2
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/954854b2ccb70e1b6d4336134ac3ca15.pdf
cfe63acf56033a8b8da519e4c073a0f0
PDF Text
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3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Turkish
Airlines,
Labor,
Last
Accessed
on
4
30,
http://www.turkishairlines.com/tr-tr/kurumsal/basin-odasi/THY/is-gucu.
2012,
from
Turkish Airlines, Turkish Airlines’ 2010 Annual Report, Last Accessed on 4 27, 2012, from
www.turkishairlines.com/tr-TR/faaliyet-raporu/2010/pdf/tr-thy2010.pdf
Turkish Airlines, The Activity Report of The Board of Directors For the Period 1 January to
31
December
2011,
Last
Accessed
on
4
28,
2012,
from
http://wwwdownload.thy.com/download/investor_relations/annual_reports/faaliyet_raporu_ar
alik_2011.pdf.
Turkish Airlines, The Number of Passengers, Last Accessed on 4 28, 2012, from
http://www.turkishairlines.com/tr-tr/kurumsal/basin-odasi/THY/yolcu-sayisi.
UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development, Sustainable Aviation, Last Accessed
on 04 20, 2012, from
http://www.desd.org.uk/UserFiles/File/new_articles/pro_body_participation/sustainable_aviat
ion/Sustainable-Aviation-full-document.pdf
UN Development of Economic and Social Affairs, Aviation and Sustainable Development,
Last Accessed on 04 25, 2012, from http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd/csd9_bp9.pdf
Upham, P., Maughan, J., Raper, D. And Thomas, C., (2003). Towards Sustainable
Development, Earthscan Publications, 39, 115.
Forecasting Carbon Emission For Turkey: Time Series Analysis
Mehmet Mercan1, Etem Karakaya2
1Hakkari University, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Science
2Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Science
E-mail: mmercan48@gmail.com; mehmetmercan@hakkari.edu.tr, ekarakaya@gmail.com
Abstract
Within the context of sustainable development objectives, reducing greenhouse gas emissions
(GHG) that cause climate change was first discussed and officially negotiated at the 1992 Rio
Conference, which particularly emphasised developed countries to take serious measures.
Then, it was followed by the Kyoto Protocol, which specified national ghg emission reduction
targets for developed countries. With Kyoto Protocol, it was decided for these countries to
reduce global emissions by 5% below 1990 levels compared to 2008-2012 emission levels.
Turkey became a party to the Kyoto Protocol in 2009, yet due to their special circumstances
they did not take any emission reduction commitments.. Negotiations on Post-2012 emission
reduction obligations are still in progress under the UNFCCC umbrella and it is expected to
have emission reduction targets not only by developed countries but also by developing ones.
In this regard, it is important for Turkey to estimate its future ghg emissions, if they have to
take a Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA) for their strategy. There are
various ghg emission estimations for 2020 and the results indicate different emission levels.
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Objective of this study is to estimate ghg emission levels for Turkey for 2020 and afterwards
by using time series and regression analysis. Then, appropriate policy implications are
discussed with the result of these findings.
Keywords : Carbon Emissions, Time Series Analysis, climate change policy,emission
projections
1.INTRODUCTION
Global warming and climate change is the common problem of the whole world and
humanity, concerning many sectors including industry, trade, tourism andagriculture. Acting
in coordination, analyzing the elements leading to the problem is important in solving this
issue. As the development levels, energy resources and population structures of countries are
not homogenous, the possible emission reduction rates due to their strategies to combat global
warming, applicable tools and measures taken, would also be different. Tasking the same
amount of green house gas reductionto a developed country and a developing country would
have negative consequences on the economy of the developing country.
Turkeyhas reached a growth trend since 2002 following the introduction of strong economy
programme, and is since among the group of developing countries. In line with her growing
economy, greenhouse gas emission has increased, which is a source ofglobal warming.In her
combat against global warming, it is important for Turkey to choose the most appropriate
tools, which would not harm the economic growth, or keep the damage at a minimum level.
At this point, the NationalGreenhouse Gas Emission Inventoryis the most important reference.
This inventory needs to be prepared annually by each United Nations Climate Change
Framework Convention (UNCCFC) signing country and submitted to the UNCCFC
secretariat. Thanks to this inventory, countries are able to determine greenhouse gas emission
amounts, sources and sectoral breakdown.
2. Climate Change negotiations and Turkey
A member of OECD since 1961, Turkey has been included to ANNEX-I countries group,
primarily responsible for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and at the same time, to
ANNEX-II countries which shall be providing financial and technical assistance to reduce
emissions from the underdeveloped countries. The economic development level of Turkey is
generally lower than both OECD countries, and the other ANNEX II countries. It is not
rational for Turkeyto have the same emission reduction commitment as economically
developed countries. Therefore, Turkey has not signed the CCFC during the 1992 Rio
Conference, even though she approved its principles, claiming she could not fulfil the
commitments.
According to the Kyoto Protocol, ratified in1997 at theConference of Parties 3 and opened to
signature on 16 March 1998, countries in the ANNEX I group are obliged to reduce their
greenhouse gas emissions to under 5% of the1990 levels, between 2008-2012. This target set
by the Kyoto Protocolis being regarded as one of the most important international steps taken
towards limiting the greenhouse gas emissions.
During the 1997 Conference of Parties3 (COP3) in Kyoto, Turkey demanded for CCFC to be
removed from both Annexes, however, as this demand was not accepted, Turkey did not
become a party to Kyoto Protocol. During the Conference of Parties 6 held in the Hague in
2000, Turkey has stated that she would become a side to CCFC as an ANNEX-I country, on
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condition that she is removed from ANNEX II and provided technical assistance, financial
assistance and capacity development, just like the former socialist states transforming to fee
market economies. As part of the decision taken at the Hague Conference, it was accepted for
Turkey to be removed from ANNEX-II, by the following decision taken atConference of
Parties 7 in Marrakech in 2001: “By recognizing the special conditions of Turkey compared
to the other countries listed in ANNEX-I of the convention, it is decided to keep Turkey in
ANNEX-I but remove form ANNEX-II, by decision number26/CP.7” (UNCCFC, 2001: 2).
Following these developments, the law on Turkey to join Climate Change Framework
Convention was signed on 24 May 2004 and Turkey became the 189th country to become a
side to the Climate Change Framework Convention.
The law on Turkey to join Kyoto Protocolwas adopted on 26 August 2009 and Turkeybecame
a side to the Protocol. Not being a side to UNCCFCon the acception date (1997) of the
Protocol, Turkey was not included to the Protocol ANNEX-B list, which defines the
numerical emission limiting or reduction commitments of ANNEX-I Parties. Therefore, there
is no numerical emission limiting or reduction commitment for Turkey during the first
commitment
period
of
the
Protocol,
covering
the
2008-2012
period.
(http://climate.cob.gov.tr/climate/AnaSayfa/BMIDCS.aspx?sflang=tr Access: 07.12.2011).
3. Global Warming Trend, Projectionsand Scenarios
By looking at the data gathered from all the studies on global warming, it is possible to say
that greenhouse gas emissions within the atmosphere are constantly on the rise. According to
the fourth and latest assessment report published by IPCC in 2007; the temperature of the
earth and oceans are increasing, glaciers are melting environmental transformation is taking
place at a very fast speed. As well as the IPCC reports, studies are being held on climate
change in many different countries. As an example; according to the measurements since
1958 by the Government of the United States of America National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration’s observatory located in Hawaii Island’s Mauna Loa Mountain (3500m) in the
middle of Pacific Ocean, carbon-dioxide accumulation within the atmosphere is rising at an
incredible speed (Figure 1). Other than the Mauna Loa observatory, a number of fixed stations
such as Law Dome, Adalie Land, South Pole and Siple, and aeroplanes for certain heights of
the atmosphere, are being constantly used to measure greenhouse gas, and increases in
greenhouse gas emissions are being scientifically set forth (Özçağ, 2011. s:12).
Figure 1: Development of CO2Density at the Atmosphere
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Source: http://www.licor.com/env/newsline/tag/keeling-curve/, Access: 13.03.2012
The saw shaped graphic at the first part of Figure 1 is being called as the Keeling curve. The
reason for the saw shape is representing the plants absorbing carbon-dioxide from the
atmosphere during the summer months, and giving back during the winter (Madra and Şahin,
2007:30-33).
As it could be viewed from Figure 1, while the CO2 density in the atmosphere between 17501900 increased from 280 ppm (parts per million) to 285 ppm, an increase of just 5ppm, it
increased from 280 ppm to 360 ppm between 1900-2000, an increase of 75 ppm. By
industrialization since the 1900’s, the increase in CO2 density is 15 times the level of the
previous period (http://www.brophy.net/weblog/pivot/entry.php?id=10, Access:27.11.2011).
The annual CO2 emissiondue to fossil fuel consumption was 6.4 GtC (Giga Ton Carbon) in
1990, but during the 2000-2005 period, it increased to 7.2 GtC. The atmospheric density of
Methane, another greenhouse gas, was 715 ppb (parts per billion) in pre-industry period, and
increased to 1732 ppb during the early 1990’s, and in 2005, the figure was 1774 ppb. During
the same period, nitric oxide levels rose from 215 ppb to 317 ppb (IPCC, 2007a: 2-3).
According to Assessment Report 4 (AR4) by IPCC; due to the great increases of the carbondioxide emissions, the average increase in surface temperatures until the year 2100 is
expected to be approximately 3 Co, or somewhere between 2 Coand 4.5 Co. In addition, many
scenarios anticipate that an increase of 0.2 Co/10 years would take place for the next 20 years
(Türkeş, 2007: 50). And it is claimed that sea levels would rise by 0.1 -0.9 metres between
1990 and 2100 (EEA, 2003: 94).
As well as the reports prepared by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to give insight
on the current situation, various scenarios are being prepared on the future of global warming
and on emission reduction. IPCC’s greenhouse gas emission reductionscenarios were included
in its first assessment report in 1990. These initial scenarios, prepared for the 1990-2100
period, were updated with a greater scope and published in 1992. These emissionscenarios
known as “IS92”,deal with atmospheric composition and it’s effects on the climate. The aim
of these studies is; to determine the expected greenhouse gas emission increases until 2100
and the related green house gas rates in the atmosphere; to determine the regional distribution
of changes caused by global warming and rain regimes stemming from increased greenhouse
gasses, by employing these values in various climate models, to determine land and sea
temperatures and to determine the possible consequences of climate change.
Following the initial scenarios, IPCC has accepted to prepare a new emissionscenario in1996.
These new scenarios are named Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES). In
IPCC’sSRES Report published in2001 and 2007, there are four different scenariofamilies.
The details of these scenarios were explained in the 2001 report, and updated in the 2007
report. These scenarios are A1, A2, B1 and B2 scenarios.
A1 Scenario Group is based on the assumption that the world economy would develop rapidly
by the use of new and more effective technologies, population increase would reach its
highest value at mid-centuryand then decrease. The emphasized areas in thisscenario family
are such issues as the interregional intimacy due to the important decreases in regional
differences on income per person, capacity growth, and increase in cultural and social
relations. A1 Scenario group includes sub scenarios on different developments in energy
systems such as A1FI (fossil intense energy technologies), A1T (non fossil-sourced energy
use) and A1B (a balanced distribution between all sources) (IPCC, 2007a: SPM, s:18).
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A2 Scenario Group is based on an unbalanced and slow economic growth with a rapid
increase in population, a non-homogenous world, with a structure where no special measures
are taken against global warmingand environmental change issues.
B1 Scenario Group, is based on the same assumptions as A1 scenarios but anticipates an
economic growth which does not need over consumption of energy, with an emphasis on
service sector. In this scenario, clean technologies based on more effective use of sources
shall be used.
And finally, B2 Scenario Group; it has an approach where economic, social and
environmental capacitiesare mainly solved at a local scale (IPCC, 2007a: SPM, s:18).
IPCC scenarios’ anticipations on world population and economy are given in the below table:
Table1: Economic Estimates of SRES 2001 Scenarios
Per Capita Income
Population
Gross Product
(Billion People)
(Trillion Dollar)
(Developed/Developing
Countries)
2050
2100
2050
2100
2050
2100
A1
8,70
7,04
164,5
518,8
2,8
1,5
A2
11,29
14,71
111,3
248,5
6,6
4,2
B1
8,7
7,04
135,6
328,4
3,6
1,8
B2
9,8
10,3
75,7
198,7
4
3
Scenario
Source: http: //www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/sres/emission/data/allscen.xls, Data: 27.11.2011.
In the Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES) prepared by IPCC, carbon-dioxide
andothergreenhouse gasemissions are predicted to be increased at important levels during the
next century. According to the report, global temperature would rise by 0.2 C 0per 10 years,
for the next 20 years (IPCC, 2007a: 12). Temperature increases and sea level changes
projected for the 21st century are given in Table 1.3.
Table 2: SRES 2090-2099 Estimations by 1980-1990 Data
Temperature Change
Scenario
Change in Sea Level
(C 0 )
(mt)
Estimate
Range
B1
1.8
1.1 - 2.9
0.18 - 0.38
A1T
2.4
1.4 - 3.8
0.20 - 0.45
B2
2.4
1.4 - 3.8
0.20 - 0.43
A1B
2.8
1.7 - 4.4
0.21 - 0.48
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A2
3.4
2.0 - 5.4
0.23 - 0.51
A1FI
4.0
2.4 - 6.4
0.26 - 0.59
Source : IPCC, 2007a. SPM, s.13.
