann, India
StaronP.,KoçakM., WilliamsS., WescottA(2004).Residual stress in friction stirwelded Al sheets, Physica B(350) 491-493.
ÖzsoyM.,KaluçE.(2002). Sürtünen eleman ile birleştirme kaynağının esasları,
Mühendis ve Makine Dergisi (513)21-35 (in Turkish).
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
MertS.,KaluçE. (2003). Sürtünme karıştırma kaynağında kullanılan takımlardaki
gelişmeler.TMMOB Makine Mühendisleri Odası Kaynak Teknolojisi IV.Ulusal
Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, 103-ll5 (in Turkish)
http://tech.plymouth.ac.uk/sme/UoA30/ Weld_Microstructure.PDF
Investigation Of Fracture Toughness Of Calcium Phosphate Coating
Treated Onto Ti6A14V Substrate
İbrahim Aydın1, Hakan Cetinel2, Ahmet Pasinli3
1Celal Bayar University, Vocational Collage, Machine Programme
Manisa, Turkey
2Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering
Manisa, Turkey
3Ege University, Vocational Collage, Machine Programme
İzmir, Turkey
E-mails: ibrahim.aydin@bayar.edu.tr, hakan.cetinel@bayar.edu.tr,
ahmet.pasinli@ege.edu.tr
Abstract
In this study, we aimed to investigate the fracture toughness of the calcium
phosphate (CaP) coating, that was formed with Vickers indentation method, by
the new method with the new patent. The activation process was done with NaOH
+ H2O2 on the Ti6Al4V material surface. Elasticity module, hardness values and
coating thickness of the CaP coating that is formed by activation process was
calculated. SEM micrographs and EDS analysis were gathered of the coating.
Fracture toughness was determined by Vickers indentation. At the end of this
study, fracture toughness (K1C) value for the CaP coating on Ti6A14V that was
activated by NaOH+ H2O2 was found to be 0.43 MPa m1/2.
Keywords: Calcium phosphate, coating, vickers indentation, fracture toughness
Ti6Al4V.
1. INTRODUCTION
Titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) hip prosthesis is a material used in orthopedic implant
production just as widely as bone plates and bone screws (Hench, 1991).
Hydroxiapatite (HA) coatings are used in Ti6Al4V alloys in implant materials in
14
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Environmental Welding: The Friction Stir Welding
Author
Author
Selim , Sarper Yilmaz
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In this study, microstructural and mechanical properties of pure aluminum joined by friction stir weldingusing different parameters were investigated. Hardness, tensile, bending and impact mechanics tests were applied to the welded samples.In addition, optical and SEM tests were carried out. The effects of the welding progress rate on the microstructure and mechanical properties were investigated in these materials.Then, the optimal conditions for friction stir welding were determined for pure aluminum. Keywords:Friction stir welding, aluminum alloy, microstructure, mechanical properties.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c3eb050f80218247ff9cd4ccd39a5010.pdf
163f53eadbed66102cc912a8361002ba
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012,
Sarajevo
Biodiversity for sustinable agriculture: Common bean genetic diversity
Nemli Seda , Tanyolac M.Bahattin
Department of Bioengineering, Ege University Izmir, Turkey
E-mail: eryilmazseda@hotmail.com
Abstract
The immense genetic diversity of genotypes of crops is the most directly useful
and economically valuable part of biodiversity. Genetic diversity is a key factor
enabling adaptation, and therefore survival, of natural populations in changing
environments. And also genetic diversity is essential tool for any breeding
program. Leguminous plants, after cereals, include the most economically
important species of agricultural interest, considering area cultivated and total
production. Among the grain legumes,soybean, peanuts and common beans are
the most important commercial crops. Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and
its related species are important protein sources for the world population. In 2006,
the bean industry was valued at $1.2 billion and $180 million in USA and Canada,
respectively. The average yield of bean varieties cropped in developing countries
is still very low. The analysis of genetic diversity and relationships among
different individuals, species, or populations is an important topic in genetics and
plant breeding. Since morphological charactersin plants effect from environmental
condition, DNA markers provide the most precise tool for measuring genetic
relationships, because they are potentially unlimited in number Among the DNA
techniques, Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) is intense and
provides a powerful tool for genotype identification, phylogeny The AFLP
technique is based on the amplification of short restriction endonuclease digested
genomic DNA fragments onto which adaptors have been ligated at both ends.For
this purpose common bean genomes were analyzed using AFLP fingerprinting to
examine the genetic variation within and among genotypes.. A total of 86
common bean accessions collected from different countries were used in this
study. For the AFLP analysis,12 primer combination were used. Acrylamide gels
from primer combination were scored according to presence (1) or absence (0) of
amplified fragments.The molecular data were analyzed using the NTSYs
program. A dendrogram was generated using JMP software (version 3.1, SAS
Institute, 1995) based on the UPGMA (unweighted pair-group method of
arithmetic average). The eightysix genotypes represented seven different clusters
as revealed by AFLP primers. The minimum variation was detected between
sample 20, Turkey and sample 24, Turkey (GD = 0.09), and the maximum was
found between samples 34 and 28 (GD = 0.80).
Keywords: Biodiversity, Common bean, AFLP
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1.INTRODUCTION
Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is an important economic food legume and is
widely grown in North, Middle and South America, Eastern Africa, Europe and
China. The bean seed is rich in protein, fiber, carbohydrates, minerals and
vitamins. Beans provide a good source of protein for rural and urban poor in many
developing countries. (Pachico,1989) Common bean originated and was
domesticated in the New World and has two major gene pools, The Andean and
The Mesoamerican, based on their centers of origin in South and Central America,
respectively. (gebts and debouck 1991). Common bean is a diploid (2n=22)
legume with a relatively small genome. A few species show an aneuploid
reduction to 20 chromosomes. The genome of common bean is one of the smallest
in the legume family at 625 Mbp per haploid genome.
DNA markers provide the most precise tool for measuring genetic relationships,
because they are potentially unlimited in number and are not affected by the
environment (Maciel et al., 2003). During the last two decades, DNA-based
molecular markers have been extensively used for a variety of purposes in many
animal and plant systems. Among the DNA techniques, amplified fragment length
polymorphism (AFLP) is robust and provides a powerful tool for studies of
genetic variation, genotype identification, phylogeny (Kafkas 2006), and
molecular linkage mapping (Hurtado and Ramstedt 2002). The AFLP analysis
provides a higher level of polymorphism than random amplified polymorphism
DNA (RAPD) or restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) (Pejic et al.,
1998).Amplified fragment length polymorphisms are based on selective and
semiquantitative PCR amplification of restriction fragments digested from total
genomic DNA. Fragments generated by digestion of DNA with a combination of
two restriction endonucleases are linked to suitable adapters and, thereafter, linked
DNA fragments are amplified selectively with different primer combinations (Vos
et al., 1995). The RFLPs (Becerra-Vela´ squez and Gepts, 1994; Duarte et al.,
1999; Metais et al., 2000; Maciel et al., 2001), RAPDs (Haley et al., 1994;
Nienhuis et al., 1995; Moura-Duarte et al., 1999; Beebe et al. 2000; Metais et al.,
2000), inter simple sequence repeats (ISSRs) (Rosales-Serna et al., 2003), and
more recently, AFLPs (Tohme et al., 1996; Caicedo et al., 1999; Maciel et al.,
2003; Pallottiniet al., 2004) have been successfully used for the description of
diversity in common bean.
In the present paper, AFLP analysis was used to investigate genetic variability at
the DNA level in 86 common bean collected from different countries.
2.MATERIAL-METOD
A total of 86 common bean accessions were used in this study (Table 1),
including 45 Turkey accessions, 5 Netherlands accessions, 4 Germany
accessions,, 3 China accessions, 17 England accessions,11 USA accessions, 1
Bulgaria accessions.
Table 1: A list of 86 P. vulgaris accessions used in AFLP analysis
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Genotip Number
Genotip Number
Location
1
Turkey
20
Turkey
2
Netherlands
21
Turkey
3
Germany
22
Turkey
4
Germany
23
Turkey
5
Germany
24
Turkey
6
Turkey
25
Turkey
7
Netherlands
26
Turkey
8
Netherlands
27
Turkey
9
Netherlands
28
USA
10
Turkey
29
USA
11
Turkey
30
USA
12
Turkey
31
England
13
China
32
England
14
China
33
England
15
Turkey
34
England
16
Turkey
35
England
17
Turkey
36
England
18
Turkey
37
England
19
Turkey
38
England
39
England
63
Turkey
40
England
64
Turkey
41
England
65
USA
42
Turkey
66
England
43
Turkey
67
Turkey
44
Turkey
68
Turkey
45
Turkey
69
Turkey
46
Turkey
70
Turkey
47
Turkey
71
Turkey
48
Turkey
72
Turkey
49
Netherlands
73
India
50
USA
74
USA
51
USA
75
England
52
USA
76
England
53
Turkey
77
England
54
Turkey
78
England
24
Location
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55
Turkey
79
England
56
Turkey
80
Turkey
57
Bulgaria
81
Turkey
58
Turkey
82
USA
59
Turkey
83
USA
60
China
84
USA
61
Turkey
85
Turkey
62
Turkey
86
Turkey
2.1. DNA extraction
Young leaves from plants collected were harvested and placed in an aluminum
foil and kept in liquid nitrogen. Leaf tissue from each individual was ground to a
fine powder in liquid nitrogen with a mortar and pestle. Total genomic DNA was
extracted following the procedure as described by Doyle & Doyle. The purified
DNA was quantified with ND-1000 (Nanodrop, Thermo Co.) spectrophotometer.
The DNA quality was also assessed and the concentration determined by
visualization under UV light, on 1% agarose gels in TAE (Tris-acetic acid-EDTA)
buffer and then agarose gel–stained.
2.2. AFLP analysis
Li-Cor AFLP Kit (catalog number: 830-06195 AFLP 2-DYE Selective
Amplification Kit) was used according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.
According to the kit, 200 ng pure DNA was digested with EcoR I and Mse I
restriction enzymes. The enzyme adaptors were ligate to the digested DNA.
Selective amplification of restriction fragments was conducted using primers with
three selective nucleotide extensions, RD700/800 dyes. Twenty-two primer
combinations were used to screen for polymorphism among samples.
Amplification products were resolved on 8% acrylamide gel in 1 9 TBE (Trisborate-EDTA) buffer under 1500 V and 40 mA conditions. Li-Cor 4300s DNA
Analyzer machine was used to image, analyze, and screen the bands profile
2.3. Band scoring and data analysis
Each polymorphic AFLP bands were scored manually as present(1) or absent (0)
across all 33 genotypes for each primer-paircombination and the values were used
to compile binary datamatrix.Onlybright, clearly distinguishable bands were
usedin the genetic analysis. Genetic disimilarity estimates were calculated using
Jaccard’scoefficient of disimilarity (Jaccard, 1908). JMP software (version 3.1,
SAS Institute, 1995) was used to calculate distances and a dendrogram was
generated. The accessions were grouped by cluster analysis using the unweighted
pair-group method (UPGMA).PIC (polymorphism information content) was
calculated from the 1/0 datum matrix. The PIC value refers to the relative value of
each marker with respect to the amount of polymorphism it exhibits. PIC was also
calculated by 1- Σpi2: , where i= indiviual p and pi = the allele frequencies of the
loci. (De Riek,2001).
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3.Results and Discussion
3.1.AFLP Marker analysis
The size of bands scored in all the 44 accessions were in the range of 50–450 bp.
86 genotypes were analyzed by AFLP-PCR using 13 selective primer
combinations as listed in Table 2. A total of 245 polymorphic bands were
generated, and the number of polymorphic bands per each primer combination
ranged from 4 (MCAG-EAGG) to 32 (MCAC-EACA) with an average number of
18.8 bands. A representative gel obtained from the primer combination MCAA/E-ACG ( 700 ) is presented in Fig. 1. Polymorphic bands from 86 DNA
samples, amplified by 13 AFLP primer combinations, are also listed in Table 2 .
The maximum number of polymorphic bands obtained per primer confirmed the
high polymorphism determination efficiency of AFLPs in comparison with other
marker systems used for common bean such as RAPD (Haley et al., 1994; Maciel
et al., 2001; Tiwari et al., 2005 ) and RFLP ( Sonnante et al., 1994; Stockton and
Gepts, 2004 ).
Table 2 Polymorphic bands from 86 DNA samples, amplified by 13 AFLP primer
combinations
Primer Number
Primer Pairs
1
MCAC-EACA
No. of
bands
32
2
MCAA-EAAC
25
3
MCAA-EACA
15
4
MCTC-EAAG
15
5
MCAG-EACA
27
6
MCAT-EACA
14
7
MCTG-EACA
25
8
MCAC-EAGC
23
9
MCAA-EACG
12
10
MCAA-EAGC
15
11
MCTC-EACT
20
12
MCAG-EAGG
4
13
MCAT-EAGG
18
TOTAL
245
polymorphic
3.2. Genetic diversity analysis
To determine the genetic relationships among the 86 genotypes, the scoring data
(1 for presence and 0 for absence) resulting from the 13 primer combinations were
used to compute the dissimilarity matrix according to Jaccard (1908). This
dissimilarity matrix was used to generate a dendrogram using the UPGMA
method. The 86 genotypes represented seven clades as revealed by AFLP primers
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(Fig.2). Group I was the largest one containing 44 accessions that included twenty
five Turkey varieties and seven England land races.
As shown in Table 3, the minimum variation was detected between sample 20
Turkey, and sample 24 Turkey (GD= 0,0094) and the maximum was found
between sample 34 England and samples 28 USA (GD = 0,80).
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Fig.1. AFLP pattern of 1-48 common bean DNA samples.