According to (B1) scenario where global warming level is the lowest, it is estimated that the
temperature increase in 2090-2099 period would be 1.8 C0when compared to 1980-1990
period. The temperature increase during the period in subject is expected to be in the range of
1.1 C0and 2.9 C0. According to this scenario, it is calculated that the sea level would rise
between 0.18 - 0.38 metres. And according to the A1FI scenario where global warming level
is at its highest, world surface temperature isexpected to rise by 4 C0, while an increase of
0.26 - 0.59 metres is anticipated in the sea level. This has been shown in Figure 1.6.
Figure 2: Change Trend in Sea Levels
Source: IPCC, 2007a. s:409-410.
In the first part of Figure 2, changes in the sea level based on 1980-1999 are given. The period
covering the years 1800 - 1870 is an estimation, while the figures for the period 1870–2000 is
based on apparatus measurements (Tide Gauge). Sea level change values for the 2000–2100
period have been estimated by using the SRES A1B scenario. The second part of the panel
has been acquired by using the annual mean sea level values. Values for 1870 - 1950 period
have been extracted from Church and White (2006)’s work, while post-1950 values have been
extracted from Holgate and Woodworth (2004), and Leuliette et. al. (2004)’s work, and they
are within 90%confidence interval.
According to SRES Scenarios, the increase in atmosphericdensity of carbon-dioxide emission,
increases the acidity levels of the oceans. According to estimates, PH values of the oceans
would decrease during the 21st Century by 0.14 and 0.35. Lowered pH values of the oceans
means an increase in the acidity levels. With an increased acidity level and temperature,
oceans would lose their ability to absorb carbon over time (IPCC, 2007a. SPM, s:14).
4. Worldwide Trend and Reasons for Increase of Greenhouse Gas Causing Climate
Change
Humankind is faced with the enigma of global warming and climate change, by using the
nature to acquire the raw materials for his never ending demands, using fossil sourced energy
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during production phase, wastes released to the nature during production and consumption
phases, increase in world population, damages occurred to the environment and forests. When
evaluating these situations as a general, global warmingandclimate change issues are human
sourced issues.
In Table3, human sourced distribution of greenhouse gas emissions per country, and the total
amount in a world scale in 2009 have been given. As Table 3 indicates, the top five countries
with highest greenhouse gas emissions are China, America, India, Russia and Japan. These
countries have a total emission of 16,235 Million Tonnes of CO2e, and their share in total
greenhouse gas emission is 51.9%. Turkeyon the other hand, had a CO2e emission of 256
Million Tonnes in2009, and in total greenhouse gas emissions, Turkey’s share is eight per
mille (% 0.8).
Table 3: Countries with High CO2 Emission Levels in 2009 (Mt CO2e)*
1-China
6,831
12-Mexico
399
2-America
5,195
13-Australia
394
3-India
1,585
14-Italy
389
4-Russia
1,532
15-Indonesia
376
5-Japan
1,092
16-South Africa
369
6-Germany
750
17-France
354
7-Iran
533
18-Brazil
337
8-Canada
520
19-Poland
286
9-South Korea
515
20-Spain
283
10-England
465
21-Ukraine
256.39
11- Saudi Arabia
410
22-Turkey
256.31
World Total
28,999
Milyon Ton CO2e
Çin
Amerika
Hindistan
Rusya
Japonya
Almanya
İran
Kanada
Güney Kore
İngiltere
Suudi Arabistan
Meksika
Austuralya
İtalya
Endonezya
Güney Afrika
Fransa
Brezilya
Polonya
İspanya
Ukrayna
Türkiye
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
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Source : IEA, KWES, 2011, s. 48-57. Values in the table have been created by the authors.
*:Including land use, land use differences, and green house gas reductionchanges of the
forestry sector.
Humanity’s will to damage the nature for a wealthier life, as well as the above mentioned
human sourced factors, are leading to global warmingand climate change. Among the human
sourced environmental issues, we may count fossil sourced energy use, industrialization and
urbanization, population increase, land use changes and agriculture-stock breeding activities.
5. Carbon EmissionScenarios
In this part of the study, before starting with thescenarioimplementations, 2011
macroeconomic variables data for Turkey and general and sectoral carbon emission
projections for the 2011-2020 period will be given.
Figure 3: 1990-2009* TotalEmissions (Mt CO2e)
400
349.6 380.0
350
312.3
297.0
300
286.1
278.1
250
366.5
369.7
329.9
302.8
237.5
200
187.0
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1995
1990
150
Source: TUİK (2011) NationalGreenhouse GasEmission Inventory Reportdata have been
consolidated by the authors.
*: Emission values exclude Lulucf.
As Figure 3 indicates, Turkey’s carbon emission of 187 Mt CO2e in 1990 has increased by
58% and became 297 Mt CO2e in 2000. The rate of increase has slowed down since 2000and
it became 369,7 Mt CO2e in 2009, an increase of 24%. Since 2000’s, with the introduction of
“transition to the strong economy program”, there have been great increases in GNP, export
and import values (for instance; export increase 255%, import 154%andGNP 471% running,
and 34%fixed), but still, emissionincrease was highly reduced in 2000-2009, compared to
1990-2000. We may assume that this decrease was contributed by efficient use of energy, use
of renewable energy, and use of natural gas as fuel type.
In Figure 4, greenhouse gas emissions per sector to be used for the 2009 analysis are given.
These values were prepared by TUİK (2011) for the “NationalGreenhouse
GasEmissionInventory Report”. Electricity production sector (EL) is leading the table with a
93,3 Mt CO2e emission, and makes up 25% of the total emissions. Coal mining (CO) sector is
in second place with 71,1 Mt CO2e emissionand makes up for 19% of the total emissions.
Sectoral transportation (TR) on the other hand has an emission of 45,2 Mt CO2e. When we
look at the top three sectors; electricity production, coal mining and transportation sectors
produce 57% of total emissions. 2002 data indicate that, electricity production, coal mining
and transportation sectors are again occupying the top three places in emissions.
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Figure 4: 2009 and 2002* Secoral Emissions (Mt CO2e)
100
93.3
90
80
2009: 369,6 Mt
CO2e
71.1
70
45.2 46.9
31.7
55.1
7.8 6.9
40
35.0
30 24.5
20
26.525.5
20
10
2002: 286,3 Mt
CO2e
50
50
30
72.3
70
60
60
40
80
14.9
0
36.3
20.5 19.7
6.0 5.3
10
11.5
0
AG CO PG RP EL CE PA IS TR OE
AG CO PG RP EL CE PA IS TR OE
2009 Sectoral Emissions (369,6 Mt Co2e)
Source: TUİK (2011) NationalGreenhouse Gas EmissionInventory Report data have been
created and classified by the authors per sector. *:Emission values exclude Lulucf.
Considering Turkey’s TUİK (2011) National Greenhouse Gas EmissionInventory
Report,average greenhouse gas increase rates for the 1990-2009 period is 97.64%and annually
5.13%.With the help of 2002 and 2009 sectoral greenhouse gas distribution, calculated from
“National Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory Report” in Figure 4, we may be able to
calculate sectoral greenhouse gas distributionfor 1990. If we apply the 5.13% increase for the
1990-2009 period to the calculated emissionvalues, we may acquire the sectoral and general
greenhouse gas emissions for the period leading up to 2020, which is given in Table 4.
Table 4: Carbon Emissions (Mt CO2e)* of Sectors per Year
AG CO PG
175
RP EL
CE
PA
IS
TR
OE Total
1990 16,0 36,0 3,9
3,5 47,2
13,4 12,9 7,5
22,9 23,7 187,0
1991 16,8 37,8 4,1
3,6 49,6
14,1 13,5 7,9
24,1 25,0 196,6
1992 17,7 39,7 4,3
3,8 52,1
14,8 14,2 8,3
25,2 26,2 206,3
1993 18,5 41,5 4,5
4,0 54,5
15,5 14,9 8,7
26,4 27,4 215,9
1994 19,3 43,4 4,7
4,2 56,9
16,2 15,5 9,1
27,6 28,6 225,5
1995 20,1 45,2 4,9
4,4 59,3
16,9 16,2 9,5
28,8 29,8 235,1
1996 21,0 47,1 5,1
4,5 61,8
17,5 16,9 9,8
29,9 31,1 244,7
1997 21,8 48,9 5,3
4,7 64,2
18,2 17,5 10,2 31,1 32,3 254,3
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
1998 22,6 50,8 5,5
4,9 66,6
18,9 18,2 10,6 32,3 33,5 263,9
1999 23,4 52,6 5,7
5,1 69,1
19,6 18,8 11,0 33,5 34,7 273,5
2000 24,3 54,5 5,9
5,2 71,5
20,3 19,5 11,4 34,7 35,9 283,1
2001 25,1 56,3 6,1
5,4 73,9
21,0 20,2 11,8 35,8 37,2 292,8
2002 25,9 58,1 6,3
5,6 76,3
21,7 20,8 12,2 37,0 38,4 302,4
2003 26,7 60,0 6,5
5,8 78,8
22,4 21,5 12,5 38,2 39,6 312,0
2004 27,5 61,8 6,7
6,0 81,2
23,1 22,2 12,9 39,4 40,8 321,6
2005 28,4 63,7 6,9
6,1 83,6
23,7 22,8 13,3 40,5 42,0 331,2
2006 29,2 65,5 7,1
6,3 86,0
24,4 23,5 13,7 41,7 43,3 340,8
2007 30,0 67,4 7,4
6,5 88,5
25,1 24,1 14,1 42,9 44,5 350,4
2008 30,8 69,2 7,6
6,7 90,9
25,8 24,8 14,5 44,1 45,7 360,0
2009 31,7 71,1 7,8
6,9 93,3
26,5 25,5 14,9 45,2 46,9 369,7
2010 32,5 72,9 8,0
7,0 95,7
27,2 26,1 15,3 46,4 48,1 379,3
2011 33,3 74,8 8,2
7,2 98,2
27,9 26,8 15,6 47,6 49,4 388,9
2012 34,1 76,6 8,4
7,4 100,6 28,6 27,4 16,0 48,8 50,6 398,5
2013 35,0 78,5 8,6
7,6 103,0 29,3 28,1 16,4 49,9 51,8 408,1
2014 35,8 80,3 8,8
7,7 105,4 29,9 28,8 16,8 51,1 53,0 417,7
2015 36,6 82,2 9,0
7,9 107,9 30,6 29,4 17,2 52,3 54,2 427,3
2016 37,4 84,0 9,2
8,1 110,3 31,3 30,1 17,6 53,5 55,5 436,9
2017 38,3 85,9 9,4
8,3 112,7 32,0 30,8 18,0 54,6 56,7 446,5
2018 39,1 87,7 9,6
8,5 115,2 32,7 31,4 18,3 55,8 57,9 456,2
2019 39,9 89,6 9,8
8,6 117,6 33,4 32,1 18,7 57,0 59,1 465,8
2020 40,7 91,4 10,0 8,8 120,0 34,1 32,7 19,1 58,2 60,3 475,4
Source: TUİK (2011) From the National Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory Report data,
sectoral emissions have been calculated by the authors, and simulation has been applied.*:
Emission values exclude Lulucf.
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As Table 4 indicates, 2009 emission rate was 369,7 Mt CO2e, and according to the 1990-2009
increase scenario of 5.13% (As of 2012, the latest emissionwas given for 2009), this emission
rate is anticipated to become 475,4 Mt CO2e in 2020. This is much lower than 604 Mt CO2e,
foreseen by the Ministry of Environment and Forestry (Ministry of Forestry and Hydraulic
Works) by using the MAED/ENPEP model, however, it is in accordance with the 421 Mt
CO2e value, foreseen by the European Commission using PRIMES model. Considering that
the MAED/ENPEP model does not reflect the energy assumptions reality and that the model
results are different than the actual values, it would be more realistic to use European
Commission’s PRIMES model.
Figure 5: Sektoral and General Emission Forecasts* for the 1990-2009 Period, According to
5.13%EmissionIncrease (Mt CO2e)
500.0
450.0
400.0
350.0
300.0
250.0
200.0
2020
2018
2016
2014
2012
2010
2008
2006
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
1994
1992
1990
150.0
Source: TUİK (2011) National Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory Report data have been
consolidated by the authors. *: Emission values exclude Lulucf.
The increase in greenhouse gas is slower in 2000-2009 when compared to the 1990-2000
period. In 2000-2009 period, greenhouse gasincrease rate was 24,45%, while annual increase
rate was 2,71%’dir. If we were to estimate 2020 emissions based on annual increase rates of
2,71%, we reach the findings given in Table 7.3. As Table 5 indicates, 2009 emission rate was
369,7 Mt CO2e, and by using the 2000-2009 period’s 2.71% increase scenario, this emission
value would reach 458,4 Mt CO2e by 2020.
Table 5: Carbon Emissions (Mt CO2e)* of Sectors per Year
AG CO PG RP EL
177
CE
PA
IS
TR
OE
Toplam
2000 25,4 57,1 6,2 5,5 75,0
21,3 20,5 11,9 36,3 37,7 297,0
2001 26,1 58,7 6,4 5,7 77,0
21,9 21,0 12,3 37,3 38,7 305,1
2002 26,8 60,2 6,6 5,8 79,1
22,4 21,6 12,6 38,3 39,7 313,2
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
2003 27,5 61,8 6,7 6,0 81,1
23,0 22,1 12,9 39,3 40,8 321,2
2004 28,2 63,3 6,9 6,1 83,1
23,6 22,7 13,2 40,3 41,8 329,3
2005 28,9 64,9 7,1 6,3 85,2
24,2 23,2 13,6 41,3 42,8 337,4
2006 29,6 66,4 7,2 6,4 87,2
24,8 23,8 13,9 42,3 43,8 345,4
2007 30,3 68,0 7,4 6,6 89,2
25,3 24,4 14,2 43,3 44,9 353,5
2008 31,0 69,5 7,6 6,7 91,3
25,9 24,9 14,5 44,2 45,9 361,6
2009 31,7 71,1 7,8 6,9 93,3
26,5 25,5 14,9 45,2 46,9 369,7
2010 32,4 72,6 7,9 7,0 95,4
27,1 26,0 15,2 46,2 47,9 377,7
2011 33,0 74,2 8,1 7,1 97,4
27,7 26,6 15,5 47,2 49,0 385,8
2012 33,7 75,7 8,3 7,3 99,4
28,2 27,1 15,8 48,2 50,0 393,9
2013 34,4 77,3 8,4 7,4 101,5 28,8 27,7 16,2 49,2 51,0 401,9
2014 35,1 78,8 8,6 7,6 103,5 29,4 28,2 16,5 50,2 52,0 410,0
2015 35,8 80,4 8,8 7,7 105,5 30,0 28,8 16,8 51,2 53,1 418,1
2016 36,5 82,0 8,9 7,9 107,6 30,5 29,4 17,1 52,2 54,1 426,2
2017 37,2 83,5 9,1 8,0 109,6 31,1 29,9 17,5 53,1 55,1 434,2
2018 37,9 85,1 9,3 8,2 111,7 31,7 30,5 17,8 54,1 56,1 442,3
2019 38,6 86,6 9,4 8,3 113,7 32,3 31,0 18,1 55,1 57,2 450,4
2020 39,3 88,2 9,6 8,5 115,7 32,9 31,6 18,4 56,1 58,2 458,4
Source: TUİK (2011) From the National Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory Report data,
sectoral emissions have been calculated by the authors, and simulation has been applied.*:
Emission values exclude Lulucf.
Figure 6: Emission Forecasts for the 1990-2009 Period According to 5.13% EmissionIncrease
* (Mt CO2e)
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500.0
450.0
400.0
350.0
300.0
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
250.0
Source: TUİK (2011) NationalGreenhouse Gas EmissionInventory Report data have been
consolidated by the authors. *: Emission values exclude Lulucf.
6. Carbon Emission Projections
In this part of the study, greenhouse gasemission projections would be made by
mathematical models. By using the 1990-2009 period greenhouse gas amounts published by
TUİK, linear, parabolic, cubic andexponential forecasts have been made and given in Table6.
It is clearly seen that different methods produce different emissionvalues.
Table 6: Greenhouse GasEmission Projections (Mt CO2e)*
Carbon Emission Projections
Year
Linear Model
Parabolic Model
Exponential Model
2010
382,65
386,54
398,16
2011
392,32
397,30
412,38
2012
401,98
408,17
427,11
2013
411,64
419,14
442,37
2014
421,31
430,20
458,17
2015
430,97
441,37
474,54
2016
440,63
452,64
491,49
2017
450,29
464,00
509,05
2018
459,96
475,47
527,24
2019
469,62
487,04
546,07
2020
479,28
498,71
565,58
2021
488,95
510,48
585,78
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2022
498,61
522,34
606,71
2023
508,27
534,31
628,38
2024
517,94
546,38
650,83
2025
527,60
558,55
674,08
2026
537,26
570,82
698,16
2027
546,93
583,19
723,10
2028
556,59
595,66
748,93
2029
566,25
608,23
775,69
2030
575,92
620,90
803,40
Estimating Equations:
LinearEstimating Equation: y = 9,6632x + 179,73
R² = 0,96
ParabolicEstimating Equation: y = 0,0501x2 + 8,612x + 183,59
R² = 0,96
CubicEstimating Equation: y = 0,0238x3 - 0,6996x2 + 15,064x +
170,94
R² = 0,96
ExponentialEstimating Equation: y = 190,52e0,0351x
R² = 0,96
Not:Mathematica and Excel Programs have been used for the estimations made by 1990-2009
data.
*: Emission values exclude Lulucf.
As Table 6 indicates, according to the results reached by the help of linearequation; Turkey’s
greenhouse gas emission would be 430MtCO2e in 2015, 479 MtCO2e in 2020 and575
MtCO2e in2030. According to the results reached by the help of parabolicequation;
Turkey’sgreenhouse gasemission would be 441MtCO2e in 2015, 498 MtCO2e in 2020
and620 MtCO2e in 2030. And according to the findings reached by the help of exponential
equation; Turkey’sgreenhouse gasemission would be474MtCO2e in 2020, 565MtCO2e in
2015 and 803 MtCO2e in 2030.
The acquired findings are much less than the 604 Mt CO2e value forecast by the Ministry of
Environment and Forestry (Ministry of Forestry and Hydraulic Works) by using the
MAED/ENPEP model, however, they are in accordance with the 421 Mt CO2e value,
foreseen by the European Commission using PRIMES model. Considering that the
MAED/ENPEP model does not reflect the energy assumptions reality and that the model
results are different than the actual values, it would be more realistic to use European
Commission’s PRIMES model.
7. Result and Discussion
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There is no emission reduction commitment for the first Kyoto period covering the
1998-2012 period for Turkey, who is on the full membership process for European Union.
However, Turkey is expected to be committed for the Post-Kyoto period covering post-2012.
Considering that emission reductions would have economic costs, anticipation of emission
trend, the level of commitment and choosing the best policy for emission reduction would be
highly important for the decision makers.
In our study, the anticipated emission trend for Turkeyhas been given by the help of
different mathematical models. According to the findings reached by the help of linear
equation; Turkey’sgreenhouse gasemission would be, 430MtCO2e in 2015, 479 MtCO2e in
2020 and 575 MtCO2e in 2030. This result is in line with the 421 Mt CO2e value for 2020,
forecasted by the European Commission using the PRIMES model. Even though different
methods produce different results, it is thought that the results acquired by the linear equation
are more consistent.
REFERENCES
Church, J. A., and N. J. White, (2006) “A 20th Century Acceleration in Global Sea-Level Rise”.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L01602, doi: 10.1029/2005GL024826.
EEA (2006) “Environmental Statement”, European Environment Agency Report No 8/2006,
Copenhagen, Denmark.
EEA (2007) “Greenhouse Gas Emission Trends and Projections in Europe 2007” European
Environment Agency Report, October 2007, Denmark, (Forthcoming)
EEA (2011) “Greenhause Gas Emission Trends and Projections in Europe 2011: The Fourth Report”,
European Environment Agency, Report Nu: 4, 2011.
Holgate, S. J., and P. L. Woodworth, (2004) Evidence for enhanced coastal sea level rise during the
1990s. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L07305, doi:10.1029/2004GL019626.
IPCC (2007) “Climate change 2007: Mitigation.”, Contribution of Working group III to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B. Metz, O. R. Davidson, P.
R. Bosch, R. Dave, L. A. Meyer (eds)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and
New York, NY, USA.
IPCC (2007a) “The Physical Science Basis”, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and NewYork.
IPCC (2007b) “Climate Change 2007: Mitigation”, Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change”, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and NewYork.
Keeling, C. D. ve Whorf, T. P. (2005) “Atmospheric CO2 concentration (ppmv) Derived From in Situ
Air Samples Collected at Mauna Loa Observatory”, Hawaii.
Leuliette, E. W., R. S. Nerem, and G. T. Mitchum, 2004: Calibration of TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason
Altimeter Data to Construct A Continuous Record of Mean Sea Level Change. Mar. Geodesy, 27(1–
2), 79–94
Madra, Ö. ve Şahin, Ü. (2007) “Küresel Isınma ve İklim Krizi”, İdil Yayıncılık, İstanbul, 2007.
Özçağ, M. (2011) “İnsan Kaynaklı İklim Değişikliği ve Ekonomik Büyüme Türkiye Üzerine Bir
Analiz”, Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bil. Ens. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Aydın, s.12.
www.tuik.gov.tr
http://www.licor.com/env/newsline/tag/keeling-curve/, Access: 13.03.201
181
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Title
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Forecasting Carbon Emission For Turkey: Time Series Analysis
Author
Author
Mehmet , Mercan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Within the context of sustainable development objectives, reducing greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) that cause climate change was first discussed and officially negotiated at the 1992 Rio Conference, which particularly emphasised developed countries to take serious measures. Then, it was followed by the Kyoto Protocol, which specified national ghg emission reduction targets for developed countries. With Kyoto Protocol, it was decided for these countries to reduce global emissions by 5% below 1990 levels compared to 2008-2012 emission levels. Turkey became a party to the Kyoto Protocol in 2009, yet due to their special circumstances they did not take any emission reduction commitments.. Negotiations on Post-2012 emission reduction obligations are still in progress under the UNFCCC umbrella and it is expected to have emission reduction targets not only by developed countries but also by developing ones. In this regard, it is important for Turkey to estimate its future ghg emissions, if they have to take a Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA) for their strategy. There are various ghg emission estimations for 2020 and the results indicate different emission levels.Objective of this study is to estimate ghg emission levels for Turkey for 2020 and afterwards by using time series and regression analysis. Then, appropriate policy implications are discussed with the result of these findings. Keywords : Carbon Emissions, Time Series Analysis, climate change policy,emission projections
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/998eec87b9ec4c1310385f628f491150.pdf
88863acfccea4aba8d51f8fe1ec5c6de
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
“From Transition to Transformation: Sustainable and Inclusive Development in Europe and
Central Asia”, report, 2011
Web:
http://www.mckinsey.com/Features/Resource_revolution
http://www.clickgreen.org.uk/research/trends/123462-biodiversity-loss-is-as-damaging-asclimate-change-and-pollution.html
http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp_598a.pdf
http://www.ipcc.ch/news_and_events/docs/srex/SREX_slide_deck.pdf
http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/publications/oes/RIO_20_Web_Interactif.pdf
www.undp.org.me
www.mek.gov.me
www.energetska-efikasnost.me
Situation Of The Dikili Gulf Fishes For Sustainable Fisheries
Mehmet İkiz1, Hatice Koç Torcu 2, Fatih Güleç1
1- Ege Üniversitesi, Su Ürünleri Fakültesi, 35080 İzmir
2- Balikesir University, Faculty of Science and Arts, Balikesir-Turkey
E-mails: mikiz@mynet.com, htorcukoc@hotmail.com, mc305@live.com
Abstract
Conservation fish stocks in the aquatic ecosystem is important for sustainable fish production.
Continuation of the fish species generations in a habitat is affected by environmental
conditions and hunting pressure. For the sustainability of the reproductive abilities of fishes, it
is essential to know interactions with the the other species that live in habitat. In this way the
production models, that encourage the fish to grow in its natural habitat, can be developed. In
this study, the fish species that live in Dikili Bay of Izmir City and their economic features
were investigated. Fish species that live in Dikili Bay were examined systematically and
biologically; also identification keys of the species were formed. Morphometric and meristic
characters of obtained species were identified. In the examination, 70 species belonging to 39
families were identified. 9 species of these belong to chondrichythyes and 61 to osteichtyes.
31 of these species are economically important species and are hunted. 2 of them (Sea bream
and sea bass) are farmed in Turkey, also. As a result of inadequate protection measures and
mindless hunting, it was observed 31 economically important and identified species, that live
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in the Dikili bay, began to extinction day by day. Due to the sea bottom is sandy, it provides
appropriate conditions to trawl fishing. By hunting with this method leads to deterioration of
marine ecosystems. Unlike the other surface fishnets, the trawling disrupts the fish shelters
and nests and makes them irreversible. In this context, placement of an artificial fish shelters,
both will form habitat for fish and with this way trawling can be prevented partially. In
addition, to protect the natural balances of the economically important fish species, stock
enhancement programs, that used for terrestrial water resources, are able to apply for local
marine fish species. By the stock enhancement programs, the natural fish stocks will increase
and the sustainable fisheries will be provided in the natural environment.
Keywords: Dikili Bay, Sustainable Fisheries, fish stocks, stock enhancement, trawling.
1.INTRODUCTION
People used to use seas for two aims; fishing and trade since first ages. It is accepted by
everyone that seas contain a lot of biological sources which can be effective in all kinds of
lives of increasing world population. That's why the countries which have coasts to these seas
and their scientists have begun working on getting to know, introducing and saving those seas
which can be life savers and the biological sources in them, intensively. (Geldiay & Kocatas,
2005)
Nowadays food and nutrition are the two main problems of people of the fast growing world
population. All studies and technologies are centered (intensified) on producing healthy food
sources and saving natural food sources. Especailly today, instead of breeding special kinds
(species), saving and retaining genetic variety in natural sources have special importance
besides aquacultural studies. The increase of endemic kind population which is important
especially in terms of biological variety and making them profitable financially have great
importance. On our unstabil earth, studies the continuity of the kinds (species) in natural
stocks (reserves) which have genetic composition with high variable adaptation ability will
provide a basis for the future studies.
At the same time, saving biological variety will provide a basis in gaining alternative kinds of
fish to the economy of our country in addition to existing cultivation.
Fish pricing with a wide inference (meaning), is improving (cultivating) the existing natural
source by artificial interference to the echosystem from outside. Commercially, fish pricing is
described (named) as increasing stocks of all kinds of water sources (like; river, lake, fishery,
dam, etc). Today escpecially in fishing, an important amount of product is gained from fish
pricing as a third way besides other two which are hunting and breeding from the natural
sources (Sezgin, 2006)
Sea pollution and the demand for water products have caused an excessive decrease of fish
stocks to meet the increase of pretein need with the growth of world population potential, and
biological variety in natural stocks has also been affected negatively.
In this study, the variety of fish, their place in systematic and biological features in Dikili Bay
are examined (searched) and the assingment key has been formed (created).
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2.Materials and methods
Providing material (obtaining material)
The research has been carried out in about 12-month period, in Dikili Bay from August 2001
to September 2002. Collecting samples involved 15-day periods or monthly periods according
to the weather conditions.