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Fig.1. AFLP pattern of 49-86 common bean DNA samples
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Fig. 2 Dendrogram resulting from UPGMA cluster analysis of 86 common bean
genotypes based on data derived from 13 AFLP primer combinations
Studies of genetic diversity using molecular marker and DNA sequencing
techniques are necessary if we are to understand a population’s genetic structure
and phylogeography, identify the center of genetic diversity of a species, and
develop effective conservation strategies (Gao, 2003).PCR-based molecular
marker techniques play an important role in the analysis of genetic diversity and
relatedness for crop plants, where most of the species involved are almost
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unknown at the genetic level (Ilgin et al. 2009). In this study, the AFLP method
generated large numbers of polymorphic bands. We detected a total of 284
polymorphic bands, and the number of polymorphic bands for each primer
combination ranged from from 4 (MCAG-EAGG) to 32 (MCAC-EACA) with an
average number of 18.8 bands. Our study shows that AFLP provided a large
number of polymorphic bands and a large amount of genotypic information. Grilli
Caiola et al. (2004) found the number of polymorphic bands per primer to be 2.01
in their RAPD study.
In conclusion, we have shown that AFLP profiling techniques may provide useful
information on the level of polymorphism and diversity in common bean, showing
their utility in the characterization of germplasm accessions. AFLP marker
systems have comparable accuracy in grouping genotypes of this species
according
to
their
gene
pool
of
origin
31
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
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Table
33
3
Genetic
distance
matrix
computed
according
to
Jaccard
(1908)’s
coefficient
based
on
AFLP
data
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
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Duarte, J.M., J.B. Santos, and L.C. Melo. 1999. Genetic divergence among common bean
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GAO LZ. 2003. The conservation of Chinese rice biodiversity:genetic erosion, ethnobotany
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Gepts P, Debouck D (1991) Origin, domestication, and evolution of the common bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.). In: Schoonhoven AV(ed) Common beans: research for crop
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Grilli Caiola M, Caputo P, Zanier R (2004) RAPD analysis in Crocus sativus L. accessions
and related Crocus species. Biol Plant48:375–380
Haley, S.D., P.N. Miklas, L. Afanador, and J.D. Kelly. 1994. Random mplified polymorphic
DNA (RAPD) marker variability between and within gene pools of common bean. J. Am.
Soc. Hortic. Sci. 119:122–125
Hurtado S, Ramstedt M (2002) AFLP comparison of distant Melampsora epitea (willow rust)
populations. Mycol Res 106(12):1400–1407
Ilgin M, Kafkas S, Ercisli S (2009) Molecular characterization of plum cultivars by AFLP
markers. Biotechnol Biotechnol Equip 23(2):1189–1193
Kafkas S (2006) Phylogenetic analysis of the genus Pistaciaby AFLP markers. Plant Syst
Evol 262:113–124
MACIEL FL, E CHEVERRIGARAY S, GERALD LTS, and G RAZZIOTIN FG. 2003.
Genetic relationships and diversity among Brazilian cultivars and landraces of common beans
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.) revealed by AFLP markers. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution
50: 887–893
Metais, I., C. Aubry, B. Hamon, R. Jalouzot, and D. Peltier. 2000. Description and analysis of
genetic diversity between commercial bean lines (Phaseolus vulgarisL.). Theor. Appl. Genet.
101:1207– 1214
Maciel, F.l., Gerald, L.T.S., Echeverrigaray, S., 2001. Random amplified poly-morphic DNA
(RAPD) markers variability among cultivars and landraces of common bean (P. vulgaris L.)
of South Brazil. Euphytica 120, 257–263
Metais, I., C. Aubry, B. Hamon, R. Jalouzot, and D. Peltier. 2000. Description and analysis of
genetic diversity between commercial bean lines (Phaseolus vulgarisL.). Theor. Appl. Genet.
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34
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Moura-Duarte, J., J. Bosco dos Santos, and L. Cunha Melo. 1999. Genetic divergence among
common bean cultivars from different races based on RAPD markers. Genet. Mol. Biol.
22:419–426.
Nienhuis, J., J. Tivang, P. Skroch, and J.B. Santos. 1995. Genetic relationships among
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PACHICO, D.1989 Trends in world common bean production, pp. 1-8 in Bean
Production Problems in the Tropics, edited by H. F. SCHWARTZ and M. A. PASTORCORRALES. CIAT Press, Cali, Colombia
Pallottini, L., E. Garcia, J. Kami, G. Barcaccia, and P. Gepts. 2004. The genetic anatomy of a
patented yellow bean. Crop Sci. 44:968–977
Pejic I, Ajmone-Marsan P, Morgante M, Kozumplick V, Castiglioni P, Taramino G, Motto M
(1998). Comparative analysis of genetic similarity among maize inbred lines detected by
RFLPs, RAPDs, SSRs, and AFLPs. Theor. Appl. Genet. 97: 1248-1255.
Rosales-Serna R., Hernandez-Delgado S., Gonzalez-Paz M., Acosta-Gallegos J.A.,
Mayek-Perez N., 2005, Genetic relationships and diversity revealed by AFLP markers
in Mexican common bean bred cultivars, Crop Sci. 45: 1951- 1957.
Sonnante, G., Stockton, T., Nodari, R.O., Becerra, V., Gepts, P., 1994. Evolutionof genetic
diversity during the domestication of common-bean ( Phaseolusvulgaris L.). Theor. Appl.
Genet. 89, 629–635.
Stockton, T., Gepts, P., 2004. Identification of DNA probes that reveal poly-morphisms
among closely related Phaseolus vulgaris lines. Euphytica 76,177–183
Tiwari, M., Singh, N., Rathore, M., Kumar, N., 2005. RAPD markers in the analysis of
genetic diversity among common bean germplasm from Central Himalaya. Genet. Res. Crop
Evol. 52, 315–324
Tohme, J., Gonza ´ lez, O.D., Beebe, S., Duque, C., 1996. AFLP analysis of gene pools of a
wild bean core collection. Crop Sci. 36, 1375–1384
Vos P., Hogers R., Bleeker M., Relijans M., Lee T., Hornes M., Frijers A., Pot J.,Peleman J.,
Kuiper M., Zabeau M., 1995, AFLP: A new technique for DNA fingerprinting, Nucleic
Acids Research 23: 4407 – 4414.
35
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
1223
Title
A name given to the resource
Biodiversity for sustinable agriculture: Common bean genetic diversity
Author
Author
Nemli , Seda
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The immense genetic diversity of genotypes of crops is the most directly useful and economically valuable part of biodiversity. Genetic diversity is a key factor enabling adaptation, and therefore survival, of natural populations in changing environments. And also genetic diversity is essential tool for any breeding program. Leguminous plants, after cereals, include the most economically important species of agricultural interest, considering area cultivated and total production. Among the grain legumes,soybean, peanuts and common beans are the most important commercial crops. Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and its related species are important protein sources for the world population. In 2006, the bean industry was valued at $1.2 billion and $180 million in USA and Canada, respectively. The average yield of bean varieties cropped in developing countries is still very low. The analysis of genetic diversity and relationships among different individuals, species, or populations is an important topic in genetics and plant breeding. Since morphological charactersin plants effect from environmental condition, DNA markers provide the most precise tool for measuring genetic relationships, because they are potentially unlimited in number Among the DNA techniques, Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) is intense and provides a powerful tool for genotype identification, phylogeny The AFLP technique is based on the amplification of short restriction endonuclease digested genomic DNA fragments onto which adaptors have been ligated at both ends.For this purpose common bean genomes were analyzed using AFLP fingerprinting to examine the genetic variation within and among genotypes.. A total of 86 common bean accessions collected from different countries were used in this study. For the AFLP analysis,12 primer combination were used. Acrylamide gels from primer combination were scored according to presence (1) or absence (0) of amplified fragments.The molecular data were analyzed using the NTSYs program. A dendrogram was generated using JMP software (version 3.1, SAS Institute, 1995) based on the UPGMA (unweighted pair-group method of arithmetic average). The eightysix genotypes represented seven different clusters as revealed by AFLP primers. The minimum variation was detected between sample 20, Turkey and sample 24, Turkey (GD = 0.09), and the maximum was found between samples 34 and 28 (GD = 0.80). Keywords: Biodiversity, Common bean, AFLP
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3fe4f39264082195cfc49b41e0eca0c2.pdf
d4040953bd6f49af03e9ff94881ca872
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
concentration of anesthesia increases, the time of transition to induction stage shortens (Ross
et al, 2008). Induction times of the fish vary depending on the dose of clove oil and, normally,
as the dose increases, recovery time increases.
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Çetinkaya, O., Şahin A.( 2005) Balık Biyolojisi Araştırma Yöntemleri. (Ed) Mehmet Karataş,
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Cookea, S. J., Suskib, C. D. Ostranda , K. G, Tuftsb, B. L., Wahl, D. H.(2004) Behavioral and
physiological assessment of low concentrations of clove oil anaesthetic for handling and
transporting largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), Aquaculture 239, 509–529.
Padilla, D. K., Williams, S. L.(2004) Beyond ballast water: aquarium and ornamental trades
as sources of invasive species in aquatic ecosystems. Front Ecol Environ 2004, 2(3): 131–138.
Ross, L., Ross, B.(2008) Anaesthetic and Sedative Techniques for Aquatic animals, 240.
Seol, D., Lee J., Im, S., Park, I. (2007) Clove oil as an anaesthetic for common octopus
(Octopus minor, Sasaki). Aquaculture Research, 38, 45-49.
Tolon, T., Hekimoğlu, M.A.( 2011) Türkiye´de Süs Balığının Pazar Durumu. XVI. Ulusal Su
Ürünleri Sempozyumu 25-27 Ekim 2011 Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Antalya.
Ucar, A., Atamanalp, M. (2010) The Effects of Natural (Clove Oil) and Synthetical (2phenoxyethanol) Anesthesia Substances on Hematology Parameters of Rainbow Trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) and Brown Trout (Salmo trutta fario), Journal of Animal and
Veterinary Advances 9(14): 1925-1933.
Whittington, M., Pereira, M. A. M., Gonçalves, M., and Costa, A.(2000) An Investigation of
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URL
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Yıldırım, Y.B., Genc, E., Turan, F., Cek, S., Yanar, M.(2010) The Anaesthetic Effects of
Quinaldine Sulphate, Muscle Relaxant Diazepam and Their Combination on Convict Cichlid,
Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum (Günther, 1867) Juvenies, Journal of Animal and Veterinary
Advances,9(3), 547-550.
Sustainable Development in Aviation Industry
and the case of Turkish Airlines
Mustafa Kavacık1, Saadet Zafer2, Ali Yıldız3, Davut Karaman
1Akdeniz University Alanya Faculty of Business, Alanya, Antalya, Turkey,
2Muğla University Dalaman Vocational School, Dalaman, Muğla, Turkey,
3Akdeniz University Alanya Chamber of Commerce and Industry Vocational School,
Alanya, Antalya, Turkey
E-mails: mkavacik@akdeniz.edu.tr, saadetzafer@akdeniz.edu.tr,
aliyildiz@mu.edu.tr,davutkaraman@akdeniz.edu.tr
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Abstract
Within changing world, sustainable development globally has become an important strategic
goal for all sectors.
Sustainable development seeks to protect, develop and balance social, economic and
environmental goals and resources in order to secure comfort and welfare of present and
future generations. The significance level of these related goals and sources is very high.
Threats and hazards such as limited resources around the globe, overly population increase,
global warming, damaging of ozone layer, decreasing of live species and environmental
pollution dramatically reveal the importance of sustainable development.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Kyoto Protocol
which was signed in 1997 came into force in 2005. In this context, aviation industry is a good
sample for sustainability. Fuels used in consist of non-renewable resources so contribute to
climate change negatively. But, at the same time, that industry makes very valuable and
unique contributions to the sustainable development aimed by global society. These
contributions are realized social, economical and environmental dimensions.
Aviation industry is the safest and most efficient type in public transportation. Over long
distances and beyond geographical barriers, no alternative one exist so. It offers affordable
transportation services to the nations, regions and individuals with wide transportation
network. Furthermore, by promoting cultural and social ties, it facilitates exchange of
educational experiences.
Economically, aviation industry encourages economic development by facilitating access of
regional and global markets, involving with these markets and increasing market share. At the
same time, aviation industry leading to the development of trade, travel and tourism sector
provides improving of income distribution by creating employment around the globe.
This industry pioneers to the electronic transportation. Highly savings got at ticketing and
other documentation transactions by adopting to the electronic system. Decrease in the level
of aircraft noise-footprint at a 20 db in recent years, an increase in fuel efficiency of 70
percent in last 40 years – today’s newest aircraft technology often matchs the energy
consumption of modern cars and in some cases (depending on speed and distance)-, coming
down Carbon emission ratios dramatically, alternative fuel systems as biofuels and less
service required space area compared to other transportation types can be taken as outstanding
environmental effects of this industry.
Turkish Airlines (THY) showed an outstanding performance both economically and socially
for the last years. Now, being a member of Star Alliance Group, it has a wide flight network
around the globe with generated fleet. Furthermore, the company works to make contributions
to the sustainable future.
Keywords: Sustainable Development in Aviation İndustry; Sustainable Aviation; Carbon
Emission; Turkish Airlines Case;
1. INTRODUCTION
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Today, world deals with not only the countries’ GDP values or other economic data’s but
environmental issues and social benefits also. Climatic changes threat the future at a
significant degree higher than ever. Nowadays, world consumes its resources rashly, but
could future generations reach these resources easily is a problem the world faced. Similar
issues appear to be problem the world faces in this century.