Material has been provided by communicating (contacting) with trawl net and haul seine
boats which come to the fishing ports in the towns in Dikili, Izmir and the hunters hunting for
sports. Deep trawl net has been used for fishing demersal fish.
The depth of fishing places have been detected with sonar and echo-sounder devices. 28 meter
long, 820-HP-motor, 22 mm aperture size and 800 mesh, deep trawl, Reis Boat, which has
been registered to Trabzon Harbour and tied to Dikili was used.
2.1.Evaluating the samples
Collected samples have been washed immediately and got through %70 alcohol or %4
formaldeyde solution. The ones taken out from the sea have been recorded and photographed
before the process because of the colour corruption of the types (kinds) put in alcohol and
formaldeyde. In the recognition of the samples in the studies morfometric and meristic
characters have been used. For measuring the types' morphometric characters 0.5 mm
sensitivity vernier has been used. For detecting meristic characters binocular has been used.
As metric characters; total length (TL), body height (BH), Head length (HL), eye diameter
(ED), in addition to those for the fish which has disc shaped body with cartilage, disc width
(DW), and disc length (DL) have been measured. As disc width, the distance between the tips
of pectoral fins, and as disc length, the distance between the tips of muzo and pectoral fins are
measured. As meristic characters dorsal, anal, ventral and pectoral fin beams, dorsal and anal
pinules, pilork cheka, gill spines, lateral line, and lateral cycle (serial) scales have been
counted according to the types (kinds). Simple (spine) beams have been indicated (shown) in
Roman numerals, soft (branched) beams have been indicatged (shown) in normal numerals.
For the ones that have 5 or more samples body ratio is measured about %95.
Determining the morphologic characters Whitehead and ark.(1984-86) have been used.
In the research mostly the fish type which has been taken out with deep trawl exist. In
systematic order of the types from Dikili Bay GOLANI (1996) and for naming those types
Whitehead, ark.(1984-86), Fischer and ark.(1987), Wheeler (1992) have been based on.
2.2.Land Information
This study has taken place in the inner part of the line which connects Adatepe Cape and
Madra Stream which are between 39 10' 00'' N-30 02' 30'' N latitude and 26 46' 00'' E-26 48'
48'' E.
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Dikili Bay is surrounded by Candarli Bay in south, Midilli Island in west and Edremit Bay in
north. It has a sandy ground. There is pebble and sand in the shallow parts and mud in the
deep. There are limnetic exists undersea. The study area is under the effect of coastal and
deep impure, local drifts, waves, topography of land, sea morphology and the materials that
rivers carry to the sea. (Eryilmaz & Eryilmaz, 2007)
According to the morpholigical features Eagean Sea is divided into three different regions;
Northern part, Middle Part and Southern Part. The average depth of Northern Part is about
120-200m. (Tokac, et al. 2010)
2.3.Features of water
It has been observed that the heat of the water mass in Eastern Eagean sea is 9-26 degrees and
the amount of oxygen is 4-10 ml/l. (Artüz, 1970; Benli and Kucuksezgin, 1988; Ergin and
others, 1933a)
Bay is affected by the cold surface water coming from the Dardanelles and Marmara which
belongs Black Sea originally. 6-7 degrees difference exists between Norhtern Eagean and
Southern Eagean in winter. In summer there is no notable difference. The heat of the surface
water is 14-15 degrees under 200 m whereas it is variable (chageable). (Culha, 1994)
Saltiness is affected by Black Sea flows, it is less common than other regions of Eagean Sea.
(‰ 33) (Culha, 1994)
In accordance with nutritious salts it is seen that Northern Eagean is richer Black Sea and
Marmara. If we study the the vertical distribution of the nutritious salts, we see that the
concentration up to 200 m is low whereas in deeper parts which is more than 200 m, the
values of nitrate, phosphate and silicate increase. (Frilligos, 1981)
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3. Discussion and result
In this study (research) the types of fish in Dikili Bay have been observed in the basis of bio
variability. In our country in 2003 463.074 tons of fish from the seas and 44.698 tons fish
from inland water were caught. In same year 79.943 tons of fish were bred. Breeding fish in
seas and inland waters has shown an increasing tendency until 2000 whereas has shown a
decreasing tendency in following years. The amount of fish bred by hunting has shown
fluctuation according to the years. Turkey imports noncultivated fish and exports cultivated
fish, mollusuc and shelled. The %70-80 of export ıs to EU countries like France, Germany
and Belgium and Japan is the second. In recent years the export to China has been increasing.
But first we should take caution to prevent environmental pollution and lessening the fish
stocks to take the potential of sea and inland water into consideration. Besides these, it is
necessary to introduce and encourage the methods (ways) of fish breeding in inlands and
reservoirs, developing economical fish types, to adapt the non-existing economic types in a
way which they won't harm fauna. (Karakas & Turkoglu, 2005)
In the study in Bay the place of existing types has been appointed (signified) in systematic,
they have been observed biologically and the key of significance. In the study mostly the
types of fish which hunted by using deep trawl (deep troll) has been given place and totally
70 types of fish which belong to 47 class (breed) in 38 families have been assigned. 9 types of
those belong to the type of fish which are chondrinus and other 61 are bony.
According to the data of Dikili fishing association, the target types of fish which are assigned
as economical by the fishermen in Dikili are; sardine (Sardina pilchardus), atlantic bonito (or
skipjack tuna) (sarda sarda), red mullet (mullus barbatus), striped red mullet (mullus
surmuletus), pickerel (spicara smaris), bogue (boops boops), horse mackerel (trachurus
brachurus) and bluefish (pomatomus saltatrix) (Tokac, et al., 2010). Only atlantic bonito (or
skipjack tuna) (sarda sarda) hasn't been seen in this study.
Hunted types are demersal ones which pelagic and economical commonly hunted ones are
mainly sardine (Sardina pilchardus) and others are; Gilt-head bream (sparus aurata), red sea
bream (pagellus erythrinus), red mullet (mullus barbatus), striped red mullet (mullus
surmuletus), chub (mugil spp.), pickerel (spicara smaris), bogue (boops boops), horse
mackerel (trachurus brachurus) (Hossucu, et al., 2001)
With the suitable ones which will be chosen in Dikili Bay natural stock can be enriched.
It has been observed that the methods that applied up to now for restocking programmes are
mostly for the types which immigrate locally for short terms especially commercial types
related to benthic and demersal and half benthic environments successfully. It has been said
that for assigning the hunting strategies immigration in the enriching stock programmes is one
of the essential factors (Salvanes, 2001).
In fishing projects immigration is important for the chance of hunting again by the fishermen.
The Turbot (Psetta maxima) have been chosen for stock enriching programmes and
experimental studies in North Atlantic coastal region, Spain and Denmark and also in Turkey
Black Sea region (Bergstad and Folkvord, 1997), (Zengin vd, 2005).
Other important thing in the study of fishing is the chosen material and local place. The result
of taking the exotic and unfamiliar types to the natural environment afterwards and their
interaction and possible problems which may arise, can give harm to the balance of
ecosystem. For Turkey the most common example is the negative effect of population of
zander (pike-perch) (Stizostedion luciopreca) which was stocked in Egridir Lake, on other
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fish fauna and this has caused the lessening of local fish fauna in lake ecosystem for long
years (Anonim, 1991)
That's why for hunting in those areas should be banned during the season or should be limited
until it reaches to its minimum level. In addition to that minimum hunting level should be
processed in accordance with bio-economic value in hunting period. If necessary in this area
artificial reef should be built. On the other hand in fishing, the fishermen who help
(contribute) this project, can be given the right to fish and for the control of this a legal and
administrational regulation should be planned. In this area the most improved (developed)
model is Japan’s (Blankenship and Leber, 1995; Sato, 2001).
Since there is no study on the subject in Dikili, in which our studies take place, the
morphometric and meristic characters of the types haven't been compared.
REFERENCES
Çulha, M., 1994. Ege Denizinde Kültüre Alınabilecek Alternatif Balık Türleri. İzmir: Dokuz
Eylül Üniversitesi Deniz Bilimleri ve Teknolojisi Deniz Bilimleri Anabilim Dalı.
Eryılmaz, M. & Eryılmaz, F. Y., 2007. Dikili Kanalı-Çandarlı Körfezi-Midilli Adası Arasının
(Ege Denizi) Güncel Çökel Dağılım Haritası. Ankara, 60. Türkiye Jeoloji Kurultayı.
Friligos, N., 1981. Seasonal Variation of Nutrient Salts(N,P,Si), Dissolved Oxygen and
Chlorophyll-a in Thermaikos Gulf. Jugoslavia: s.n.
Tokaç, A. et al., 2010. Ege Denizi Balıkçılığı. 1. Baskı dü. İzmir: IMEAK Deniz Ticaret
Odası İzmir Şubesi Yayınları.
Geldiay, R. & Kocataş, A., 2005. Deniz Biyolojisine Giriş. İzmir: Ege Üniversitesi Basımevi.
Sezgin, M., 2006. Balıklandırmanın Genel Kriterleri Ve Dünyada Ve Ülkemizdeki Stoklama
Deneyimleri. Antalya, Akdeniz Su Ürünleri Araştırma Üretim ve Eğitim Enstitüsü Yayınları.
Hoşsucu, H. et al., 2001. Balıkçılık Sektörünün İzmir İli İçindeki İşleyişi ve Güncel Sorunları.
E.Ü. Su Ürünleri Dergisi, 18(3-4), pp. 437-444.
Karakaş, H. & Türkoğlu, H., 2005. Su Ürünlerinin Dünyada ve Türkiye' deki Durumu. Harran
Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(3), pp. 21-28.
Tokaç, A. et al., 2010. Ege Denizi Balıkçılığı. 1. Baskı dü. İzmir: IMEAK Deniz Ticaret
Odası İzmir Şubesi Yayınları.
Usage Of Clove Oil In Aquarium Fish (Pangasius Pangasius Hamilton, 1822)
152
�
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Extent
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1239
Title
A name given to the resource
Situation Of The Dikili Gulf Fishes For Sustainable Fisheries
Author
Author
Mehmet, İkiz
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Conservation fish stocks in the aquatic ecosystem is important for sustainable fish production. Continuation of the fish species generations in a habitat is affected by environmental conditions and hunting pressure. For the sustainability of the reproductive abilities of fishes, it is essential to know interactions with the the other species that live in habitat. In this way the production models, that encourage the fish to grow in its natural habitat, can be developed. In this study, the fish species that live in Dikili Bay of Izmir City and their economic features were investigated. Fish species that live in Dikili Bay were examined systematically and biologically; also identification keys of the species were formed. Morphometric and meristic characters of obtained species were identified. In the examination, 70 species belonging to 39 families were identified. 9 species of these belong to chondrichythyes and 61 to osteichtyes. 31 of these species are economically important species and are hunted. 2 of them (Sea bream and sea bass) are farmed in Turkey, also. As a result of inadequate protection measures and mindless hunting, it was observed 31 economically important and identified species, that live in the Dikili bay, began to extinction day by day. Due to the sea bottom is sandy, it provides appropriate conditions to trawl fishing. By hunting with this method leads to deterioration of marine ecosystems. Unlike the other surface fishnets, the trawling disrupts the fish shelters and nests and makes them irreversible. In this context, placement of an artificial fish shelters, both will form habitat for fish and with this way trawling can be prevented partially. In addition, to protect the natural balances of the economically important fish species, stock enhancement programs, that used for terrestrial water resources, are able to apply for local marine fish species. By the stock enhancement programs, the natural fish stocks will increase and the sustainable fisheries will be provided in the natural environment. Keywords: Dikili Bay, Sustainable Fisheries, fish stocks, stock enhancement, trawling.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9edeeaf430df68abae993679141b43df.pdf
15bb98e5a755a17e23f5656aff2fa2e1
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Erkoyuncu, I., (1995). Fisheries biology and population dynamics. Ondokuz Mayıs
University, Faculty of Fisheries, Sinop, Turkey, pp. 265 (in Turkish).
Froese, R. (2006). Cubelaw, condition factor and weight-length relationships: history, metaanalysis and recommendations. J.Appl.Ichthyol. 22, 241-253.
Gonçalves, J.M.S., Bentes, L., Lino, P.G., Ribeiro, J., & Canaroo, A.V.M., (1997). Weightlength relationships for selected fish species of the small-scale demersal fisheries of the south
and south and southwest coast of Portugal. Fish. Res., 30(3), 253-256.
Koutrakis, E.T., & Tsikliras, A.C., (2003). Length-weight relationships of fishes from three
northern Aegean estuarine systems (Greece). J. Appl. Ichthyol. 19, 258-260.
Lalèyè, P.A., (2006). Length-weight and length-length relationships of fshes from the Ouémé
River in Bénin(West Africa). J. Appl. Ichthyol. 22, 330-333.
Moutopoulos, D.K., & Stergiou, K.I., (2002). Length-weight and length-length relationships
of fish species of the Aegean Sea (Greece). J. Appl. Ichthyol. 18(3), 200-203.
Pauly, D., (1993). Fishbyte section editorial. Naga, the ICLARM Quarterly, 16, pp. 26.
Petrakis, G., & Stergiou, K.I., (1995). Weight-length relationships for 33 fish species in Greek
waters. Fish. Res. 21, 465-469.
Wootton, R.J., (1990) Ecology of teleost fishes. Chapman and Hall, London.
Could government legalize illegal settlement by improving their energy efficiency?
Janjusevic Jelena, Begovic Radojevic Milica,
UNDP, Podgorica; Montenegro
Abstract
In recent months we are faced with serious budget problems in Montenegro, the solution of
which, among other things is seen in reducing the number of employees in state
administration. On the other hand, the costs of living are significantly above the disposable
budget of households. Particular problem is the high cost of electricity, which recently
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resulted in the street protests of discontented citizens. On one hand we have a government that
alerts the lack of electricity, and on the other hand we have citizens that may hardly cover
these costs. In addition, Montenegro is dealing with a double-challenge of inefficient space
use (country features over 100,000 illegal homes, if distributed evenly implying that every
other family lives in an illegal home) and inefficient energy use (Montenegro needs on
average 8.5 times more energy per unit produced than an average EU country).
1.How to solve a problem and please both sides? Is that feasible at all?
UNDP office in Montenegro came up with the idea to link solving the big problems in
Montenegro, such as the problem of illegal construction, with increasing the level of energy
efficiency in households, businesses and other facilities. Namely, UNDP proposes an
integrated policy solution to the double-challenge in providing energy efficiency measures to
incentivize households to legalize their homes. The idea and research that was recently
conducted show how the legalization of illegal buildings by the introduction of mandatory
energy efficiency measures in them, may at the same time result in the increase of revenue to
the central and local budgets, reduction of negative impact on the environment, increase of
employment, engagement of the economy, reduction of electricity consumption and thereby to
reduce the need to import electricity, and ultimately to contribute to the welfare of the
population.
Our research (energy audits) conducted on 30 illegal houses in three pilot municipalities
showed that significant savings in energy consumption could be realized (up to 60%). Based
on these results, we propose an approach to formalizing informal settlements in Montenegro
through implementing an energy efficiency incentive system for the households. The scheme
is broken down into 2 steps: (1) a household receives a loan to improve energy efficiency. On
average for a 100m2 household, €3,800 loan (with 4.5% interest rate) results in 59% of
energy savings or €630 per year at the current energy prices; (2) a household enters into a
contractual agreement with the Government/municipality to use the savings from energy
efficiency to pay off the low-interest loan it received for the retrofit and the formalization
cost.
The benefit for the household is dual- a title to the house and improved energy
efficiency/resulting financial savings. The benefit for the municipality/Government is the
steady supply of funding for the property tax. The benefit for the private sector is the increase
in demand for retrofits and upgrading of the infrastructure that services informal settlements.
Keywords: energy efficiency, sustainable development, illegal construction, energy audits,
retrofitting
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2.INTRODUCTION
The world is experiencing three inter-related crises at the moment. One regards the rising
trend of resource prices. The resource price index in the 20th century fell by 50% even
though the population quadrupled, economic output rose 4 times, and demand for fossil fuels
and water increased by 16 and 9 percent respectively. The first decade of 21st century
reversed this trend, and relative to the beginning of 20th century in 2010 the index rose by
147%1. This is a result of a combination of factors: rising demand and population, decreasing
sources of supply, volatility of supply (most fossil fuel deposits are located in conflict prone
locations such as Iran, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela). If we continue on this path, by 2050 we
would need three times more resources and this is simply no longer an option, which brings us
to the second crises.
This crisis regards the rising inequality globally within countries. During the last several
decades, millions of people around the world have been lifted out of poverty. In Central and
Eastern Europe, some 90 million people or 18% of its population moved out of poverty since
1999. Despite this, 30% of the region’s population is still considered poor or vulnerable, with
the number rising by 5 million for each 1% of decline in GDP2. The recent ILO report echoes
this in noting that the ‘society is becoming increasingly anxious about the lack of decent jobs.
The findings show that Social Unrest Index in 2011 rose in 57 out of 106 countries, as more
people were pushed out of labor market, predominantly impacting youth and women. So
what does this mean for societies across the world? The recent research shows that more
unequal societies feature far more social problems including high rates of suicide, obesity,
teenage pregnancy, imprisonment, and low levels of literacy, trust, life expectancy3. In short,
the economic growth does not yield human development returns in those high developed
countries that features high levels of inequality and that subsequently invest the bulk of their
public resources into prisons, policy, and defence and health services to deal with the growing
amount of social problems.
Finally and linked with the other two crises, the world is at a tipping point in regard to the loss
of vital ecosystem services and extreme events- both connected to the changing climate.
Some 60% of ecosystem services that underpin our economies and life on earth have been
degraded, some beyond the point of return. Recently published research in the Journal of
Nature that for the first time compared effects of biodiversity loss to other human-caused
environmental changes analyzed 12 peer-reviewed articles and concluded that reduced
biodiversity affects ecosystems at levels comparable to those of pollution and global
1 McKinsey’s ‘Resource Revolution’ The report last accessed on May 4th 2012.
http://www.mckinsey.com/Features/Resource_revolution
2 This World Bank study quoted in ‘The Economic and Financial Crisis in CEE and CIS: Gender
Perspectives and Policy Choices’ last accessed on May 4th 2012 at:
http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp_598a.pdf
3 Richard Wilkinson, Kate Pickett ‘The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Society Almost Always Do Better’
Allen Lane, 2009
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warming4. In layman terms, this means that environment’s ability to provide clean water,
food and stable climate is seriously undermining the quality of life and human development
globally. In terms of disasters, in November last year IPCC published first scientific proof
that the changing climate results in an increase in frequency and intensity of extreme weather
events5. Our region experienced some $70 billion disaster-related losses during the last two
decades6.
The three crises are related, mutually reinforcing one another and creating a vicious cycle that
impacts all segments of sustainable human development- economic competitiveness, social
inclusion and environment. Any viable solution must match the complexity of the crises,
addressing them in an integrated manner that will unleash economic growth and job creation,
while at the same time conserving the biodiversity and maintaining the balanced environment.
This paper will present one such integrated solution that aims to resolve the multi-dimensional
development challenge of informal housing (low economic empowerment, rising pressure on
environment, high exposure to extreme events, inefficient resource use, low quality of life). It
will demonstrate how UNDP plans to utilize main principles of green economy to provide
economic empowerment to the citizens in Montenegro.
3.What is a Green Economy?
UNEP defines a green economy as one that results in improved human well-being and social
equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities. In its
simplest expression, a green economy can be thought of as one which is low carbon, resource
efficient and socially inclusive. In a green economy, growth in income and employment
should be driven by public and private investments that reduce carbon emissions and
pollution, enhance energy and resource efficiency, and prevent the loss of biodiversity and
ecosystem services. These investments need to be catalyzed and supported by targeted public
expenditure, policy reforms and regulation changes.7
The development path should maintain, enhance and, where necessary, rebuild natural capital
as a critical economic asset and as a source of public benefits, especially for poor people
whose livelihoods and security depend on nature.
4 http://www.clickgreen.org.uk/research/trends/123462-biodiversity-loss-is-as-damaging-as-climatechange-and-pollution.html
5 The IPCC Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate
Change Adaptation, PDF presentation last accessed on May 4th 2012
http://www.ipcc.ch/news_and_events/docs/srex/SREX_slide_deck.pdf
6 From Transition to Transformation: Sustainable and Inclusive Development in Europe and Central
Asia, report last accessed on May 4th 2012 at
http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/publications/oes/RIO_20_Web_Interactif.pdf
7 UNEP, Towards a Green Economy, Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication,
2011
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It is very important to understand that the concept of a “green economy” does not replace
sustainable development. However, there is a growing recognition that achieving
sustainability rests almost entirely on getting the economy right.
Perhaps the most widespread myth is that there is an inescapable trade-off between
environmental sustainability and economic progress. There is now substantial evidence that
the “greening” of economies neither inhibits wealth creation nor employment opportunities,
and that there are many green sectors which show significant opportunities for investment and
related growth in wealth and jobs.
Also, many theorists and practitioners believe that green economy is a luxury only wealthy
countries can afford, or worse, a developed-world imposition to restrain development and
perpetuate poverty in developing countries. Contrary to this perception, there are numbered
examples of greening transitions taking place in various sectors in the developing world,
which deserve to be emulated and replicated elsewhere.
The last two years have seen the idea of a “green economy” float out of its specialist moorings
in environmental economics and into the mainstream of policy discourse. It is found
increasingly in the words of heads of state and finance ministers, in the text of G20
communiqués, and discussed in the context of sustainable development and poverty
eradication.
Over the last quarter of a century, the world economy has quadrupled, benefiting hundreds of
millions of people. In contrast, however, 60% of the world’s major ecosystem goods and
services that underpin livelihoods have been degraded or used unsustainably. Indeed, this is
because the economic growth of recent decades has been accomplished mainly through
drawing down natural resources, without allowing stocks to generate, and through allowing
widespread ecosystem degradation and loss.
Meanwhile, for the first time in history, more than half of the world population lives in urban
areas. Cities now account for 75% of energy consumption and 75% of carbon emissions.
Rising and related problems of congestion, pollution, and poorly provisioned services affect
the productivity and health of all, but fall particularly hard on the urban poor. With
approximately 50% of the global population now living in emerging economies that are
rapidly urbanizing and will experience rising income and purchasing power over the next
years – and a tremendous expansion in urban infrastructure – the need for smart city planning
is paramount.
4.Energy efficiency
People have always used energy to do work for them. Thousands of years ago, early humans
burned wood to provide light, heat their living spaces, and cook their food. Later, people used
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the wind to move their boats from place to place. A hundred years ago, people began using
falling water to make electricity.
Today, people use more energy than ever from a variety of sources for a multitude of tasks
and our lives are undoubtedly better for it. Our homes are comfortable and full of useful and
entertaining electrical devices. We communicate instantaneously in many ways. We live
longer, healthier lives. We travel the world, or at least see it on television and the internet.
In 1973, when Americans faced their first oil price shock, people didn’t know how the
country would react. How would Americans adjust to skyrocketing energy prices? How
would manufacturers and industries respond? We didn’t know the answers.
Now we know that Americans tend to use less energy when energy when energy prices are
high. We have the statistics to prove it. When energy prices increased sharply in the early
1970s, energy use dropped, creating a gap between actual energy use and how much the
experts had thought Americans would be using. The same thing happened when energy prices
shot up again in 1979, 1980, and 2008—people used less energy. When prices started to drop,
energy use began to increase.
In 2009, the United States used 27 percent more energy than it did in the 1970s. That might
sound like a lot, but the population increased by over 43 percent and the nation’s gross
domestic product (the total value of all the goods and services produced by a nation in one
year) was 2.6 times that of the 1970s.
If every person in the United States today consumed energy at the rate we did in the 1970s,
we would be using much more energy than we are - perhaps as much as double the amount.
Energy efficiency technologies have made a huge impact on overall consumption since the
energy crisis of 1973.
Mankind is facing one of the greatest challenges in its history: developing in order to “meet
the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their needs”8. Increasing demands for natural resources, weakening of ecosystems,
global warming and soaring population growth are just a few of the global issues confronting
us. Since the end of the 1960s there have been more and more global initiatives to reduce
social and ecological imbalances. The movement is now speeding up: those involved are
becoming aware of the role they can play within their sphere of influence and of the
interdependence between the various aspects of sustainable development.
Improving energy efficiency is mostly connected with buildings, both residential and
business, changes and the main challenge now is to design, build and renovate buildings to
8 Our Common Future, Brundtland Report, 1987
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reduce their environmental impact and create areas that are healthy and comfortable for the
occupants.
Throughout their life cycle, buildings consume natural resources, generate waste and emit
large amounts of CO2, contributing significantly to global warming. A large proportion of the
world's population, particularly in the developed countries, spends 90% of its time indoors
(source: OECD). In this context, questions of hygiene standards inside buildings and the
comfort of occupants are also central issues in the debate.
At building level, energy efficiency covers all the methods used to reduce the energy used for
a given service (heating, lighting, operating machines, etc.). Two types of energy efficiency
are generally taken into consideration:
Energy efficiency associated with the framework This corresponds to the structural properties
of the building that will reduce energy requirements (and in particular heating and lighting).
This category includes: optimized insulation, double glazing, treatment of heat bridges,
management of openings (doors and windows) and coverings (blinds and shutters).
Energy efficiency from high-performance equipment and as a result of the management of
this equipment. High-performance equipment is that providing the best efficiency.
Equipment management is used to adapt the level and duration of the provision of energy to
requirements. It corresponds to the installation of products and systems that will regulate and
automate energy consumption in the building in order to avoid unnecessary consumption.
Energy efficiency retrofits provide an opportunity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
generate economic activity, save billions in energy costs, and ensure the long-term viability of
affordable housing. However, there is insufficient data on how much energy these upgrades
actually save, and therefore little data on what the return on investment would be for lenders.
Without this data, it is very difficult to secure upfront capital investments in retrofits,
inhibiting this sector’s capacity to scale.
5.Montenegro and legalization problem
In the past decade, Montenegro has witnessed rapid urbanization fuelled by foreign direct
investment on the Adriatic coast and in mountain resorts. This growth, which has significantly
increased the GDP of the country for several years has, in parallel, caused negative effects
such as urban sprawl in previously natural landscapes along the coast and around the capital
Podgorica, resulting in large numbers of informally built constructions (that is without a
construction permit), both commercial and residential, that have very low energy efficiency
characteristics, resulting in an overall increase in CO2 emissions due to rising energy demand
in buildings. According to one estimate, there are approximately 100,000 such informal
constructions, though there are no clear statistics. Approximately 62% of the population of
Montenegro lives in urban areas and the quality of their life is under pressure from urban
development problems. Uncontrolled urbanization, especially in the central area (around
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Podgorica and other cities) and the coastal areas (seaside tourist development), is having
negative impacts, such as overcrowded settlements and inaccessibility to infrastructure.