Aviation industry plays essential role both in economic, social and environmental respect. As
air transportation developed, trade volume will increase, good transportation volume will
continue to be positive, cultures will socialize as a result of increased tourism traffic and time
will be used more efficiently. By performing all of them, using resources less and effectively,
being environmentally sensitive creates the critic points of this industry. To survive in this
industry depends on “Sustainability” and companies should change and design strategies
towards to the “green coloured” strategies. At this stage, instutions as IACO, IATA, UN, EU
help companies by creating and regulating rules, standards and systems as KYOTO or
European Union Emission Trading Scheme ETS.
In this sense, this paper examines the importance of sustainable development for aviation
industry. However, we examine Turkish Airlines as a case study in the context of how it has
become an international effective player in recent years, strategic alliances that have made
and contributions to the sustainability efforts.
2. Environmental Issues Associated with Aviation
Civil aviation, like most other economic activities, gives rise to environmental problems of
various kinds. In 1999, the ICAO (Interational Civil Aviation Organization) Secretariat
compiled an inventory of environmental problems what may be associated with civil aviation,
to assist the ICAO Council in identifying future priorities in the environmental. It was
assumed that "the environment" means all those natural and man-made surroundings which
may be adversely affected by the presence of civil aviation, but which are not directly
involved in the aviation itself10. Issues include:
2.1. Aircraft noise
Historically, noise has been the external impact of aviation with the highest profile. There
have been substantial reductions in the noise generated by new aircraft and in the overall
noise at many airports. However, at most airports, the frequency and total number of
movements is expected to increase in the future. For some people near airports, aircraft noise
is a significant nuisance affecting their quality of life. There is considerable variation in
individual reactions. Aircraft noise can also have impacts on sleep.11
Significant progress has been achieved in reducing the noise impact around many airports,
arising from reductions in both engine and airframe noise as well as improvements in
10 http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd/csd9_bp9.pdf
11
http://www.desd.org.uk/UserFiles/File/new_articles/pro_body_participation/sustainable_aviation/S
ustainable-Aviation-full-document.pdf
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operational procedures. Today's aircraft are typically 75% quieter than jets in the 1960.12
Research initiatives target a further 50% reduction by 2020. The number of people exposed to
aircraft noise worldwide has gone down – by about 35% between 1998 and 2004. IATA (The
Air Transportation Association) has developed a policy on night flights. According to this
policy, Night time operational restrictions are increasing, especially in Europe. At some
airports, night flights are completely banned. These restrictions can have a serious impact on
the economy, next-day delivery services, home-based charters, freight services and
intercontinental flights. They can also increase daytime congestion.13 According to Air
Transport Action Group (ATAG) data, The South African horn made infamous at 2010 World
Cup, the vuvuzela, at blast is rated at 127 decibels. An A380 on the other hand takes off with
a relative whisper at 82 db.14 This shows us the latest improvements in aircraft engine
technologies.
2.2. Carbon Emissions & Fresh Air
Air pollution arising from airline and airport operations has a variety of sources, including
aircraft engines, apron vehicles, ground transportation, refueling and power generation
equipment. These can pose a problem at a local scale, where increasingly stringent
environmental quality standards are being imposed, and at a global level, where increasing
concern is being expressed about the significance of the contribution of aircraft engine
emissions to the problem of global warming.15 With regard to climate change, IPCC
Report16 estimates that aircraft contribute about 3.5 per cent of the total radiative forcing by
all human activities and that this proportion is likely to increase. The emissions from aircraft
of relevance for climate change include carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapour nitrogen oxides
(NOx), sulphur oxides and soot.
In the context of environment, technological advancements, operational measures, and air
traffic management can all improve emissions and fuel efficiency. Acc. to IATA data, new
aircrafts are 70% more fuel efficient than 40 years ago and 20% better than 10 years ago.
Airlines are aiming for a further 25% fuel efficiency improvement by 2020. By 2050, net
aviation carbon emission is aimed to be half of what it was in 2005. Modern aircraft achieve
fuel efficiencies of 3.5 liters per 100 passenger km. The A380 and B787 are aiming for 3 liters
per 100 passenger km – better than a compact car! Aircraft engine emissions are directly
related to fuel burn. Each kilogram of fuel saved reduces carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by
3.16 kg. So the key for airlines to minimize their environmental impact is to use fuel more
efficiently. IATA airlines improved their fuel efficiency by 3.1% in 2006 and 2007. IATA
12
http://www.desd.org.uk/UserFiles/File/new_articles/pro_body_participation/sustainable_aviation/S
ustainable-Aviation-full-document.pdf
13 http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/Pages/aircraft_noise.aspx
14 http://www.atag.org/facts-and-figures.html
15 Upham P. Maughan J. Raper D. And Thomas C. (2003) Towards Sustainable Development ,
Earthscan Publications, 115
16 http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/sres/aviation/index.php?idp=22
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airlines have adopted a voluntary fuel efficiency goal. This is to reduce fuel consumption
and CO2 emissions (per revenue tonne kilometer) by at least 25% by 2020, compared to 2005
levels.17
ICAO projections states that the commercial aircraft fleet is expected to increase to about
47,500 by 2036, of which more than 44,000 (94 %) aircraft will be new generation
technology.18 Acc. to ATAG, today, global aviation industry produces around 2 % of all
human-induced carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Aviation is responsible for 12 % of CO2
emissions from all transport sources, compared to 74 % from road transport. And around 80
% of aviation CO2 emissions are emitted from flights over 1,500 kilometers, for which there
is no practical alternative mode of transport19. The Figure below indicates passenger air
traffic fuel consumption per 100 km. It shows that fuel consumption will decrease in
subsequent years due to increasing technology and new generated engines and aircrafts.
Figure 1: Air Traffic fuel efficiency trend and today’s aircraft (source: ICCAIA)20
2.3. Alternative Fuels
Because of both economic and environmental issues, aviation industry should seek ways for
diversification of current fuels and should produce alternative fuels. The International Air
Transportation Association (IATA) is dedicated to support its members and the industry to
reduce the emission of CO2. Alternative fuels, particularly sustainable biofuels, have been
identified as one of the key elements in helping achieve this goal. Biofuels derived from
sustainable oil crops such as jatropha, camelina and algae or from wood and waste biomass
can reduce the overall carbon footprint by around 80% over their full lifecycle. Biofuels test
flights carried out by seven airlines have proven biofuels work and can be mixed with existing
jet fuel. The industry is now working on finalizing technical certification so biofuels can be
17 http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/pages/fuel_efficiency.aspx
18 http://legacy.icao.int/icao/en/env2010/Pubs/EnvReport2010/ICAO_EnvReport10-Ch2_en.pdf
19 http://www.atag.org/facts-and-figures.html
20 http://legacy.icao.int/icao/en/env2010/Pubs/EnvReport2010/ICAO_EnvReport10-Ch2_en.pdf
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used for passenger flights.21 If the industry were to get 6 % of its fuel supply from alternative
fuels by 2020, this would reduce current carbon footprint by 5 %.22 Objectives are as follows:
building a long-term sustainable, environmentally friendly and cost competitive aviation
industry.
3. Social and Economic Factors
Aviation industry is the safest and most efficient type in public transportation. Over long
distances and beyond geographical barriers, no alternative one exist so. It offers affordable
transportation services to the nations, regions and individuals with wide transportation
network. Furthermore, by promoting cultural and social ties, it facilitates exchange of
educational experiences. However, developments at aircraft Technologies and at fuels affect
the social life directly. People lives near airports expose high noise than to other people, so
night sleep can be a torture for them. But recent developments decreased the noise problem at
a significant level about 35 % between 1998 to 2004.23 And also, low carbon emission will
affect social life in a positive manner too.
There is a general acceptance that there is a positive, mutually supportive relationship
between aviation and economy.24 Aviation supports some 56.6 million jobs around the world
or it carries 35% of the world’s cargo by value.
According to ATAG report 201025; Airlines transport over 2.6 billion passengers annually
with revenue passenger kilometers (RPK) totaling nearly 5 trillion in 2010. The USA
followed by China and then the UK were the top three countries in terms of RPK. Aviation is
indispensable for tourism, which is a major engine of economic growth, particularly in
developing economies. Globally, 51% of international tourists travel by air. Connectivity
contributes to improved productivity by encouraging investment and innovation; improving
business operations and efficiency; and allowing companies to attract high quality employees.
Aviation’s global economic impact (direct, indirect, induced and tourism catalytic) is
estimated at $2.2 trillion, equivalent to 3.5% of world gross domestic product (GDP).
It provides 8.4 million direct jobs: airlines, air navigation service providers and airports
directly employ 7.6 million people and the civil aerospace industry (manufacture of aircraft
systems, frames and engines) employs 0.8 million people. There are 9.3 million indirect jobs
generated through purchases of goods and services from companies in its supply chain.
Industry employees support 4.4 million induced jobs through spending. Aviation-enabled
tourism generates around 34.5 million jobs globally.
The world’s airlines carry over 2.6 billion passengers a year and 48 million tonnes of freight
in 2010. Providing these services generates 8.4 million direct jobs within the air transport
21 http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/Pages/alternative-fuels.aspx
22 http://www.atag.org/facts-and-figures.html
23 http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/pages/aircraft_noise.aspx
24 Upham P. Maughan J. Raper D. And Thomas C. (2003) Towards Sustainable Development ,
Earthscan Publications, 39
25 http://www.aviationbenefitsbeyondborders.org/download-abbb-report
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industry and contributes $539 billion to global GDP. Compared with the GDP contribution of
other sectors, the global air transport industry is larger than the pharmaceuticals ($445
billion), the textiles ($236 billion) or the automotive industries ($484 billion) and around half
as big as the global chemicals ($977 billion) and food and beverage ($1,162 billion) sectors.
In fact, if air transport were a country, its GDP would rank it 19th in the world, roughly equal
to that of Switzerland or Poland.
In 2030, forecasts suggest that there will be nearly 6 billion passengers and aviation will
support nearly 82 million jobs and $6.9 trillion in economic activity.
4. Turkish Airlines
Turkish Airlines Incorporation that was established in 1933 and named shortly THY was
called The State Airlines Administration when first established. It has taken action as
incorporation that it is called today. At first it started to fly by using 5 aircrafts. The first
international voyage Atina was flown in 1947. Turkish Airlines offered about 50% of shares
to the public in 2006 and they were traded at Istanbul Stock Exchange. In addition, it had 50%
of partnership in Sun Express centered in Antalya by making an agreement with German
airline Lufthansa in 1989 and invested in Sarajevo airline Bosnia and Herzegovina Airlines by
purchasing 49% of shares. Company established AnadoluJet centered in Ankara to serve all
people in Turkey in 2008. It joined oldest airlines alliance of world, Star Alliance, by making
an agreement in Istanbul in 2008. On the other hand, Turkish Airlines was named Turkish
Airlines Cargo has taken action its cargo service in 1936 and changed its name to TURKISH
CARGO in 2000. Turkish Airlines that owned 6 cargo aircrafts had totally 179 aircrafts.
Company grows by purchasing new aircrafts continuously and also develops its cargo
services. At the end of 2011 it reached of totally 189 cities including 40 cities for domestic
and 149 cities for international. Simultaneously it has 2 technical maintenance centers in
Istanbul. Turkish Airlines Technical Incorporation that is one of these centers was established
in Atatürk Airport in 2006 and has become an important technical maintenance point in air
transportation. Other center, Aviation Maintenance Repair and Modification Center
Incorporation (HABOM), was founded in Sabiha Gökçen Airport in 201126.
After World War II with global economy, aviation industry also developed rapidly. With
increasing population and income level, there were changes in travel expenditures and
behaviours. As a results of these developments, new infrastructure, routes, airfares and offers
was served up in aviation industry. The importance of social, economical and environmental
purposes and preservation, improvement and balancement of resources were understood. For
these purposes, Turkish Airlines shows improvements in terms of sustainable development
that global community aims.
When mentioned about sustainable development, firstly, development without effecting
environment adversely might be mentioned. World is under threat of greenhouse gases such
as carbon dioxide, methane and ozone. In this sense, Turkish Airlines tries to decrease the
amount of carbon dioxide caused by aircrafts and other activities. Because of Fuel-Saving
Project implemented in 2008, Turkish Airlines saved jet fuels about 78.371.439 $ and
decreased carbon dioxide emission about 201.700 tons.
26 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-tr/kurumsal/tarihce
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Aviation industry was joined to the Carbon Emission Trading System that was valid from 1
January 2012. In this context, Turkish Airlines has to comply with regulations of European
Emission Trading Scheme (EU-ETS) as other airlines operating flights to Europe27.
Temel Kotil, General Manager of Turkish Airlines, said that they were working with
International Air Transport Association about fuel-saving. So, less fuel usage at flights, 30
million $ fuel-saving per year and significantly decreasing amount of carbon dioxide emission
was aimed28.
Activities about decreasing of damages to the environment and human health that derives
from airport facilities were initiated by Directorate General of Civil Aviation. In 2010, for
luggage transportation, vehicles with electricity started to be used instead of vehicles with fuel
at airports with heavy traffic. If airport facilities met certain conditions in the context of this
project, airports are taken to the category of “Green Airport” and facilities that met conditions
provide discounts in the service recipe29.
Aviation industry in Turkey has grown substantially for last decade. There were liberalization
steps in the industry that was closed to the open competition and under the monopoly of
Turkish Airlines until 200230. Between 2002-2010, average annual growth was 16% for air
traffic and 25,5% for passenger traffic31.
In 2009, while the aviation industry in the world downsized, Turkish Airlines continued to
develop and increased by 11%. Turkish Airlines carried 10,4 million passengers in 2003,
raised the number of passengers to 22,5 million in 2008, 25,1 million in 2009, 29,1 million in
2010 and 32,6 million in 201132. In 2011, among the member airlines of Association of
European Airlines, it ranged fourth with 8,7% market share in terms of number of passengers
and fifth with 7,3% market share in terms of seat kilometers offered. While total number of
passengers of member airlines increased by 4,2%, Turkish Airlines raised by 15,6%. In
addition, Turkish Airlines is market leader in air cargo transportation in Turkey. It increased
its market share by 64% in 201133.
Turkish Airlines implements efficiency-oriented employment program. Its total number of
personnel was 10.239 people in 2003 and raised by 15.491 people in 2011. To become the
best airline in the world, the best cabin crew is required as a return of differentiation in the
service concept. From this point, Turkish Airlines applied “Service Quality and Increasing
Passenger Satisfaction Programme” since August, 201034.
27 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-TR/faaliyet-raporu/2010/pdf/tr-thy2010.pdf
28 http://hurriyet.com.tr/ekonomi/15229951.asp
29 http://shgm.gov.tr/greenairport.pdf
30 http://invest.gov.tr/tr-TR/infocenter/publications/Documents/TURIZM.SEKTORU.pdf
31 http://shgm.gov.tr/doc4/2010fr.pdf
32 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-tr/kurumsal/basin-odasi/THY/yolcu-sayisi
33 http://thy.com/download/investor_relations/annual_reports/faaliyet_raporu_aralik_2011.pdf
34 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-tr/kurumsal/basin-odasi/THY/is-gucu
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Company also gives promotion tickets, companion tickets and opportunity to upgrade to the
members with Miles&Smiles Programme. At the same time, call center which is one of the
most important marketing and sales channel were included in the service as of 200935.
Turkish Airlines achieved significant successes in context of brand invesments. Sponsorship
of Euroleague, FC Barcelona and Manchester United has provided a great advantage in the
European market. There were other sports sponsorships. On the other hand, Kevin Costner,
Caroline Wozniacki, Kobe Bryant and Novak Djokovic were brand face of Turkish Airlines
with the slogan of “Globally Yours” and company has increased brand awareness. In the
sense of financial discipline, one of the most important keys of sustainable development,
Turkish Airlines applies long-term value-based growth programme and effective cost
management. Aviation Week Magazine, leading broadcasting organizations of aviation
industry, identified Turkish Airlines as the best airline from the point of financial situation in
2010. It has given “The Best Airline of Europe”, “The Best Airline of South Europe” and
“The Best Premium Economy Seat” by “Skytrax World Airline Awards” organization, known
as the Oscars of aviation industry. Turkish Do&Co catering company, joint of Turkish
Airlines, was awarded as the best of world with the catering service in economy class.
Furthermore, it achieves “The Best Market Leader” of 2010 in the context of Air Transport
World Airline Industry Achievement Awards, accepted one of the most prestigious awards of
aviation industry36.
Turkish Airlines also sustains activities about culture, art and social responsibility. It has
supported Istanbul, 2010 European Capital of Culture, as “Capital Sponsorship”. According to
the contract with Turkish Red Crescent, company contributes victims of natural catastrophes.
Moreover, by planting 5.000 saplings it made up “THY Technical Commemorative Forest” in
Kurtköy and Kemerburgaz37.
5.CONCLUSION
This paper has attempted to show how sustainable development in aviation industry is
important for global world. Sustainable development seeks to protect, develop and balance
social, economic and environmental goals and resources in order to secure comfort and
welfare of present and future generations. Aviation industry is the safest and most efficient
transport type. Industry meets the society’s air transport needs by establishing relationship
with employees, local communities, customers and industry partners. A competitive and
commercial viable aviation industry makes a positive contribution to the world economy.
Aviation industry generates $2.2 trillion in 2010 and it equals to 3.5% per cent of global GDP.
Around the world industry supports 56.6 million jobs. Emission is a huge problem standing
that the future generations will face tragically. New aircrafts are 70 % more fuel efficient than
40 years ago and 20 % better than 10 years ago. In 2050, industry aims to decrease carbon
emission to be half of what it was 2005.
The importance of social, economical and environmental purposes and preservation,
improvement and balancement of resources were understood. For these purposes, Turkish
35 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-TR/faaliyet-raporu/2010/pdf/tr-thy2010.pdf
36 http://thy.com/download/investor_relations/annual_reports/faaliyet_raporu_aralik_2011.pdf
37 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-TR/faaliyet-raporu/2010/pdf/tr-thy2010.pdf
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Airlines shows improvements in terms of sustainable development that global community
aims. With its new generation aircrafts, Turkish Airlines tries to decrease the amount of
carbon dioxide caused by aircrafts and other activities and fuel consumption. Hence, it has
taken important steps about the sustainability by being a member of European Emission
Trading Scheme. In the sense of financial discipline, one of the most important keys of
sustainable development, Turkish Airlines has got remarkable performance by performing the
economic aspects of sustainable development. Company has to fulfil conditions what the
sustainability requires so it may survive in the market and become number one in avaition
industry around the world.
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Directorate General of Civil Aviation, Green Airport Project, Last Accessed on 4 28, 2012,
from www.shgm.gov.tr/greenairport.pdf.
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2012, from www.shgm.gov.tr/doc4/2010fr.pdf.
ICAO, Environmental Report, 2010, Last Accessed on 04 21, 2012, from
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Global Atmosphere, 1999 at ICAO’s request by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change,
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from
from
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Turkish
Airlines,
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31
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on 04 20, 2012, from
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ion/Sustainable-Aviation-full-document.pdf
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Last Accessed on 04 25, 2012, from http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd/csd9_bp9.pdf
Upham, P., Maughan, J., Raper, D. And Thomas, C., (2003). Towards Sustainable
Development, Earthscan Publications, 39, 115.
Forecasting Carbon Emission For Turkey: Time Series Analysis
Mehmet Mercan1, Etem Karakaya2
1Hakkari University, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Science
2Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Science
E-mail: mmercan48@gmail.com; mehmetmercan@hakkari.edu.tr, ekarakaya@gmail.com
Abstract
Within the context of sustainable development objectives, reducing greenhouse gas emissions
(GHG) that cause climate change was first discussed and officially negotiated at the 1992 Rio
Conference, which particularly emphasised developed countries to take serious measures.
Then, it was followed by the Kyoto Protocol, which specified national ghg emission reduction
targets for developed countries. With Kyoto Protocol, it was decided for these countries to
reduce global emissions by 5% below 1990 levels compared to 2008-2012 emission levels.
Turkey became a party to the Kyoto Protocol in 2009, yet due to their special circumstances
they did not take any emission reduction commitments.. Negotiations on Post-2012 emission
reduction obligations are still in progress under the UNFCCC umbrella and it is expected to
have emission reduction targets not only by developed countries but also by developing ones.
In this regard, it is important for Turkey to estimate its future ghg emissions, if they have to
take a Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA) for their strategy. There are
various ghg emission estimations for 2020 and the results indicate different emission levels.
167
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
1240
Title
A name given to the resource
Usage Of Clove Oil In Aquarium Fish (Pangasius Pangasius Hamilton, 1822)
Author
Author
Müge , Aliye Hekimoğlu
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The aquarium fish occupies an important place in hobby industry. When to increase the profit margin in trading, despite of filling a small amount of oxygen and water into plastic packages, they put into a large number of aquarium fish were identified from wholesalers. This leads to stress on the fish. The quality of water inside the package deteriorates for reasons such as rapid breathing and metabolic intensity. During transport or after, this situation can lead a portion of fish to death. This is resulted being pecuniary and interest loss from this hobby. Anesthetic agent is added to prevent this situation from carrying packages. Most of these chemicals are not organic. Clove oil, containing the active ingredient eugenol, has been determined to be an inexpensive and effective fish anaesthetic. It is known to be used safely in aquaculture. In Aquaculture practical studies have been used such as tags, transportation, shipping, vaccine etc. It is known that Clove oil is not harm to the environment. For the users it is in a safe substance. This study is determining the lowest dose of clove oil of transport or handling of some aquarium fishes for reduces their stress. Keywords: clove oil, eugenol, anaesthesia, sedative, aquarium fish, ornamental fish
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7aea8557f0fab7c171ad6e2ebfc4eb7a.pdf
4a22917824cc29700b8e139223bee813
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
concentration of anesthesia increases, the time of transition to induction stage shortens (Ross
et al, 2008). Induction times of the fish vary depending on the dose of clove oil and, normally,
as the dose increases, recovery time increases.
REFERENCES
Çetinkaya, O., Şahin A.( 2005) Balık Biyolojisi Araştırma Yöntemleri. (Ed) Mehmet Karataş,
Balıklarda Anestezi Uygulamaları ve Başlıca Anestesikler, 237-270. ISBN.975-591-757-8.
Cookea, S. J., Suskib, C. D. Ostranda , K. G, Tuftsb, B. L., Wahl, D. H.(2004) Behavioral and
physiological assessment of low concentrations of clove oil anaesthetic for handling and
transporting largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), Aquaculture 239, 509–529.
Padilla, D. K., Williams, S. L.(2004) Beyond ballast water: aquarium and ornamental trades
as sources of invasive species in aquatic ecosystems. Front Ecol Environ 2004, 2(3): 131–138.
Ross, L., Ross, B.(2008) Anaesthetic and Sedative Techniques for Aquatic animals, 240.
Seol, D., Lee J., Im, S., Park, I. (2007) Clove oil as an anaesthetic for common octopus
(Octopus minor, Sasaki). Aquaculture Research, 38, 45-49.
Tolon, T., Hekimoğlu, M.A.( 2011) Türkiye´de Süs Balığının Pazar Durumu. XVI. Ulusal Su
Ürünleri Sempozyumu 25-27 Ekim 2011 Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Antalya.
Ucar, A., Atamanalp, M. (2010) The Effects of Natural (Clove Oil) and Synthetical (2phenoxyethanol) Anesthesia Substances on Hematology Parameters of Rainbow Trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) and Brown Trout (Salmo trutta fario), Journal of Animal and
Veterinary Advances 9(14): 1925-1933.
Whittington, M., Pereira, M. A. M., Gonçalves, M., and Costa, A.(2000) An Investigation of
the
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URL
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Yıldırım, Y.B., Genc, E., Turan, F., Cek, S., Yanar, M.(2010) The Anaesthetic Effects of
Quinaldine Sulphate, Muscle Relaxant Diazepam and Their Combination on Convict Cichlid,
Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum (Günther, 1867) Juvenies, Journal of Animal and Veterinary
Advances,9(3), 547-550.
Sustainable Development in Aviation Industry
and the case of Turkish Airlines
Mustafa Kavacık1, Saadet Zafer2, Ali Yıldız3, Davut Karaman
1Akdeniz University Alanya Faculty of Business, Alanya, Antalya, Turkey,
2Muğla University Dalaman Vocational School, Dalaman, Muğla, Turkey,
3Akdeniz University Alanya Chamber of Commerce and Industry Vocational School,
Alanya, Antalya, Turkey
E-mails: mkavacik@akdeniz.edu.tr, saadetzafer@akdeniz.edu.tr,
aliyildiz@mu.edu.tr,davutkaraman@akdeniz.edu.tr
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Abstract
Within changing world, sustainable development globally has become an important strategic
goal for all sectors.
Sustainable development seeks to protect, develop and balance social, economic and
environmental goals and resources in order to secure comfort and welfare of present and
future generations. The significance level of these related goals and sources is very high.
Threats and hazards such as limited resources around the globe, overly population increase,
global warming, damaging of ozone layer, decreasing of live species and environmental
pollution dramatically reveal the importance of sustainable development.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Kyoto Protocol
which was signed in 1997 came into force in 2005. In this context, aviation industry is a good
sample for sustainability. Fuels used in consist of non-renewable resources so contribute to
climate change negatively. But, at the same time, that industry makes very valuable and
unique contributions to the sustainable development aimed by global society. These
contributions are realized social, economical and environmental dimensions.
Aviation industry is the safest and most efficient type in public transportation. Over long
distances and beyond geographical barriers, no alternative one exist so. It offers affordable
transportation services to the nations, regions and individuals with wide transportation
network. Furthermore, by promoting cultural and social ties, it facilitates exchange of
educational experiences.
Economically, aviation industry encourages economic development by facilitating access of
regional and global markets, involving with these markets and increasing market share. At the
same time, aviation industry leading to the development of trade, travel and tourism sector
provides improving of income distribution by creating employment around the globe.
This industry pioneers to the electronic transportation. Highly savings got at ticketing and
other documentation transactions by adopting to the electronic system. Decrease in the level
of aircraft noise-footprint at a 20 db in recent years, an increase in fuel efficiency of 70
percent in last 40 years – today’s newest aircraft technology often matchs the energy
consumption of modern cars and in some cases (depending on speed and distance)-, coming
down Carbon emission ratios dramatically, alternative fuel systems as biofuels and less
service required space area compared to other transportation types can be taken as outstanding
environmental effects of this industry.
Turkish Airlines (THY) showed an outstanding performance both economically and socially
for the last years. Now, being a member of Star Alliance Group, it has a wide flight network
around the globe with generated fleet. Furthermore, the company works to make contributions
to the sustainable future.
Keywords: Sustainable Development in Aviation İndustry; Sustainable Aviation; Carbon
Emission; Turkish Airlines Case;
1. INTRODUCTION
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Today, world deals with not only the countries’ GDP values or other economic data’s but
environmental issues and social benefits also. Climatic changes threat the future at a
significant degree higher than ever. Nowadays, world consumes its resources rashly, but
could future generations reach these resources easily is a problem the world faced. Similar
issues appear to be problem the world faces in this century.