Informal constructions in Montenegro generally fall under three broad categories:
A building constructed on a parcel of land that legally belongs to the owner. The owner
obtained the necessary ‘construction permit’ but did not secure the ‘use permit’ from the
municipal authorities, which is required by law to ensure that the housing unit was built
according to specifications approved in the ‘construction permit’. Owners are required to pay
specified municipal fees to obtain the ‘use permit’.
A building constructed on own land by the owner of the land, but without both the
‘construction permit’ and the ‘use permit’.
A building constructed on state or municipal land without the express consent of the owner
and without the necessary ‘construction or ‘use permit’.
Nearly all Montenegrin households (>99%) are connected to the electricity grid and metered.
Based on the latest available data, average monthly electricity consumption in Montenegro in
2001 was 367 kWh per household. This makes that average monthly bill for electricity per
household amounts cca 100 euro. According to the estimation of Ministry of Economy of
Montenegro 80% of the electricity in the household is used for the heating. Most homes are
heated through an electric radiator system, an electric thermal accumulator or an individual
heating system. Wood is one of the most popular heating sources in individual houses in
Montenegro, especially in the North, but almost absent in the South and in apartment
buildings.
Assuming that the 100,000 informal constructions have the same average energy consumption
profile as regular houses (a highly conservative assumption given their generally sub-standard
workmanship and hence low EE), the informal housing sector is estimated to account for over
one-quarter of Montenegro’s residential energy consumption and 7% of the country’s energybased GHG emissions. The irregular sector is also characterised by relatively high energy
poverty: systematic data are scarce but some observations suggest that up to 40% of people
living in the irregular housing sector do not have access to sufficient energy services to ensure
a healthy lifestyle for themselves and their families.
Buildings constructed without building permits in most cases have not been subject to the
process of verification of application of standards, neither in the course of design
development nor during performance of works, particularly from the aspect of seismic risk.
Existence of a large number of informal buildings, primarily residential facilities, highlights
the urgent need for organized approach to resolving the problem of regularization of such
buildings and verifying achieved level of their static and seismic protection.
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The Government of Montenegro has adopted a National Formalisation Program (NFP) and
Action Plan to regularize the vast stock of informal individual housing. The new
Regularization Law will mandate all owners of illegal houses to undergo mandatory building
registration process; it will impose penalties (up to building demolition) for those property
owners who fail to comply with the requirements. The Law and bylaws will also stipulate the
administrative procedures and financial costs associated with legalization.
6.UNDP approach to the legalization problem
National Formalization Program, will result in new policies, regulation and significant
investment to transform illegal housing stock into regularized and law-compliant buildings.
However, if implemented as designed, NFP will not bring in energy efficiency improvements
in individual houses, which are now characterized by poor thermal performance, high energy
use and offer major opportunities for cost-effective GHG emission reduction. In order to
address this problem, UNDP design the National Formalization Program in such manner that
it would incorporate mandatory requirements and financial support package for energy
efficiency improvements as outlined in the following section.
The formalisation of Montenegro’s large informal buildings sector represents a unique
opportunity to not only insert EE considerations into regulation of this building stock (for the
first time ever), but also to integrate informal neighbourhoods and settlements into municipal
governments’ spatial planning in order to address urban-system GHG mitigation opportunities
in a ‘joined up’ manner.
7.UNDP research in energy efficiency of the illegal houses
In the beginning of 2011 Ministry of Sustainable Development and Tourism of Montenegro
and UNDP agreed on join implementation of three new pilot projects which deal with
problem of transformation of informal settlements to formal. This is related to three
municipalities: Zabljak, Bijelo Polje and Bar.
Projects activities resulted in:
identifying alternative solutions for formalization of informal settlements
giving initial study on the energy efficiency characteristics of the informal building sector in
Montenegro and an assessment of the economic mitigation potential of the sector, with
particular focus on the Government’s Formalization Programme and how the Programme can
be harnessed to maximize mitigation outcomes – in terms of the buildings themselves and
also how they can be best integrated into broader urban planning.
proposing different economical scenarios for formalization process
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encouraging housing opportunity for people of low and moderate income by creative, flexible,
and innovative approach to resolving this issue
Purpose of the energy audits was to determine a baseline for consumption and potential
savings giving the most basic renovation/retrofit measures. Every energy audit consisted of
basic information about the existing object, its current use, dimensions, number of inhabitants,
heating periods during the day and the whole year, local climate characteristics etc. Data on
average yearly consumption of electricity and consumption of water was collected from
Public Utility Companies. This was provided with assistance of municipal officials9.
Figure 1: The appearance of used software
Energy audit team used the following measuring equipment during the inspection of the
buildings :Thermal Imager-3 Testo880 PROSet; Data loggers for measuring temperature and
humidity Testo 175 and Testo 635-2 Luksmetar.
9 Calculation of building energy performance was performed using: ENSI (Energy Savings
International AS) "ENSI EAB CG 8.1". The algorithm for calculation in the current version of the Key
Number software relies mainly on the EN ISO 13790:2004 standard. Economic calculation is done in
the "ENSI Profitability Software - Version 7.0".
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Figure 2: Results of thermal camera imaging (one of the audited buildings in Bijelo Polje)
After revision of all provided audits, a general conclusion regarding possibilities for EE
retrofitting in informal settlements is that, on average, with €3,800 investment in retrofits the
annual savings are €700 (payoff in less than 6 years), and this is in accordance with current
energy prices (€ 0.7/kWh as opposed to € 0.17 kWh which is average within liberalized
energy market in Europe).
More detailed average results are, as follows:
Average building (heated) area
Average electricity bill [€/god]
(for 2009/2010/2011)
Baseline
(kWh/m2 year)
Baseline
(kWh/year)
After EE retrofit measures
(kWh/m2year)
After EE retrofit measures
(kWh/year)
Calculated savings
(kWh/m2year)
Lowering of CO2 emission
(tons/year)
142
116.80
1240.32
468.81
52771.05
169.74
20122.85
303.49
0.82
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Assessment of the investment in EE retrofit
measures
4458.20
[€]
Net savings
[€/year]
Return on investment [year]
736.15
5.60
Savings in delivered energy / wooden logs
32945.80
(kWh/ year)
Savings in delivered energy / electrical energy
(kWh/ year)
574.65
The most cost effective and most often basic EE measures that have been suggested are:
appropriate isolation of external walls
replacement of windows/doors
isolation of roofs
EE audits also suggested implementation of additional measures, such as installation of
central heating, which will not significantly improve EE performance, but will in general raise
a living comfort for the inhabitants. These measures are relatively expensive, and with longer
return on investment, but they are also included in narrative part of audits, in order to be
considered by the owners as possibility for additional improvement of living conditions.
General conclusion is that energy efficiency measures can be used as a tool for encouraging
owners of the informal object to apply for legalization. Calculation showed that that each
household that apply for formalization will have almost the same cost as it pay regularly for
electricity today, but now this cost covers electricity bill, but also retrofitting and
formalization. This means that with the same amount of financial resources, they will have
legal object, energy efficient and safer house.
Energy efficiency measures can be used as a tool for encouraging owners of the informal
object to apply for legalization. The main idea is to increase number of applicants, and on the
other side to provide solution that would be in line with principles of sustainable development
and status of Montenegro as ecological state.
Below is explained one of possible the scenarios for formalization using energy efficiency
measures as incentive, for average residential building of 100m2.
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EE measure as incentives – calculation:
(Example – residential house of 100m2, with average monthly energy bill – 100 euros.)
Size of
Houshold
Cost
for Saving
energy
per
month (euro)
Formalization
(50e per m2)
100
90
5000 €
59%
cost Retrofitting
cost(interest
rate 4.5% on investment
3800eur)
5760
Scenario after retrofitting
(costs)
Electricity bill Monthly
Monthly
Total
(euro)
formalization
retrofit cost, 15
cost, 20 yr yr period
period
Monthly
36.9
20.9
32
89.9
The idea is to use possibility of getting soft loan with no or very low interest rate, with 20
years period for repayment that will be used for retrofitting the object. The main condition for
loan is IF household apply for formalization process.
This calculation shows that each household that apply for formalization will have almost the
same cost as it pays regularly for electricity today, but now this cost covers electricity bill,
but also retrofitting and formalization. This means that with same amount of financial
resources, they will have legal object, energy efficient and safer house.
Revenue from formalization to government
Monthly
Yearly
After 20 years
2,083,333.33€
25,000,000€
500,000,000€
Through identifying alternative solutions for formalization of informal settlements and
integration of sustainable development principles into planning process, this project will
contribute to establishment of the link between economic growth, poverty reduction and
environmental sustainability.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
8. CONCLUSION
The paper demonstrates potentials for using energy efficiency as an incentive for
formalization of illegal households. Building on the wealth of research on decision making
and behavioral economics, the solution features a revenue-neutral option that addresses dual
challenges from the consumers’ perspectives (households: inefficient use of energy and illegal
house) and dual challenge from the providers’ perspective (Government: low real estate tax
collection and low investment in infrastructure).
This solution has never been tested before. It will require a multidimensional approach to
systemic level change (new regulation and policy development), institutional level change
(establishing novel links between the municipal and national level, designing novel processes
for financial management) and individual level (capacity building, behavioral change). On
the positive note, regardless of its success, this proposal is likely to yield important lessons on
the potential for manipulating incentives for green economy.
Implications for future research include consideration of incentives related to clean energy
production (e.g. solar and wind power) and sustainable urban development (e.g.
municipality’s capacity to manage incoming funding for a greener and sustainable
urbanization).
LITERATURE
„More Urban—Less Poor, Fighting poverty in an urban world“, Göran Tannerfeldt and Per
Ljung, August 2006
„Trade and Development Report, UNCTAD, 2011,
“Trends and Progress in Housing reforms in South Eastern Europe, Sasha Tsenkova, CEB,
October 2005
„Towards a Green Economy, Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty
Eradication“, UNEP, 2011
“Energy Efficiency: Engine of Economic Growth”, Jamie Howland & Derek Murrow, Lisa
Petraglia & Tyler Comings, Economic Development Research Group, Inc, October 2009
“Our Common Future”, Brundtland Report, 1987
“Why More Equal Society Almost Always do Better’ Richard Wilkinson, Kate Pickett ‘The
Spirit Level: Allen Lane, 2009
145
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
“From Transition to Transformation: Sustainable and Inclusive Development in Europe and
Central Asia”, report, 2011
Web:
http://www.mckinsey.com/Features/Resource_revolution
http://www.clickgreen.org.uk/research/trends/123462-biodiversity-loss-is-as-damaging-asclimate-change-and-pollution.html
http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp_598a.pdf
http://www.ipcc.ch/news_and_events/docs/srex/SREX_slide_deck.pdf
http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/publications/oes/RIO_20_Web_Interactif.pdf
www.undp.org.me
www.mek.gov.me
www.energetska-efikasnost.me
Situation Of The Dikili Gulf Fishes For Sustainable Fisheries
Mehmet İkiz1, Hatice Koç Torcu 2, Fatih Güleç1
1- Ege Üniversitesi, Su Ürünleri Fakültesi, 35080 İzmir
2- Balikesir University, Faculty of Science and Arts, Balikesir-Turkey
E-mails: mikiz@mynet.com, htorcukoc@hotmail.com, mc305@live.com
Abstract
Conservation fish stocks in the aquatic ecosystem is important for sustainable fish production.
Continuation of the fish species generations in a habitat is affected by environmental
conditions and hunting pressure. For the sustainability of the reproductive abilities of fishes, it
is essential to know interactions with the the other species that live in habitat. In this way the
production models, that encourage the fish to grow in its natural habitat, can be developed. In
this study, the fish species that live in Dikili Bay of Izmir City and their economic features
were investigated. Fish species that live in Dikili Bay were examined systematically and
biologically; also identification keys of the species were formed. Morphometric and meristic
characters of obtained species were identified. In the examination, 70 species belonging to 39
families were identified. 9 species of these belong to chondrichythyes and 61 to osteichtyes.
31 of these species are economically important species and are hunted. 2 of them (Sea bream
and sea bass) are farmed in Turkey, also. As a result of inadequate protection measures and
mindless hunting, it was observed 31 economically important and identified species, that live
146
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
1238
Title
A name given to the resource
Could government legalize illegal settlement by improving their energy efficiency?
Author
Author
Janjusevic, Jelena
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In recent months we are faced with serious budget problems in Montenegro, the solution of which, among other things is seen in reducing the number of employees in state administration. On the other hand, the costs of living are significantly above the disposable budget of households. Particular problem is the high cost of electricity, which recently resulted in the street protests of discontented citizens. On one hand we have a government that alerts the lack of electricity, and on the other hand we have citizens that may hardly cover these costs. In addition, Montenegro is dealing with a double-challenge of inefficient space use (country features over 100,000 illegal homes, if distributed evenly implying that every other family lives in an illegal home) and inefficient energy use (Montenegro needs on average 8.5 times more energy per unit produced than an average EU country).