Aviation industry plays essential role both in economic, social and environmental respect. As
air transportation developed, trade volume will increase, good transportation volume will
continue to be positive, cultures will socialize as a result of increased tourism traffic and time
will be used more efficiently. By performing all of them, using resources less and effectively,
being environmentally sensitive creates the critic points of this industry. To survive in this
industry depends on “Sustainability” and companies should change and design strategies
towards to the “green coloured” strategies. At this stage, instutions as IACO, IATA, UN, EU
help companies by creating and regulating rules, standards and systems as KYOTO or
European Union Emission Trading Scheme ETS.
In this sense, this paper examines the importance of sustainable development for aviation
industry. However, we examine Turkish Airlines as a case study in the context of how it has
become an international effective player in recent years, strategic alliances that have made
and contributions to the sustainability efforts.
2. Environmental Issues Associated with Aviation
Civil aviation, like most other economic activities, gives rise to environmental problems of
various kinds. In 1999, the ICAO (Interational Civil Aviation Organization) Secretariat
compiled an inventory of environmental problems what may be associated with civil aviation,
to assist the ICAO Council in identifying future priorities in the environmental. It was
assumed that "the environment" means all those natural and man-made surroundings which
may be adversely affected by the presence of civil aviation, but which are not directly
involved in the aviation itself10. Issues include:
2.1. Aircraft noise
Historically, noise has been the external impact of aviation with the highest profile. There
have been substantial reductions in the noise generated by new aircraft and in the overall
noise at many airports. However, at most airports, the frequency and total number of
movements is expected to increase in the future. For some people near airports, aircraft noise
is a significant nuisance affecting their quality of life. There is considerable variation in
individual reactions. Aircraft noise can also have impacts on sleep.11
Significant progress has been achieved in reducing the noise impact around many airports,
arising from reductions in both engine and airframe noise as well as improvements in
10 http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd/csd9_bp9.pdf
11
http://www.desd.org.uk/UserFiles/File/new_articles/pro_body_participation/sustainable_aviation/S
ustainable-Aviation-full-document.pdf
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operational procedures. Today's aircraft are typically 75% quieter than jets in the 1960.12
Research initiatives target a further 50% reduction by 2020. The number of people exposed to
aircraft noise worldwide has gone down – by about 35% between 1998 and 2004. IATA (The
Air Transportation Association) has developed a policy on night flights. According to this
policy, Night time operational restrictions are increasing, especially in Europe. At some
airports, night flights are completely banned. These restrictions can have a serious impact on
the economy, next-day delivery services, home-based charters, freight services and
intercontinental flights. They can also increase daytime congestion.13 According to Air
Transport Action Group (ATAG) data, The South African horn made infamous at 2010 World
Cup, the vuvuzela, at blast is rated at 127 decibels. An A380 on the other hand takes off with
a relative whisper at 82 db.14 This shows us the latest improvements in aircraft engine
technologies.
2.2. Carbon Emissions & Fresh Air
Air pollution arising from airline and airport operations has a variety of sources, including
aircraft engines, apron vehicles, ground transportation, refueling and power generation
equipment. These can pose a problem at a local scale, where increasingly stringent
environmental quality standards are being imposed, and at a global level, where increasing
concern is being expressed about the significance of the contribution of aircraft engine
emissions to the problem of global warming.15 With regard to climate change, IPCC
Report16 estimates that aircraft contribute about 3.5 per cent of the total radiative forcing by
all human activities and that this proportion is likely to increase. The emissions from aircraft
of relevance for climate change include carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapour nitrogen oxides
(NOx), sulphur oxides and soot.
In the context of environment, technological advancements, operational measures, and air
traffic management can all improve emissions and fuel efficiency. Acc. to IATA data, new
aircrafts are 70% more fuel efficient than 40 years ago and 20% better than 10 years ago.
Airlines are aiming for a further 25% fuel efficiency improvement by 2020. By 2050, net
aviation carbon emission is aimed to be half of what it was in 2005. Modern aircraft achieve
fuel efficiencies of 3.5 liters per 100 passenger km. The A380 and B787 are aiming for 3 liters
per 100 passenger km – better than a compact car! Aircraft engine emissions are directly
related to fuel burn. Each kilogram of fuel saved reduces carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by
3.16 kg. So the key for airlines to minimize their environmental impact is to use fuel more
efficiently. IATA airlines improved their fuel efficiency by 3.1% in 2006 and 2007. IATA
12
http://www.desd.org.uk/UserFiles/File/new_articles/pro_body_participation/sustainable_aviation/S
ustainable-Aviation-full-document.pdf
13 http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/Pages/aircraft_noise.aspx
14 http://www.atag.org/facts-and-figures.html
15 Upham P. Maughan J. Raper D. And Thomas C. (2003) Towards Sustainable Development ,
Earthscan Publications, 115
16 http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/sres/aviation/index.php?idp=22
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airlines have adopted a voluntary fuel efficiency goal. This is to reduce fuel consumption
and CO2 emissions (per revenue tonne kilometer) by at least 25% by 2020, compared to 2005
levels.17
ICAO projections states that the commercial aircraft fleet is expected to increase to about
47,500 by 2036, of which more than 44,000 (94 %) aircraft will be new generation
technology.18 Acc. to ATAG, today, global aviation industry produces around 2 % of all
human-induced carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Aviation is responsible for 12 % of CO2
emissions from all transport sources, compared to 74 % from road transport. And around 80
% of aviation CO2 emissions are emitted from flights over 1,500 kilometers, for which there
is no practical alternative mode of transport19. The Figure below indicates passenger air
traffic fuel consumption per 100 km. It shows that fuel consumption will decrease in
subsequent years due to increasing technology and new generated engines and aircrafts.
Figure 1: Air Traffic fuel efficiency trend and today’s aircraft (source: ICCAIA)20
2.3. Alternative Fuels
Because of both economic and environmental issues, aviation industry should seek ways for
diversification of current fuels and should produce alternative fuels. The International Air
Transportation Association (IATA) is dedicated to support its members and the industry to
reduce the emission of CO2. Alternative fuels, particularly sustainable biofuels, have been
identified as one of the key elements in helping achieve this goal. Biofuels derived from
sustainable oil crops such as jatropha, camelina and algae or from wood and waste biomass
can reduce the overall carbon footprint by around 80% over their full lifecycle. Biofuels test
flights carried out by seven airlines have proven biofuels work and can be mixed with existing
jet fuel. The industry is now working on finalizing technical certification so biofuels can be
17 http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/pages/fuel_efficiency.aspx
18 http://legacy.icao.int/icao/en/env2010/Pubs/EnvReport2010/ICAO_EnvReport10-Ch2_en.pdf
19 http://www.atag.org/facts-and-figures.html
20 http://legacy.icao.int/icao/en/env2010/Pubs/EnvReport2010/ICAO_EnvReport10-Ch2_en.pdf
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used for passenger flights.21 If the industry were to get 6 % of its fuel supply from alternative
fuels by 2020, this would reduce current carbon footprint by 5 %.22 Objectives are as follows:
building a long-term sustainable, environmentally friendly and cost competitive aviation
industry.
3. Social and Economic Factors
Aviation industry is the safest and most efficient type in public transportation. Over long
distances and beyond geographical barriers, no alternative one exist so. It offers affordable
transportation services to the nations, regions and individuals with wide transportation
network. Furthermore, by promoting cultural and social ties, it facilitates exchange of
educational experiences. However, developments at aircraft Technologies and at fuels affect
the social life directly. People lives near airports expose high noise than to other people, so
night sleep can be a torture for them. But recent developments decreased the noise problem at
a significant level about 35 % between 1998 to 2004.23 And also, low carbon emission will
affect social life in a positive manner too.
There is a general acceptance that there is a positive, mutually supportive relationship
between aviation and economy.24 Aviation supports some 56.6 million jobs around the world
or it carries 35% of the world’s cargo by value.
According to ATAG report 201025; Airlines transport over 2.6 billion passengers annually
with revenue passenger kilometers (RPK) totaling nearly 5 trillion in 2010. The USA
followed by China and then the UK were the top three countries in terms of RPK. Aviation is
indispensable for tourism, which is a major engine of economic growth, particularly in
developing economies. Globally, 51% of international tourists travel by air. Connectivity
contributes to improved productivity by encouraging investment and innovation; improving
business operations and efficiency; and allowing companies to attract high quality employees.
Aviation’s global economic impact (direct, indirect, induced and tourism catalytic) is
estimated at $2.2 trillion, equivalent to 3.5% of world gross domestic product (GDP).
It provides 8.4 million direct jobs: airlines, air navigation service providers and airports
directly employ 7.6 million people and the civil aerospace industry (manufacture of aircraft
systems, frames and engines) employs 0.8 million people. There are 9.3 million indirect jobs
generated through purchases of goods and services from companies in its supply chain.
Industry employees support 4.4 million induced jobs through spending. Aviation-enabled
tourism generates around 34.5 million jobs globally.
The world’s airlines carry over 2.6 billion passengers a year and 48 million tonnes of freight
in 2010. Providing these services generates 8.4 million direct jobs within the air transport
21 http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/Pages/alternative-fuels.aspx
22 http://www.atag.org/facts-and-figures.html
23 http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/pages/aircraft_noise.aspx
24 Upham P. Maughan J. Raper D. And Thomas C. (2003) Towards Sustainable Development ,
Earthscan Publications, 39
25 http://www.aviationbenefitsbeyondborders.org/download-abbb-report
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industry and contributes $539 billion to global GDP. Compared with the GDP contribution of
other sectors, the global air transport industry is larger than the pharmaceuticals ($445
billion), the textiles ($236 billion) or the automotive industries ($484 billion) and around half
as big as the global chemicals ($977 billion) and food and beverage ($1,162 billion) sectors.
In fact, if air transport were a country, its GDP would rank it 19th in the world, roughly equal
to that of Switzerland or Poland.
In 2030, forecasts suggest that there will be nearly 6 billion passengers and aviation will
support nearly 82 million jobs and $6.9 trillion in economic activity.
4. Turkish Airlines
Turkish Airlines Incorporation that was established in 1933 and named shortly THY was
called The State Airlines Administration when first established. It has taken action as
incorporation that it is called today. At first it started to fly by using 5 aircrafts. The first
international voyage Atina was flown in 1947. Turkish Airlines offered about 50% of shares
to the public in 2006 and they were traded at Istanbul Stock Exchange. In addition, it had 50%
of partnership in Sun Express centered in Antalya by making an agreement with German
airline Lufthansa in 1989 and invested in Sarajevo airline Bosnia and Herzegovina Airlines by
purchasing 49% of shares. Company established AnadoluJet centered in Ankara to serve all
people in Turkey in 2008. It joined oldest airlines alliance of world, Star Alliance, by making
an agreement in Istanbul in 2008. On the other hand, Turkish Airlines was named Turkish
Airlines Cargo has taken action its cargo service in 1936 and changed its name to TURKISH
CARGO in 2000. Turkish Airlines that owned 6 cargo aircrafts had totally 179 aircrafts.
Company grows by purchasing new aircrafts continuously and also develops its cargo
services. At the end of 2011 it reached of totally 189 cities including 40 cities for domestic
and 149 cities for international. Simultaneously it has 2 technical maintenance centers in
Istanbul. Turkish Airlines Technical Incorporation that is one of these centers was established
in Atatürk Airport in 2006 and has become an important technical maintenance point in air
transportation. Other center, Aviation Maintenance Repair and Modification Center
Incorporation (HABOM), was founded in Sabiha Gökçen Airport in 201126.
After World War II with global economy, aviation industry also developed rapidly. With
increasing population and income level, there were changes in travel expenditures and
behaviours. As a results of these developments, new infrastructure, routes, airfares and offers
was served up in aviation industry. The importance of social, economical and environmental
purposes and preservation, improvement and balancement of resources were understood. For
these purposes, Turkish Airlines shows improvements in terms of sustainable development
that global community aims.
When mentioned about sustainable development, firstly, development without effecting
environment adversely might be mentioned. World is under threat of greenhouse gases such
as carbon dioxide, methane and ozone. In this sense, Turkish Airlines tries to decrease the
amount of carbon dioxide caused by aircrafts and other activities. Because of Fuel-Saving
Project implemented in 2008, Turkish Airlines saved jet fuels about 78.371.439 $ and
decreased carbon dioxide emission about 201.700 tons.
26 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-tr/kurumsal/tarihce
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Aviation industry was joined to the Carbon Emission Trading System that was valid from 1
January 2012. In this context, Turkish Airlines has to comply with regulations of European
Emission Trading Scheme (EU-ETS) as other airlines operating flights to Europe27.
Temel Kotil, General Manager of Turkish Airlines, said that they were working with
International Air Transport Association about fuel-saving. So, less fuel usage at flights, 30
million $ fuel-saving per year and significantly decreasing amount of carbon dioxide emission
was aimed28.
Activities about decreasing of damages to the environment and human health that derives
from airport facilities were initiated by Directorate General of Civil Aviation. In 2010, for
luggage transportation, vehicles with electricity started to be used instead of vehicles with fuel
at airports with heavy traffic. If airport facilities met certain conditions in the context of this
project, airports are taken to the category of “Green Airport” and facilities that met conditions
provide discounts in the service recipe29.
Aviation industry in Turkey has grown substantially for last decade. There were liberalization
steps in the industry that was closed to the open competition and under the monopoly of
Turkish Airlines until 200230. Between 2002-2010, average annual growth was 16% for air
traffic and 25,5% for passenger traffic31.
In 2009, while the aviation industry in the world downsized, Turkish Airlines continued to
develop and increased by 11%. Turkish Airlines carried 10,4 million passengers in 2003,
raised the number of passengers to 22,5 million in 2008, 25,1 million in 2009, 29,1 million in
2010 and 32,6 million in 201132. In 2011, among the member airlines of Association of
European Airlines, it ranged fourth with 8,7% market share in terms of number of passengers
and fifth with 7,3% market share in terms of seat kilometers offered. While total number of
passengers of member airlines increased by 4,2%, Turkish Airlines raised by 15,6%. In
addition, Turkish Airlines is market leader in air cargo transportation in Turkey. It increased
its market share by 64% in 201133.
Turkish Airlines implements efficiency-oriented employment program. Its total number of
personnel was 10.239 people in 2003 and raised by 15.491 people in 2011. To become the
best airline in the world, the best cabin crew is required as a return of differentiation in the
service concept. From this point, Turkish Airlines applied “Service Quality and Increasing
Passenger Satisfaction Programme” since August, 201034.
27 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-TR/faaliyet-raporu/2010/pdf/tr-thy2010.pdf
28 http://hurriyet.com.tr/ekonomi/15229951.asp
29 http://shgm.gov.tr/greenairport.pdf
30 http://invest.gov.tr/tr-TR/infocenter/publications/Documents/TURIZM.SEKTORU.pdf
31 http://shgm.gov.tr/doc4/2010fr.pdf
32 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-tr/kurumsal/basin-odasi/THY/yolcu-sayisi
33 http://thy.com/download/investor_relations/annual_reports/faaliyet_raporu_aralik_2011.pdf
34 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-tr/kurumsal/basin-odasi/THY/is-gucu
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Company also gives promotion tickets, companion tickets and opportunity to upgrade to the
members with Miles&Smiles Programme. At the same time, call center which is one of the
most important marketing and sales channel were included in the service as of 200935.
Turkish Airlines achieved significant successes in context of brand invesments. Sponsorship
of Euroleague, FC Barcelona and Manchester United has provided a great advantage in the
European market. There were other sports sponsorships. On the other hand, Kevin Costner,
Caroline Wozniacki, Kobe Bryant and Novak Djokovic were brand face of Turkish Airlines
with the slogan of “Globally Yours” and company has increased brand awareness. In the
sense of financial discipline, one of the most important keys of sustainable development,
Turkish Airlines applies long-term value-based growth programme and effective cost
management. Aviation Week Magazine, leading broadcasting organizations of aviation
industry, identified Turkish Airlines as the best airline from the point of financial situation in
2010. It has given “The Best Airline of Europe”, “The Best Airline of South Europe” and
“The Best Premium Economy Seat” by “Skytrax World Airline Awards” organization, known
as the Oscars of aviation industry. Turkish Do&Co catering company, joint of Turkish
Airlines, was awarded as the best of world with the catering service in economy class.
Furthermore, it achieves “The Best Market Leader” of 2010 in the context of Air Transport
World Airline Industry Achievement Awards, accepted one of the most prestigious awards of
aviation industry36.
Turkish Airlines also sustains activities about culture, art and social responsibility. It has
supported Istanbul, 2010 European Capital of Culture, as “Capital Sponsorship”. According to
the contract with Turkish Red Crescent, company contributes victims of natural catastrophes.
Moreover, by planting 5.000 saplings it made up “THY Technical Commemorative Forest” in
Kurtköy and Kemerburgaz37.
5.CONCLUSION
This paper has attempted to show how sustainable development in aviation industry is
important for global world. Sustainable development seeks to protect, develop and balance
social, economic and environmental goals and resources in order to secure comfort and
welfare of present and future generations. Aviation industry is the safest and most efficient
transport type. Industry meets the society’s air transport needs by establishing relationship
with employees, local communities, customers and industry partners. A competitive and
commercial viable aviation industry makes a positive contribution to the world economy.
Aviation industry generates $2.2 trillion in 2010 and it equals to 3.5% per cent of global GDP.
Around the world industry supports 56.6 million jobs. Emission is a huge problem standing
that the future generations will face tragically. New aircrafts are 70 % more fuel efficient than
40 years ago and 20 % better than 10 years ago. In 2050, industry aims to decrease carbon
emission to be half of what it was 2005.
The importance of social, economical and environmental purposes and preservation,
improvement and balancement of resources were understood. For these purposes, Turkish
35 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-TR/faaliyet-raporu/2010/pdf/tr-thy2010.pdf
36 http://thy.com/download/investor_relations/annual_reports/faaliyet_raporu_aralik_2011.pdf
37 http://turkishairlines.com/tr-TR/faaliyet-raporu/2010/pdf/tr-thy2010.pdf
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Airlines shows improvements in terms of sustainable development that global community
aims. With its new generation aircrafts, Turkish Airlines tries to decrease the amount of
carbon dioxide caused by aircrafts and other activities and fuel consumption. Hence, it has
taken important steps about the sustainability by being a member of European Emission
Trading Scheme. In the sense of financial discipline, one of the most important keys of
sustainable development, Turkish Airlines has got remarkable performance by performing the
economic aspects of sustainable development. Company has to fulfil conditions what the
sustainability requires so it may survive in the market and become number one in avaition
industry around the world.
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Forecasting Carbon Emission For Turkey: Time Series Analysis
Mehmet Mercan1, Etem Karakaya2
1Hakkari University, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Science
2Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Science
E-mail: mmercan48@gmail.com; mehmetmercan@hakkari.edu.tr, ekarakaya@gmail.com
Abstract
Within the context of sustainable development objectives, reducing greenhouse gas emissions
(GHG) that cause climate change was first discussed and officially negotiated at the 1992 Rio
Conference, which particularly emphasised developed countries to take serious measures.
Then, it was followed by the Kyoto Protocol, which specified national ghg emission reduction
targets for developed countries. With Kyoto Protocol, it was decided for these countries to
reduce global emissions by 5% below 1990 levels compared to 2008-2012 emission levels.
Turkey became a party to the Kyoto Protocol in 2009, yet due to their special circumstances
they did not take any emission reduction commitments.. Negotiations on Post-2012 emission
reduction obligations are still in progress under the UNFCCC umbrella and it is expected to
have emission reduction targets not only by developed countries but also by developing ones.
In this regard, it is important for Turkey to estimate its future ghg emissions, if they have to
take a Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA) for their strategy. There are
various ghg emission estimations for 2020 and the results indicate different emission levels.
167
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1241
Title
A name given to the resource
Sustainable Development in Aviation Industry and the case of Turkish Airlines
Author
Author
Mustafa , Kavacık
Saadet , Zafer
Ali , Yıldız
Davut , Karaman
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Within changing world, sustainable development globally has become an important strategic goal for all sectors. Sustainable development seeks to protect, develop and balance social, economic and environmental goals and resources in order to secure comfort and welfare of present and future generations. The significance level of these related goals and sources is very high. Threats and hazards such as limited resources around the globe, overly population increase, global warming, damaging of ozone layer, decreasing of live species and environmental pollution dramatically reveal the importance of sustainable development. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Kyoto Protocol which was signed in 1997 came into force in 2005. In this context, aviation industry is a good sample for sustainability. Fuels used in consist of non-renewable resources so contribute to climate change negatively. But, at the same time, that industry makes very valuable and unique contributions to the sustainable development aimed by global society. These contributions are realized social, economical and environmental dimensions. Aviation industry is the safest and most efficient type in public transportation. Over long distances and beyond geographical barriers, no alternative one exist so. It offers affordable transportation services to the nations, regions and individuals with wide transportation network. Furthermore, by promoting cultural and social ties, it facilitates exchange of educational experiences. Economically, aviation industry encourages economic development by facilitating access of regional and global markets, involving with these markets and increasing market share. At the same time, aviation industry leading to the development of trade, travel and tourism sector provides improving of income distribution by creating employment around the globe. This industry pioneers to the electronic transportation. Highly savings got at ticketing and other documentation transactions by adopting to the electronic system. Decrease in the level of aircraft noise-footprint at a 20 db in recent years, an increase in fuel efficiency of 70 percent in last 40 years – today’s newest aircraft technology often matchs the energy consumption of modern cars and in some cases (depending on speed and distance)-, coming down Carbon emission ratios dramatically, alternative fuel systems as biofuels and less service required space area compared to other transportation types can be taken as outstanding environmental effects of this industry. Turkish Airlines (THY) showed an outstanding performance both economically and socially for the last years. Now, being a member of Star Alliance Group, it has a wide flight network around the globe with generated fleet. Furthermore, the company works to make contributions to the sustainable future. Keywords: Sustainable Development in Aviation İndustry; Sustainable Aviation; Carbon Emission; Turkish Airlines Case;
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/27988e8de5c88dde9e43f9bd2e40268f.pdf
9017381796b1f7c1c00f6f74a633093e
PDF Text
Text
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Tuzluluğun Etkileri. E.Ü. Su Ürünleri Dergisi, pp:121-124.
Garcia, F., Freile-Pelegrin, Y., Robledo, D., 2007. Physilogical characterization of Dunaliella
sp. (Chlorophyta, Volvocales) from Yucatan, Mexico. Bioresource Technology,pp:1359-1365
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exploiting carotenoid accumulation in Dunaliella salina for cell-factory applications. Cell
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Interactions between chemicals used in aquaculture and environment in terms of
sustainable development
Muhammet Altunok , Fatih Gülec , Zerife Peker , Klaus Kümmerer
Abstract
Aquaculture that is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and
aquatic plants, is the fastest growing animal production sector in the world. Global production
from aquaculture for human consumption amounted to 73 million tonnes and the value of
US$ 110 billion in 2009 and comprised almost fifty percent of the world’s fish supply.
Aquaculture, thus, plays an important role in global efforts towards eliminating malnutrition
and brings significant health benefits by nutritional well-being. It significantly dominates
most devoloping countries in terms of contribution to development by increasing gross
domestic product, providing employment opportunities and improving incomes.
The potentially adverse impacts of aquaculture that is also threat the sustainability when the
sector grows unregulated or under poor management, is of considerable current environmental
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and public interest in the world. Besides eutrophication and genetically modified organisms
(GMOs), the main environmental pressure associated with intensive aquaculture is chemicals
(antibiotics, hormones, fungicides, pesticides, antifoulants, anaesthetics and disinfectants)
used in aquaculture. The intensive systems are often associated with various greater use of
different types of antibiotics and chemicals generate very different effects on the environment,
mainly on water and sediment quality (nutrient and organic matter loads), natural aquatic
communities (toxicity, community structure, biodiversity), and microorganisms (alteration of
microbial communities, drug resistant strains).
The interactions between humans, antibiotics, bacteria, fish and aquatic environments are
poorly understood and recent studies show a significant pollution of surface waters with
antibiotics and other chemicals which are potential risk to drinking waters. Moreover, as a
vicious circle and often as well, aquaculture is also negatively affected by pollution of water
supplies by other human activities (ie: agriculture and industrial activities).
The environmental approach to sustainable development can control the use of chemicals to
eliminate or reduce any negative effects to an acceptable level. Sustainability requires global
action, and therefore an effective solution can be achieved on the basis of environmentallyfriendly management systems towards social-ecological aquaculture to integrate aquaculture,
environment and society locally and globally. This paper, consequently, addresses the
relevance of the environmental approach to the role of aquaculture in sustainable
development.
Keywords: Aquaculture, Chemicals, Antibiotics, Environment, Sustainable Development
1.INTRODUCTION
Securing a safe and sustainable food supply for an increasing population is one of the world's
biggest challenges. Fish and aquatic organisms provide an important source of protein. But,
global population demand for aquatic food products is increasing while traditional wildcapture fisheries have reached a plateau.
Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and
aquatic plants in ponds and large net-cages. Farming of aquatic organisms is becoming an
important source of food in both international trade and subsistence sectors. After growing
steadily for the last four decades, it is now a substantial global industry supplying nearly half
of the world's supply of fishery products (fish and other aquatic organisms) consumed as
food. It may be an alternative supply to the increasing demand for aquatic products, strong
international competition, constant change in consumer needs and expectations, and also
depletion of fisheries, providing to reduce the pressure on wild stocks. In terms of its
economic productivity, the contribution of aquaculture to trade, both local and international, is
also increasing. The aquaculture industry has a potential for further development, but there are
some problems with environmental concerns and market instability, locally and globally.
Eutrophication, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), chemical pollution, exotic species
wild fish stocks and pathogens are some examples of the main environmental impact concerns
associated with intensive aquaculture (Naylor et al. 2000). Under potential risk of these
impacts, without any rules in context of ecological assessment and sustainable practices, it is
not to be expected that aquaculture will continue to supply the demand for aquatic products
for a long time.
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At this time of strong public concern throughout the world particularly about the impact of
aquaculture on human health and environment especially regarding the use of chemicals are
reflected in the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (FAO 1995). In this Code
there are several advices, such as the promoting effective farm and fish health management
practices (favouring hygienic measures and vaccines), the ensuring safe, effective and
minimal use of chemicals (e.g. therapeutants, hormones and drugs, antibiotics and other
disease control chemicals), regulating the use of chemical inputs in aquaculture (if they are
hazardous to human health and the environment).
Status and scope of aquaculture
Overall, 80 percent of the world fish stocks are reported as fully exploited or overexploited
and are thus unable to withstand additional fishing pressure. The continuing depletion of the
world’s fish stocks has led to an increasing demand for aquatic food from aquaculture which
has been expanded rapidly worldwide.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the global total production of
fish, crustaceans and molluscs, including wild capture and aquaculture, reached to
approximately 145 million tonnes in 2009 consisted of 90 million tonnes captured which has
been stayed level since 2001, plus 55 million tonnes produced by farms (Figure 1).