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/de31371ab9fffff75607dc3aad76d9d3.pdf
f7475c4825e32de8900b87a96de60d96
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Importance of carrying capacity for sustainable trout culture: the case of “bagci balik”
Fatih Güleç1, Yusuf Güner1, Tolga Şahin2
1Ege Üniversitesi, Su Ürünleri Fakültesi, 35080 İzmir
2Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, Su Ürünleri Fakültesi, 17100 Çanakkale
Abstract
Trout is a fish species that is produced widely all over the world and it has an important place
in the aquaculture industry. For the sustainable development of the trout culture, it is need to
determine how much fish can be stocked per unit volume (carrying capacity). Over-stocking
could threaten fish welfare and sustainable use of environmental resources. Estimating of
carrying capacity is necessary both to minimize these adverse impacts on fish and
environment, and in terms of sustainable use of water resources. In this study, carrying
capacity of a commercial land based trout farm in Koycegiz (Mugla/TURKEY) was
investigated. Two methods were used to calculate carrying capacity and compared with each
other: “Oxygen requirement based carrying capacity” and “Metabolic waste based carrying
capacity”. The mean values of studied water quality parameters that used in calculations were
measured as; 14.12 ± 0.72 °C for temperature, 7.78 ±0.20 for pH, 10.1 ± 0.93 mg/l for
oxygen, 3,05 ± 0,84 m3 s-1 for flow rate. The annual production capacity was calculated
with these measured parameters. By the observed data, the carrying capacities of the farm
were found respectively with based on oxygen requirement as 538.42 ± 196.22 tonnes; and
based on metabolic waste as 1113.4 ± 463.7 tonnes per years. According to the results that
obtained from the study, there was significant difference between two carrying capacity
estimation methods. However when the oxygen levels of the water were examined, in some
months the negative values, that could adversely affect the life and growth of the trouts, were
observed. Fort this reason, to reduce the limiting effect of the oxygen and reach maximum
carrying capacity; it is needed to be integrated oxygenation or aeration systems into the
production ponds. On the other hand, for the sustainable use of the environmental sources in
the facilities engaged in production according to the metabolic waste based carrying capacity,
it is important to use advanced water filtration systems.
Keywords: Carrying capacity, land-based trout culture, water quality.
1.INTRODUCTION
Aquaculture is a farming method of aquatic animals and plants for nutrition, stocks
enrichment, making ornaments, hobby activities, and for scientific studies in a controlled or
semi-controlled manner, by human (Çelikkale, et al., 1999). Today, it is a rapidly growing
industry especially in terms of animal food. The combined result of development in
aquaculture worldwide and the expansion in global population is that the average annual per
capita supply of food fish from aquaculture for human consumption has increased by ten
times, from 0.7 kg in 1970 to 7.8 kg in 2008, at an average rate of 6.6 percent per year(FAO,
2010). According to data obtained from the FAO, in 2010, total global aquaculture
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
production (quantity) is 73 million tonnes. The value of the world aquaculture harvest,
excluding aquatic plants, is estimated at US$110.1 billion in 2009 (FAO, 2010). Turkey’s
total fisheries production is 653 thousand tons and 167 thousand tons of total production
comes from aquaculture. More than half of the amount of aquaculture (51%) is due to the
trout culture, and the value of production is around US$ 207 million (TUIK, 2010).
Sustainability has great importance for the aquculture industry as in all sectors. At this point,
the condition of the water is one of the vital criteria for aquaculture enterprises that are at the
top level of the production cycle. Aquaculture can be made depending on the the physical,
chemical and biological properties of water. These criteria should be in optimum standards
fort he sustainable aquaculture. Rate of flow and quality of incoming water are the first
parameters to be dealt with in establishing suitable living conditions for fish. (Penneli and
Mclean, 1996). Because, the water that is used for aquaculture, both brings oxygen to the
aquaculture environment and also provides removal of the accumulated wastes (Balık, et al.,
2002). On the other hand, estimating the carrying capacity of the farm, is an important criteria
to be considered. Carrying capacity is usually expressed in terms of quantity of fish per unit of
water flow (loading rate) or per cubic meter of rearing space (density) (Hinshaw, 2000).
Carrying capacity has an important influence on the success of aquaculture operations. The
appropriate stocking level is ascertained in carrying capacity studies (Frechette, 2005). Many
studies have demonstrated an effect of stocking density on various aspects of the welfare of
farmed fish (Wedemeyer, 1997). In intensive aquaculture fishes are usually reared at high
densities, which has led to concerns about welfare of the fish, so there is a need for the
development of reliable stocking density guidelines (Adams, et al., 2007; Ashley, 2007; Ellis,
et al., 2002; Huntingford, et al., 2006). Several causative mechanisms have been proposed to
explain why high densities negatively affect growth and feed utilization. The biochemical,
behavioural, and physiological changes induced by high stress levels are presumed to be
energetically costly, affecting the amount of energy available for growth (Barton and Iwama,
1991; Pickering, 1992; Vijayan and Leatherland, 1998; Wendelaar, 1997). High rearing
density in itself may further reduce access to feed, thereby reducing feed intake and directly
affecting growth (Alanara and Brannas, 1996; Boujard et al., 2002; Marchand and Boisclair,
1998). Incorrect Carrying capacity aplications both affect negatively to fish welfare and cause
environmental issues. This is the biggest obstacle in front of the goal of sustainable
aquaculture. Therefore, it is necessary to estimate the carrying capacity so good to reflect the
facts.
In this study, carrying capacity of a commercial land based trout farm in Koycegiz
(Mugla/TURKEY) was investigated. For the sustainable use of Yuvarlak Çay, the optimum
capacity and the maximum capacity had been calculated with both formulas.
2.Materials and methods
2.1.Experimental area
The study was conducted in a commercial trout farm that was located on Yuvarlakçay Stream
in Fethiye/Koycegiz. The commercial farm aimed to produce 900 tons trout per year in its
project. For the sustainable trout farming on this stream continuously, optimum and maximum
amount of fish, that could be stocked in the farm, was estimated.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
2.2.Fish material
The farmed fish species in the trout enterprise, was rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
(Walbaum, 1792), and the production period that was used in the farm, from egg to market
size.
Method
A number of different formulas have been devised to calculate carrying capacities, taking into
account oxygen consumption, growth rate of fish, feeding rates, water volume and
temperature, and other factors. Dissolved oxygen and ammonia (un-ionized) concentrations
are the primary limiting factors in the culture systems, with oxygen normally the more critical
(Hinshaw, 2000). Therefore carrying capacity (stock density) of the fish farms, can be
estimated with the amount of oxygen consumed by fish or methabolic wastes of the fish. To
be able to make this calculation, it is important to know amount of the feed given to fish.
Because, the single artificial input is the feed to the fish that grown in the farm and to the
natural environment (Balık, et al., 2002). In the calculations; two criteria are taken into
consideration: The oxygen rate that fish need to metabolize the feed and the amount of
ammonia released by digestion of feed the environment. In this study the approach of
Brannon, (1991), calculating carrying capacity of trout farming with oxygen and metabolic
wastes based methods.
2.3.Oxygen-Based Carrying Capacity Estimation
The optimum carrying capacity according to water flow rate and the dissolved oxygen in the
water was calculated by the following formula:
N = (0,25) / ( 0,00143 x Of)
p=R/N
*N
: L /min required/kg of fish feed
*0,25
: kg O2 to metabolize 1 kg of fish feed
*0,00143
: conversion constant
*Of
: inlet oxygen minus outflow oxygen (Oa - Ob)
*p
: kg of food fed
*R
: total rate of flow in L / min.
Mechabolic waste-Based Carrying capacity Estimation
The maximum amount of fish that could be produced by increasing the amount of oxygen in
the water, was calculated with this method.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Table 1. NH3 percentage of Total Ammonia Relationship to pH and Temperature
Temp
(°C)
pH
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
4
0.01
0.03
0.12
0.37
1.10
3.39
8
0.02
0.05
0.16
0.50
1.58
4.82
12
0.02
0.07
0.21
0.68
2.12
6.40
16
0.03
0.09
0.29
0.92
2.86
8.52
20
0.04
0.13
0.40
1.24
3.83
11.18
N = (0,032 x r) / (0,00143 x 0,02)
p =R/N
*N
: L / min. required/kg of food fed
*0,032
: kg NH3 + NH4+ produced/kg of food fed
*r
: % NH3 of total ammonia present (Table 1. NH3 percentage of Total
Ammonia Relationship to pH and Temperature(Brannon, 1991).
*0,00143
: conversion constant
*0,02
: ppm max. NH3
*p
: kg of food fed
*R
: total rate of flow in L/min
To use in the calculations, temperature(°C), flow rate (L/s), oxygen (mg/L) and the other
chemical water parameters were measured regularly every month.
Table 2. Monthly measured water parameters used in the calculations
Parameters
Ma
y
Jun
e
July Aug
.
Sep
.
Oct. Nov
.
Dec
.
Jan.
Feb
.
Mar
.
Apr
.
Flow Rate 2,88 2,38 2,3
(m3/s)
4
1,94
1,9
8
2,7
4
2,91
3,09
4,1
3
4,0
9
4,05
4,04
Temperatur
e (°C)
14,3
14,
5
14
13,7
13,5
12,
5
13,
7
14,2
14,2
67
14,7 15,3 14,
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
pH
8,1
NH3 (%)
7,9
8,1
7,6
7,4
7,6
7,8
7,8
7,7
7,8
7,8
7,8
3,20 2,09 3,2
3
0,98
0,6
5
0,9
8
1,49
1,55
1,1
5
1,5
5
1,94
1,94
Oxygen
(mg/l)
9,3
9,3
8,9
9,9
10,
0
11,
7
10,3
10,4
11,
0
9,5
9,3
11,6
Oxygen
(mg/l)
4,0
4,2
5,7
5,12
3,8
5
4,9
7
4,97
6,35
8,0
1
6,3
6,51
7,77
(discharged
from ponds)
3.Results and Discussion
3.1.Carrying Capacity
According to “Oxygen-Based Carrying Capacity Estimation” method, it was calculated
between May to April with the varying flow rate in the ongrowing ponds, respectively; 212.5
, 175.6 , 156.6 , 163.1 , 169.8, 315.0 , 264.7 , 295.3 , 406.0, 315.8 , 298.8 , 457.7 tons trout
could be farmed in the months (Table 3. The total amount of fish produced by month (tons)
The sample enterprise could make two production in a year. When the carrying capacity was
calculated; 198,77± 24,58 tons trout could be farmed in the one production period and in the
second period; 339,72 ± 30,64 tons. It was estimated that totally 538,49±55,22 tons of trout
could be produced per year.
According to the calculation of “Mechabolic waste-Based Carrying Capacity Estimation”
method, that is taken into consideration the percentage of toxic NH3 in the total ammonia;
respectively; 241.3, 305.3, 194.2, 529.5, 816.8, 747.9, 520.5, 534.6, 966.3, 707.6, 559.1,
557.7 tons fish could be farmed (Table 3. The total amount of fish produced by month (tons).
472,50 ± 109,01 tons trout could be farmed in the one production period and 640,97 ± 70,65
tons in the second period. It was estimated that totally 1113,47 ± 179,98 tons of trout could
be produced per year.
Table 3. The total amount of fish produced by month (tons)
May June July
Capacity
(tonnes/ye
ar)
68
Aug
.
Sep.
Oct.
Nov
.
Dec. Jan.
Feb.
Mar
.
Apr.
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Based on 212,
oxygen
5
175,
6
156,
6
163,
1
169,
8
315
264,
7
295,
3
406
315,
8
298,
8
457,
7
Based on 241,
ammonia
3
305,
3
194,
2
529,
5
816,
8
747,
9
520,
5
534,
6
966,
3
707,
6
559,
1
557,
7
Figure 1. Estimated carrying capacities calculated with oxygen based and ammonia based
methods between May to April.
4.CONCLUSION
One of the most important issues is to measure water properties. While doing this the physical
and chemical parameters should be known. Beveridge (2004), previously reported that any
increase in temperature affected the metabolism, oxygen consumption and also increased
activity of fish. Optimal on-growing temperature level was reported between 10-15 °C by
Sedgwick, (1985) , and in addition to this between 12-18 °C by Çelikkale, (1988). In this
study, the water temperature ranged between 12,5-15,3 °C and the average temperature level
in the ponds was 14,12 ± 0,21 °C (Table 2). The temperature level did not adversely affect the
development of the fish.
Çelikkale, 1988 reported that 100 – 150 kg rainbow trout could be farmed with 1 L.s-1 . In
this study the avarage flow rate was measured 3.05 ± 0.24 m3.s-1. Additionally, water flow
rate was reduced during the experimental period due to very low rainfall in that season.
The dissolved oxygen (DO) level in the water is another important criteria in the estimating of
carrying capacity of the trout farm. Çelikkale, (1988); Edwards, (1987); and Stevenson,
(1984); reported that the DO level had to be more than 6 mg.L-1 for the rainbow trout
farming. The levels of DO varied between 8,9 and 11.7 mg.L-1 at farm inlet during the study
and the lowest DO at the pond outlet was observed in September (3.85 mg.L-1) (Table 2).
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
This value was found to be below the limit of DO concentration for rainbow trout farming (5
mg.L-1) as recommended by Belaud, (1995). Additional oxygenation systems were used to
solve lower DO problem, in the farm.
The present study showed that carrying capacity (stock density) of a trout farm was related
with water parameters. Although, the presence of suitable water temperature for trout farming,
the water parameters limited production. In the first method, oxygen was the significant
limited parameters for carrying capacity. Especially between May and September, the oxygen
levels decreased due to reduced water flow and as a result of this, amounts of the production
in those months were minimum. Although this farm was allowed to produce 900 tons of trout,
maximum 538,49±55,22 tons of rainbow trout could be farmed due to the low oxygene levels.
The problem of low oxygen levels for carrying capacity can be solved with by adding
alternative oxygenation systems. Aerators were used in this farm but it was observed that the
aerators were not sufficient and suitable capacity. Toxicity of total ammonia in water, was the
most important parameter that limiting carrying capacity. By using additional oxygenation
systems, the carrying capacities were increased between May and September. But maximum
carrying capacity was determinated by using the second method. By using the second
calculation method, the maximum production and carrying capacity was observed 1113,47 ±
179,98 tons per year.
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stress-response in brook charr, Salvelinus fontinalis. Aquaculture(75), 159-170.
Wedemeyer, G. A. (1997) Effects of rearing conditions on the health and physiological
quality of fish in intensive culture. In G. W. Iwama, A. D. Pickering, J. P. Sumpter, and C. B.