Aquaculture production has continued increasing at an average annual growth rate of 6.1
percent from 34.6 million tonnes in 2001 to current level and the value of aquaculture
production was estimated at USD 105.3 billion in 2009. It is the fastest growing sector of the
food economy. About 84 percent of total fishery production (121.8 million tonnes in 2009)
was used for direct human consumption. Global per capita consumption has been increased
steadily and reached to an average of 18 kg in 2009 with the share of aquaculture production
in total food supply at 46 percent. According to FAO projections, it is estimated that in order
to maintain the current levels of consumption, an additional 40 million tonnes of seafood will
be required by 2030 and global aquaculture production will need to reach minimum 80
million tonnes by 2050 (FAO, 2007). According to the international marketing records 38.5
percent (live weight equivalent) was exported in 2009 and the value reached USD 96.0
billion. The share of developing countries in this percent was 50.6 percent by value and 60.1
percent by quantity (live weight equivalent) in 2009.
Figure 1. Trends in world aquaculture production (FAO, 2010)
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All of these statistics show the important role of aquaculture in global efforts against hunger
and malnutrition for both developed and developing countries by supplying fish and other
aquatic products contain excellent animal protein and other essential fatty acids, vitamins and
minerals. It also contributes to food availability to improve global food security. In terms of
food quality, aquatic products bring significant health benefits and contribute to nutritional
well-being.
It can also make important contributions to the social and economic development of countries
through improving incomes, providing employment opportunities and increasing the effective
use of resources. It significantly contributes to the national gross domestic products in many
developing countries. This may provide a more productive investment opportunity for local
resources as well as playing important socio-economic role in rural regions.
2.What is sustainability or sustainable development?
In general, "sustainability" and "sustainable development" is a concept to guarantee a liveable
environment for all people in the long term. In this concept, aquaculture is highly diverse and
consists of a broad spectrum of species, systems and practices. Thus, several indicators, codes
and guidelines for sustainable development in aquaculture have been evaluated in recent years
(Folke and Kautsky, 1989; Subasinghe et al., 2009). Mostly these indicators can generally be
grouped into two main categories: Ecological and socio-economical indicators. Ecologic
indicators are aiming preservation of a functional environment, while socio-economic
criterions are to provide clear economic advantages for aquaculture farmers and social equity
to improve the community's welfare in the long term.
There is still little known, how sustainability can be increased in aquaculture and there is no
complete practicable criteria to certify the sustainability status of aquaculture operations.
According to the criteria systems in previous evaluations, sustainable development is an
integrative framework involving ecological, economical and social sustainability. Although,
all may seem of equal importance, the current focus is primarily on the economy to achieve
the competitiveness. However, environmental issue is a very important part of the
development process as no activity in aquaculture will take place if there is not good quality
water resources left. Economy and society fundamentally rise up on the natural world and
resources, and these are serving to improve the standing of environmental concerns.
Therefore, sustainable development in aquaculture industry must be environmentally friendly
that means conserving land, water and wildlife resources.
Along with too much complexity in sustainable development of aquaculture, there are many
concerns about environmental indicators containing two important components, resource use
and pollution. In this respect, the sustainable use of natural resources was described by EU
Commission in 6th Environmental Action Programme (6 EAP) as: "the consumption of
resources and their associated impacts cannot exceed the carrying capacity of the environment
and the linkages between economic growth and resource use must be limited". Water
resources are essential for life and health besides food and other products put huge demands.
Globally, the problem of water shortage is getting worse as the needs for clean water increase
in agriculture, industry and households because wastage and pollution is alarming critical
limits day by day. Therefore, everyone must be a part of efforts to conserve and protect the
water resources.
Aquaculture will continue to play an increasing role in fishery products to meet the globally
rising demand but the chemicals used in aquaculture put pressure on the environment around
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the world (Costello et al., 2001). As a result of technical development and incorporation of
advanced technology much of the fish farming systems have moved from extensive to
intensive systems that pose environmental risks and threats to the surrounding ecosystem in
rivers, water reservoirs and oceans. Much scientific literatures have identified the
environmental risks and impacts of the farming of aquatic organisms in open systems
(Costello et al., 200; Buschmann et al., 2009).
Another important concern is intensification implies increasing the number of individuals and
increase potential for the spread of pathogens. This spreading is requiring greater use of inputs
(e.g. disinfectants, drugs) and greater generation of waste products presenting a global threat
to both the aquatic environment and consumer safety (Kümmerer, 2009). To date, however,
aquacultural chemicals have not been paid sufficient attention to the significant risks that
would accompany the growth of the industry.
Chemical inputs and current situation of chemical usage in aquaculture
Table 1: Analysis of the chemical usage in aquaculture.
Wide range of potentially hazardous chemicals used in aquaculture
operations.
Strengths
Disease problems worldwide.
Uncontrolled and high local use of aquacultural chemicals.
Inefficient control and regulations for chemical usage in aquaculture
There is insufficient monitoring of chemical residues for aquatic products.
Technical knowledge of chemical analysis specific to aquaculture
practices is limited.
Weaknesses
Concept of carrying capacity models to aquaculture systems are nonexistent for certain locations and particularly closed basins in countries.
There is no certification system and guidelines developed for
environmentally sound and sustainable aquaculture and not harmonized
worldwide.
Lack of successful environmentally friendly aquaculture demonstration
sites for extension purposes nationally.
Sustainable and environmentally sound aquaculture practices will reduce
the pressures on environment.
Opportunities
Increasing awareness in local and international.
Generating public environmental awareness and education
Developing of technology and knowledge on the chemicals used in
aquaculture.
Inefficient waste management in aquaculture.
Threats
There is still no monitoring system for aquacultural chemicals in
environment.
Lack of institutional infrastructure to facilitate sustainable aquaculture
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development.
Low technical level of fish farmers.
Lack of knowledge of the environmental impacts of aquacultural
chemicals.
The aquaculture industry is a kind of agricultural sector and chemicals developed originally
for animal husbandry but now it common use in both. The chemicals are also essential for
increased and controlled production of progeny in hatcheries, increased feeding efficiency,
improvement of survival rates, control of pathogens and diseases, and reduction in transport
stress (Howe et al., 1995). However, effects of chemicals on the aquatic environment have not
been specifically evaluated. The lack of data on their use has complicated the problem. The
chemicals used in aquaculture includes soil and water treatments, fertilisers, disinfectants,
herbicides, antibacterial agents, other therapeutants, pesticides, feed additives, anaesthetics
and hormones.
Antifoulants: are used on solid surfaces, ropes and generally on nets in cage aquaculture
systems. Even if the antifoulants are generated and used for protection of boat surfaces, they
are also used to treat nets and this usage must be of concern if used in fish culture.
Disinfectants: are applied as external treatment for fish and especially for eggs and fry. These
agents are applied directly in aquatic environment and some of them could be very
persistently toxic to aquatic life at low concentrations such as formalin. Farmers will be
ensure that the potential for contamination of the environment will be able to minimised.
Pesticides: generally are used to control ectoparasits in fish culture. Some of them such as
organophosphates may produce vital effects on the health of farm workers.
Anaesthetics: are used in stripping of broods and during transport of fish in aquaculture to
sedate and calm the aquatic organisms.
Hormones: plays an important role to control and induce ovulation for the control of
reproduction as well as sex control for mono-sex production in aquaculture.
Veterinary pharmaceuticals: are applied in aquaculture as medicated feed and diluted in water
and most of them are preferred to prophylactic use rather than against diseases in many
countries. Therefore, using of these therapeutic agents are controlled by drug licensing
programmes, monitoring of limits on tissue residues and for environmental residues to
minimise the risks in terms of human and environmental health.
Heavy use of antibiotics in aquaculture:
Antimicrobials have been applied in aquaculture for over 50 years and its use has grown both
in numbers and quantity, as the problem of diseases has increased. Although they were highly
successful at first, improper using led to problems, and concern is now centred on treatment
failures. Moreover, it is now an expanding problem for human and animal health and for the
environment.
Antimicrobial compounds are persistent and can exhibit toxicity in sediments, and can
therefore affect the natural microbial community near aquaculture sites (Herwig and Gray,
1997). This residue potential may disturb the balance of the environmental micro-flora. One
of the major concerns with use of antibiotics (from any source) is the potential for bacteria to
develop resistance to the compounds and for the resistance traits to be manifested in other
bacteria including human pathogens (Guardabassi et al., 2000). Treatments may fail for
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several reasons, but probably the most consistent and fundamental cause of their failure is the
emergence of resistant bacteria. The risk posed to human health by disturbance of the
gastrointestinal flora, selection of resistant strains and allergies is also addressed elsewhere.
Quantities of antibiotics used in aquaculture are small compared to other forms of food
production and published data show the use of antibiotics in aquaculture has been diminishing
in some areas by regulations. Despite the low relative usage of antibiotics in aquaculture
compared to other food production systems, their use remains an issue of concern as
aquaculture is often practiced in relatively pristine environments and the exact quantities
applied directly to water.
All of the chemicals were not originally developed for aquaculture use and environmental
residues have been ignored. Therefore, it is difficult to estimate the size of risk because of the
lack of knowledge on the biological responses to chemical residues in receiving waters and on
the concentrations in farm's surrounding environment (sea, effluents and sediments). It is also
little known that fates of chemicals in the aquaculture system and the residues in cultured and
wild organisms. The picture is yet more bleak for environment with regard to the interactive
effects of multiple chemicals in relation to biological effects.
Human health and environmental concerns regarding the use of chemicals in aquaculture are
reflected in the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (FAO 1995). In this Code
there are several advices, such as the promoting effective farm and fish health management
practices (favouring hygienic measures and vaccines), the ensuring safe, effective and
minimal use of chemicals (e.g. hormones, therapeutants, antibiotics and other disease control
chemicals), regulating the use of chemical inputs in aquaculture (if they are hazardous to
human health and the environment).
A demonstration of an aquaculture activity from Turkey
Aquaculture has been developed in Turkey rapidly. Commercial aquaculture production in
marine and inland waters takes place all over the country. By 1995 there are approximately
800 fish farms (mainly producing rainbow trout) in inland waters and 400 marine fish farms
(mainly seabream and seabass) in operation in the country. However, little detailed
information is available on the environmental impacts of this industry.
Environmental assessment strategies for aquaculture operations were developed and proven in
some countries. However, the application of such strategies would be inappropriate without
modification and adaptation to the ecological particularities of the environments where
aquaculture operations located. Problems and antimicrobials vary from farm to farm (e.g.
cultured species, diseases, different capacities of surrounding environments, climate, level of
eutrophication, composition and diversity of fauna and flora) and require site-specific
environmental risk assessments.
Available data show that large quantities of antibiotics have been applied in the aquaculture
operations in Turkey. As being reference for local intensity, the selected river basin is located
in the south-western of Turkey. There are 16 trout fish farms in various capacities (totaly
appr. 10.000 tonnes/year), including family farms (100 tonnes/year) and businesses (3.000
tonnes/year).
Figure 1. Fish farms on Esen River in Fethiye (Turkey)
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Antimicrobials and disinfectants are generally used
prophylactically and therapeutically in these farms;
Oxytetracycline (appr. 700-800kg/year),Tribrissen
(Sulphadiazine/Trimethoprim) (appr. 750 kg/year),
erythromycin (appr. 400 kg/year) and the others
which are used appr. 100-200 kg/year, e.g.
enroflaxacin, amoxicillin, doxycyline, florfenicol
and last one is formaldehyde used as a disinfectant
(appr. 3500 liter/year), (Altunok, personal
communication). Previously published literatures
suggest that, in general, only 20-30% of antibiotics
are actually taken up by fish from medicated food;
thus, approximately 70-80% reaches the
environment (Samuelsen, 1989). For example, the
apparent oral bioavailability of oxytetracycline in
rainbow trout was reported approximately 5-6% (Björklund and Bylund, 1990). Some of these
chemicals and compounds have considerable adverse environmental effects, and, therefore
their use in aquaculture must be carefully assessed. The fate of such compounds should be
carefully addressed locally. Since the environmental impacts and risks are site-specific,
environmental approach to sustainable aquaculture development requires the integration of its
economic, environmental and social components at local levels towards global motion
planning.
3. Sustainability criterions regarding to chemicals
The limited availability of natural resources coupled with increasing demand for fishery foods
the need to move forward in aquaculture to become more sustainable. Compared to other
animal production systems, aquaculture is put under special pressure to become more
sensitive to environment because the industry uses important natural resources (freshwater,
rivers, wetlands, coastal and open ocean areas). The aquaculture industry is working towards
reducing use of chemicals and other artificial substances but there is still not effective
precautions and conservation plans regarding to chemical use in aquaculture for the most part
of the world. Thus, it appears that global efforts are needed to promote more judicious use of
chemicals in aquaculture. These efforts should focus on;
-increasing the investment on aquaculture
-alternative environment-friendly substances and methods of treatment,
- developing of vaccines
-developing welfare conditions for fish and other aquatic animals,
-developing an overall management system that is widely applicable throughout the world, to
monitor and control the chemicals.
-using of the chemicals in a manner that does not constitute a hazard to human health and the
environment and in accordance with the appropriate legislation.
-legislations must be strict and include every possible usage of chemicals (e.g. antibiotics may
be used on prescription from a veterinarian for the therapeutic (not prophylactic) treatment.
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-the regulation of discharges. In this regard, site specific discharge conditions may include
limits on the location, maximum biomass, types and quantities of chemicals due to
requirement for monitoring water and sediment quality locally.
- Increasing government support to encourage organic and alternative aquatic food farming.
4.CONCLUSION
At present, the fish farms do not treat their effluents and discharge them to the environment
increasing the environmental pollution worldwide. Pollution of water resources due to
chemicals plays primary role in ecosystem degradation, but chemical analyses alone may not
be sufficient to describe the adverse effects of the complex mixtures of chemicals present at
contaminated sites. The potential utility of biomarkers for monitoring both environmental
quality and the health of organisms inhabiting polluted ecosystems has received increasing
attention during the recent years. The complexity of these issues and often the lack of data
concerning their effects on aquatic environment as well as the lack of monitoring at field
situations and surveillance systems, are the factors limiting the risk analysis process. In
addition, the direct consequence of this lack of data is that many hazardous chemicals are not
classified, and are therefore sold without appropriate labels or safety data sheets. Thus, many
chemicals are used in the workplace while their potential effects on the health of workers
exposed to them and on the environment are barely known, or known too late. This
insufficiency of data is more pronounced in the most of countries, especially where
technology and resources are limited or less available. Therefore, it is urgently needed to be
determining the actual quantitative risk of aquaculture chemicals in the environment locally.
Furthermore, the policy of safe and effective use of chemicals must be developed.
Appropriate strategies must be chosen, according to individual requirements for country’s and
region’s. Strengthening research efforts and programs for human training and development, as
well as enhancing mechanisms for information exchange and technology transfer, may be
encouraged through international collaboration. The development of an appropriate and
effective impact assessment and monitoring system for aquatic farms is essential in order to
ensure the sustainable development of aquaculture, while taking into consideration other
aspects of integrated management of the areas, including tourism, fishery, other industries and
environmental protection.
REFERENCES
Bjorklund, H. and G. Bylund. 1990. Temperature-related absorption and excretion of
oxytetracycline in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri R.). Aquaculture 84: 363-372.
Buschmann, A., Cabello, F., Young, K., Carvajal, J., Varela, D.A., Henríquez, L. 2009.
Salmon aquaculture and coastal ecosystem health in Chile: Analysis of regulations,
environmental impacts and bioremediation systems. Ocean & Coastal Management 52 (2009)
243–249.
Costello, M. J., Grant, A., Davies, I. M., Cecchini, S., Papoutsoglou, S., Quigley, D. &
Saroglia, M. 2001. The control of chemicals used in aquaculture in Europe. Journal of
Applied Ichthyology 17, 173-180.
FAO, 1995. Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. Food and Agricultural Organization
of the United Nations, Rome, 41pp.
126
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
FAO. 2007. The role of aquaculture in sustainable development. Thirty-fourth Session. 17-24
November 2007, C 2007/INF/16 Rome. FAO. 10 pp.
FAO. 2010. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. Rome. 197 pp.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1820e/i1820e.pdf
Guardabassi, L., A. Dalsgaard, M. Raffatellu and J. Olsen. 2000. Increase in the prevalence of
oxolinic acid resistant Acinetobacter spp. observed in a stream receiving the effluent from a
freshwater trout farm following the treatment with oxolinic acid-medicated feed. Aquaculture
188: 205-218.
Folke. C., N. Kautsky. 1989. The role of ecosystems for a sustainable development of
aquaculture. Ambio 18: 234-243
Herwig, R.P., and J.P. Gray. 1997. Microbial response to antibacterial treatment in marine
microcosms. Aquaculture 152: 139-154.
Howe, G.E., L.L. Marking, T.D. Bills and T.M. Schreier. 1995. Efficacy and toxicity of
formalin solutions containing paraformaldehyde for fish and egg treatments. The Progressive
Fish Culturist 57: 147-152.
Kümmerer, K. 2009. Antibiotics in the aquatic environment – A review – Part I.
Chemosphere 75 (2009) 417–434.
Naylor, R. L., Goldburg, R. J., Primavera, J. H., Kautsky, N., Beveridge, M. C. M., Clay, J.,
Folke, C., Lubchenco, J., Mooney, H. and Troell, M. 2000. Effect of aquaculture on world
fish supplies, Nature, vol. 405, pp. 1017-24.
Samuelsen, O.B. 1989. Degradation of oxytetracycline in seawater at two different
temperatures and light intensities, and the persistence of oxytetracycline in the sediment from
a fish farm. Aquaculture, 83, 7–16.
Subasinghe, R., Soto, D. and Jia, J. 2009. Global aquaculture and its role in sustainable
development. Reviews in Aquaculture, 1: 2–9
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Table 1 Monthly descriptive statistics and estimated parameters of length-weight relationships for both sexes of S. aurita in the Izmir Bay (central
Aegean Sea) from November 2004 to October 2005. (M: male, F: female, n: number of individuals, a and b: parameters of length-weight
relationships, 95% C.I of a and b: 95% confidence intervals of a and b, r2: regression coefficient).
Weight characteristics
TL Range
Mean TL
W Range
Mean W
(±SD)
Months
Sex
n
(cm)
(±SD)
(g)
November
2004
M
55
19.8-23.5
21.67±1.
07
F
91
18.7-23.5
21.69±1.
16
M
119
19.0-24.0
F
129
M
December
January 2005
February
128
Length characteristics
Relationship parameters
a
95% CI of a
b
95% CI of r2
b
56.43-96.72 77.62±13.9
8
0.0020
0.00190.0021
3.425 2.7034.147
0.87
4
47.80116.77
81.22±15.6
8
0.0021
0.00100.0032
3.429 2.8993.959
0.88
0
20.04±1.
16
45.46117.10
58.78±14.4
7
0.0018
0.00070.0029
3.453 3.0613.845
0.93
6
18.8-25.5
20.49±1.
56
42.84138.40
64.41±21.0
5
0.0007
0.00040.0010
3.762 3.5024.022
0.97
3
44
21.2-25.3
22.56±1.
01
72.30107.95
85.83±11.2
4
0.0500
0.00590.0941
2.389 1.9092.869
0.66
2
F
102
21.7-25.6
23.22±0.
90
102.31143.32
94.25±13.9
0
0.0023
0.00060.0040
3.380 2.9043.856
0.88
6
M
92
18.1-25.3
21.22±1.
37.15-
68.06±20.6
0.0006
0.0002-
3.777 3.327-
0.94
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
March
April
May
June
July
129
71
131.12
7
0.0010
4.227
0
F
90
18.7-24.6
21.85±1.
50
42.70123.23
73.32±19.0
3
0.0008
0.00040.0012
3.715 3.3334.097
0.95
4
M
75
21.6-23.8
22.75±0.
65
83.88119.52
94.67±10.4
6
0.0067
0.00550.0079
3.058 2.3003.816
0.69
3
F
62
22.5-25.0
23.37±0.
83
91.52132.22
102.84±12.
40
0.0083
0.00710.0095
2.989 2.1353.843
0.87
5
M
129
20.4-23.6
22.03±0.
97
62.40-94.87 77.29±11.4
7
0.0064
0.00080.0120
3.035 2.3773.693
0.83
3
F
74
21.3-24.6
22.68±1.
18
96.16112.47
89.63±14.4
6
0.0361
0.00360.0686
2.501 2.0132.989
0.62
7
M
63
22.1-24.6
23.13±0.
83
96.67129.17
106.70±9.8
3
0.1361
0.00690.2653
2.121 1.8832.359
0.68
1
F
72
21.5-25.6
23.79±1.
04
84.97150.75
121.58±16.
77
0.0060
0.00170.0103
3.130 2.6703.590
0.93
0
M
20
20.3-23.7
22.47±1.
68
62.72101.50
91.55±26.4
1
0.0073
0.00720.0074
2.789 2.3093.269
0.89
6
F
81
19.7-25.7
23.38±1.
90
64.54141.00
102.39±22.
55
0.0262
0.00580.0466
2.619 2.1273.111
0.91
7
M
136
18.1-21.1
19.59±0.
99
44.10-64.39 53.52±7.33
0.0203
0.01110.0295
2.645 2.3412.949
0.95
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
August
September
October
Overall
130
F
91
18.0-22.6
20.37±1.
57
41.36-80.63 60.74±14.6
3
0.0074
0.00220.0126
2.984 2.5203.448
0.95
4
M
56
15.0-26.5
20.57±3.
33
23.48165.29
73.26±41.0
5
0.0024
0.00190.0029
3.389 3.2573.521
0.99
6
F
84
14.2-28.5
24.55±3.
95
22.39205.80
140.47±57.
74
0.0044
0.00220.0066
3.215 2.8993.531
0.96
3
M
26
16.6-23.9
20.26±2.
61
30.88109.14
66.86±28.5
3
0.0016
0.00070.0025
3.517 3.1253.909
0.99
1
F
78
19.1-25.6
22.98±1.
96
53.84138.82
103.53±26.
64
0.0048
0.00230.0073
3.174 2.8423.506
0.96
6
M
106
19.6-22.0
20.75±0.
53
64.85-87.35 77.02±5.12
0.1010
0.04230.1597
2.189 1.8052.573
0.70
7
F
60
19.5-22.0
21.02±0.
58
71.71-91.73 80.06±5.88
0.0624
0.02130.1035
2.350 1.9182.782
0.79
8
M
921
15.0-26.5
21.32±1.
73
23.48165.29
77.06±21.3
6
0.0033
0.00240.0042
3.279 3.1093.449
0.87
3
F
1014
14.2-28.5
22.29±2.
08
22.39205.80
90.87±31.2
7
0.0025
0.00190.0031
3.375 3.2293.521
0.90
7
M+F 1935
14.2-28.5
21.81±1.
97
22.39205.80
84.03±27.6
7
0.0027
0.00220.0032
3.340 3.2323.448
0.89
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
All the LLRs values are given in Table 3. The values for coefficient of determination (r2) for
all the length-length parameters of male, female and combined were ˃0.9, and highly
significant (p˂0.001). LLRs were measured as TL=a+bFL, FL=a+bSL and SL=a+bTL
equation in all sexes and combined. In all the samples together, LLRs are as follows:
TL=-1.3284+1.2087FL, FL=1.4623+0.9581SL and SL=0.0000+0.8382TL. The results further
indicated that LLRs were highly inter correlated (r2˃0.9, p˂0.01).
Table 3 Length-length relationships between total length (TL), fork length (FL) and standart
length (SL) of S. aurita in the Izmir Bay (central Aegean Sea) from November 2004 to
October 2005 (n: number of individuals, a: intercept, b: slope, r2: regression coefficient).
Sex
Equation
n
a
b
r2
-1.0161
1.1915
0.984
1.1368
0.9761
0.984
SL = a + bTL
0.0000
0.8462
0.999
TL = a + bFL
-1.4792
1.2168
0.975
1.6747
0.9469
0.974
SL = a + bTL
0.0000
0.8330
0.999
TL = a + bFL
-1.3284
1.2087
0.980
1.4623
0.9581
0.980
0.0000
0.8382
0.999
TL = a + bFL
Male
Female
All
FL = a + bSL
FL = a + bSL
FL = a + bSL
SL = a + bTL
921
1014
1948
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Binohlan, C.; Froese, R., & Pauly, D., (1998). The length-length table. In: R. Froese, D. Pauly
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Erkoyuncu, I., (1995). Fisheries biology and population dynamics. Ondokuz Mayıs
University, Faculty of Fisheries, Sinop, Turkey, pp. 265 (in Turkish).
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Could government legalize illegal settlement by improving their energy efficiency?
Janjusevic Jelena, Begovic Radojevic Milica,
UNDP, Podgorica; Montenegro
Abstract
In recent months we are faced with serious budget problems in Montenegro, the solution of
which, among other things is seen in reducing the number of employees in state
administration. On the other hand, the costs of living are significantly above the disposable
budget of households. Particular problem is the high cost of electricity, which recently
132
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1237
Title
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Interactions between chemicals used in aquaculture and environment in terms of sustainable development
Author
Author
Muhammet , Altunok
Abstract
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Aquaculture that is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic plants, is the fastest growing animal production sector in the world. Global production from aquaculture for human consumption amounted to 73 million tonnes and the value of US$ 110 billion in 2009 and comprised almost fifty percent of the world’s fish supply. Aquaculture, thus, plays an important role in global efforts towards eliminating malnutrition and brings significant health benefits by nutritional well-being. It significantly dominates most devoloping countries in terms of contribution to development by increasing gross domestic product, providing employment opportunities and improving incomes. The potentially adverse impacts of aquaculture that is also threat the sustainability when the sector grows unregulated or under poor management, is of considerable current environmental and public interest in the world. Besides eutrophication and genetically modified organisms (GMOs), the main environmental pressure associated with intensive aquaculture is chemicals (antibiotics, hormones, fungicides, pesticides, antifoulants, anaesthetics and disinfectants) used in aquaculture. The intensive systems are often associated with various greater use of different types of antibiotics and chemicals generate very different effects on the environment, mainly on water and sediment quality (nutrient and organic matter loads), natural aquatic communities (toxicity, community structure, biodiversity), and microorganisms (alteration of microbial communities, drug resistant strains). The interactions between humans, antibiotics, bacteria, fish and aquatic environments are poorly understood and recent studies show a significant pollution of surface waters with antibiotics and other chemicals which are potential risk to drinking waters. Moreover, as a vicious circle and often as well, aquaculture is also negatively affected by pollution of water supplies by other human activities (ie: agriculture and industrial activities). The environmental approach to sustainable development can control the use of chemicals to eliminate or reduce any negative effects to an acceptable level. Sustainability requires global action, and therefore an effective solution can be achieved on the basis of environmentallyfriendly management systems towards social-ecological aquaculture to integrate aquaculture, environment and society locally and globally. This paper, consequently, addresses the relevance of the environmental approach to the role of aquaculture in sustainable development. Keywords: Aquaculture, Chemicals, Antibiotics, Environment, Sustainable Development
Date
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2012-05-31
Keywords
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Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)