Schreck (Eds.), Fish Stress and Health in Aquaculture (pp. 35-72). New York: Cambridge
University Press.
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Wendelaar, B. S. (1997) The stress response in fish. Physiological Reviews, pp. 591-625.
Wu, J.-T. (1999) A generic index of diatom assemblages as bioindicator of pollution in the
Keelung River of Taiwan. Hydrobiologia(397), 79-87.
Nedbal L., Soukupova J., Kaftan D., Whitmarsh J. and Trtilek M. (2000): Kinetic imaging of
chlorophyll fluorescence using modulated light. Photosynthesis Research 66: 3-12
Schreiber U (2004) Pulse-Amplitude (PAM) fluorometry and saturation pulse method. In:
Papageorgiou G, Govindjee (eds) Chlorophyll fluorescence: A signature of Photosynthesis.
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. pp 279-319
Photon Systems Instruments (2011) FluorCam Instruction Manual, http://www.psi.cz
The Effect Of Water Temperature On Spawning Out Of Season In Rainbow Trout,
Oncorhynchus Mykiss
Yusuf Güner1, Halit Bayrak2, Fatih Güleç1
1Ege Üniversitesi, Su Ürünleri Fakültesi, 35080 İzmir
2SuleymanDemirel University, Mehmet Süreyya Demiraslan M.Y.O, 32510 Isparta
Abstract
Salmonid culture is a production sector with widespread throughout the world. Different
stocks of rainbow trout spawn in certain months of the year in hatcheries. This seasonality of
spawning imposes considerable constraints on trout farming because the consequent
restrictions on the supply of eggs and fry make it difficult for on-growing farm to maintain a
continuity of production of table-size fish throughout the year. Hatcheries should artificially
control the spawning time of their broodfish so that batches of eggs and fry might be
produced all year round. The modification of spawning time are possible using manipulation
of photoperiod. This series of studies were carried out in order to identify the effects of
varying water temperature on the ovulation of rainbow trout be exposed to photoperiodic
manipulation. This study was carried out in two different facilities. In the first facility, the
photoperiod regime was only consisted of constant short days (LD 6:18). The water
temperature had been changed between 7.5 and 15 °C during the the experiment in this
facility. In the second facility, it had been changed between 11 – 25.5 °C. The broodstock was
seperated into two different group. These photoperioded regims consist of constant short
days(LD 6:18) and altered photoperiod (LD 18:6 from February until May, then LD 12:12
from May until June, then LD 6:18 from June until November) which are acted to advanced
spawning. In both experiments, photoperiod regimes changed the maturation time regardless
of water temperature. However, when the water temperature is high, modulating effects of the
temperature on the maturation and ovulation time were observed. When the spawning time
modified to June – August, ovary growth and egg survival rate had been reduced by the
temperature effect ( >14 °C). It was found that the egg quality decreased when the water
temperature was 17 °C although the eggs could been removed from the fish. Based on the
72
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Importance of carrying capacity for sustainable trout culture: the case of “bagci balik”
Author
Author
Fatih , Güleç
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Trout is a fish species that is produced widely all over the world and it has an important place in the aquaculture industry. For the sustainable development of the trout culture, it is need to determine how much fish can be stocked per unit volume (carrying capacity). Over-stocking could threaten fish welfare and sustainable use of environmental resources. Estimating of carrying capacity is necessary both to minimize these adverse impacts on fish and environment, and in terms of sustainable use of water resources. In this study, carrying capacity of a commercial land based trout farm in Koycegiz (Mugla/TURKEY) was investigated. Two methods were used to calculate carrying capacity and compared with each other: “Oxygen requirement based carrying capacity” and “Metabolic waste based carrying capacity”. The mean values of studied water quality parameters that used in calculations were measured as; 14.12 ± 0.72 °C for temperature, 7.78 ±0.20 for pH, 10.1 ± 0.93 mg/l for oxygen, 3,05 ± 0,84 m3 s-1 for flow rate. The annual production capacity was calculated with these measured parameters. By the observed data, the carrying capacities of the farm were found respectively with based on oxygen requirement as 538.42 ± 196.22 tonnes; and based on metabolic waste as 1113.4 ± 463.7 tonnes per years. According to the results that obtained from the study, there was significant difference between two carrying capacity estimation methods. However when the oxygen levels of the water were examined, in some months the negative values, that could adversely affect the life and growth of the trouts, were observed. Fort this reason, to reduce the limiting effect of the oxygen and reach maximum carrying capacity; it is needed to be integrated oxygenation or aeration systems into the production ponds. On the other hand, for the sustainable use of the environmental sources in the facilities engaged in production according to the metabolic waste based carrying capacity, it is important to use advanced water filtration systems. Keywords: Carrying capacity, land-based trout culture, water quality.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
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6587e6939526cbf829e4764cb24f6179
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Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Physiological characterization of dunaliella sp. (chlorophyta, volvocales) from çamalti
saltworks (izmir-turkey)
Fatih Aksoy 1 Edis Koru2
1Katip Çelebi University Fisheries Faculty Dept. of Aquaculture, Çiğli,35620, İzmir,Turkey
2Ege University Fisheries Faculty Dept. of Aquaculture Bornova,35100, İzmir,Turkey
E-mail: fatih.aksoy@ikc.edu.tr
Abstract
Dunaliella (Cyanophyceae) microalgea is a species used for feeding live baits that are used in
larval fish production. Dunaliella species are intensively cultivated in algal biotechnology.
Because of the nutritional value and chemicals this microalgea contains, it is commonly used
in industries such as pharmacy, cosmetics and bait industry. From this point of view, it can be
said that this algea species has high economic value. It can be found in areas between ‰ 10
and ‰ 200 salinity content rate. In Turkey this species can be found in salinas near coasts and
salty-soft drink lakes. In this research, Dunaliella sp. species which is in Turkey’s
biggestmarine based saltworks “İzmir Çamaltı Saltworks” ecosystem isolated and cultivation
in controlled circumstances determined. As a part of this research, physicochemical
parameters such as optimum light, saltiness, density, biomass and pigment determined.
Keywords : Dunaliella sp., saltworks, microalgea, Çamaltı, Izmir, Turkey.
1.INTRODUCTION
Microalgae produce biomass and specific biomass in gredients from solar irradiation at high
degrees so that it is possible to produce economically feasible materials by microalgae.
The genus Dunaliella are wall-less eukoryatic algae and found in saline environments. They
are flagellate and consist of 23 species. They exhibit ideal growth at various salt
concentrations. In those conditions, their colours become orange-red (Massyuk, 1973).
Dunaliella belongs to the phylum Chlorophyta and family Polyblepharidaceae. It is
halotolerant and green (Avron and Ben-Amotz 1992; Garcia et al., 2007). It can live in
aquatic condition between 0,5-5 M NaCI salinities (Shariati & Hadi, 2000, Phadwal & Singh,
2003; Jahnke & White, 2003). Dunaliella species produce some chemicals such as caretonids
(Hosseini Tafreshi & Shariati, 2006; Hadi et al., 2008), glycerol (Hadi et al., 2008), vitamins
and proteins (Ghoshal et al., 2002) tough conditions (Hosseini Tafreshi & Shariati, 2006;
Hadi et al., 2008). The reason how it can adapt in various salt concentrations is that it can
change the intracellular concentration of glycerol (Raja et al., 2007). People use glycerol in
automotive, leather, pharmaceutical, paint, cosmetic, food, pulp and paper, textile industries
and in the manufacture of microbial fermentation or it can be synthesized from petrochemical
raw materials. It can also be produced from soap manufacture of fats the amount of glycerol
produced in the world is 600,000 t/year (Wang et al., 2001; Taherzadeh et al., 2002).
Dunaliella species are consireded to be the most known microalgae in the autotrophic
production of glycerol (Borowitzka and Borowitzka, 1992). Dunaliella sp. are known as the
most halotolerant eukoryatic livings and they can adapt even to low salt saturated conditions
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such as 0.2%.On the other hand , it is the only eukoryatic photosynthetic organism found in
extremely concentrated saline lakes (Ben-Amotz and Avron, 1990).
Dunaliella salina, D. viridisare mostly found microalgae species in salty conditions (Davis,
1990). D. salina accumulates high amounts of β-caroten when there is a lack of nitrogen
sources or in high salinities and in high levels of irridance. β-caroten is a pigment and it is
added to health food products and is used as a food coloring agent (anti-cancer and
antioxidant agent) (Ben-Amotz and Avron, 1990).
2.MATERIALS AND METHODS
Dunaliella spp. were isolated from the Çamaltı solar saltworks and cultivated (Izmir, Turkey).
The Çamaltı Saltwork is the largest one in Turkey. It is in Izmir City which experiences
marine conditions. Its coordinates are 38°28’N and 26°50’E near the Izmir Bay. The reservoir
initial in the saltworks is found approximately in 2-3 inches depth of water. The density of
water is about 3 oBe – 5 oBe in November-May. Then, The water is pumped from the sea and
the salinity increases by 6-8 oBe. After that the density goes on increasing up to 22–24 oBe.
During this process micro algae appear and exhibit different colors. At higher concentrations
micro algae collapse. The temperature varied between 6-7°C (December), 4-5°C (February),
20-22 °C (April) to 28-30 °C (June), 38-40 °C (August) throughout the year.
We used single-cell isolation by micropipette.Dunaliella sp. were incubated and stored
without any process during two month. Then 1L flaks were incubated and reproduced. And
then different salinities determined growth parameters. Dunaliella sp. strain was cultivated at
four NaCI concentration (‰40,‰100) in 1L flaks. Laboratory’s temperature was 24±1 °C,
and lights were 1200 lux. Experiments were observed for 20 days. We used f/2 medium for
experiments.
Tablo 1. f/2 Medium (Guillard and Ryther 1962)
Component
Stock Solution
Quantity
Molar Concentration
in Final Medium
NaNO3
75 g/L dH2O
1 mL
8.82 x 10-4 M
NaH2PO4 H2O
5 g/L dH2O
1 mL
3.62 x 10-5 M
Na2SiO3 9H2O
30 g/L dH2O
1 mL
1.06 x 10-4 M
trace metal solution
1 mL
…..
vitamin solution
0,5 mL
…..
f/2 Trace Metal Solution
Component
114
Primary
Solution
Stock Quantity
Molar Concentration
in Final Medium
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
FeCl3 6H2O
....
3.15 g
1.17 x 10-5 M
Na2EDTA 2H2O
….
4.36 g
1.17 x 10-5 M
CuSO4 5H2O
9.8 g/L dH2O
1 mL
3.93 x 10-8 M
Na2MoO4 2H2O
6.3 g/L dH2O
1 mL
2.60 x 10-8 M
ZnSO4 7H2O
22.0 g/L dH2O
1 mL
7.65 x 10-8 M
CoCl2 6H2O
10.0 g/L dH2O
1 mL
4.20 x 10-8 M
MnCl2 4H2O
180.0 g/L dH2O
1 mL
9.10 x 10-7 M
f/2 Vitamin Solution
Component
thiamine
(vit.B1)
Primary
Solution
HCl ….
Stock Quantity
Molar Concentration
in Final Medium
200 mg
2.96 x 10-7 M
biotin (vit. H)
0.1 g/L dH2O
10 mL
2.05 x 10-9 M
cyanocobalamin
(vit.B12)
1.0 g/L dH2O
1 mL
3.69 x 10-10 M
For the extraction of chlorophlly-a, 5 ml of cultures incubated was taken daily from each
flask. Absorbance measurements were made by using a spectrophotometer. Algal growth was
monitored by counting number of cells in a counting chamber (Thoma Counting chamber).
3.RESULTS
Growth of Dunaliella sp. Çamaltı strain at different salinities is shown in Fig. 1. Maximum
cell density for Dunaliella sp. was obtained in 100 ‰ salinity and the lowest concentration
was found in 40 ‰ salinity.
Salinity clearly affected the cell density in Dunaliella sp. The optimum salinity for growth of
Dunaliella sp. strain was around 100 ‰ salinity.
A high salinity (100‰) was establisment chlorophlly-a (621,3 pg cell/1), a low salinity (40‰)
(347,1pg cell/1). (Fig.2)
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Cell density(x106 mL/1)
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
40 ‰
100 ‰
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Cultivation time (day)
Fig. 1: Increase in cell density under the conditions of different salinities and 25 °C
temperatures
700
Chl a (pg cell/1
600
500
400
300
40 ‰
200
100 ‰
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Cultivation time(day)
Fig. 2: Maximum chlorophyll-a concentration per cell in Dunaliella sp. grown at different
salinities
Optic density (680nm)
Optical density was directly proportional the density of the cell. It is shown that a high optical
density observed at high salinity. Increasing salinity caused optic density to increase (Fig. 3)
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
40 ‰
100 ‰
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time (day)
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Fig. 3: The optical density of different salinities
At 40 ppt, culture had reached the logarithmic and stationary growth phase on day 3rd and
6th, respectively. On day 20, culture collapsed at 40 ppt. At 100 ppt, culture had reached the
logarithmic and stationary growth phase on day 5th and 9th. The highest physiological
development in Duneliella sp. was obtained at 100 ppt.
4.DISCUSSION
The Dunaliella species isolated from the solar saltworks on the Çamaltı Izmir differed
in their capacity for growth and physiological acclimation to varying culture conditions. In
the present study, the effect of salinity intensity, cell intensity, optic density, chlorophlly-a, on
growth of Dunaliella sp. Çamaltı strain was determined. It has been observed to grow
optimum at salinity around 100 ‰.
Gibor (1956), Jimenez and Niell (1990) reported that the optimum temperature for the growth
of Dunaliella viridis was around 30°C. Ak (2008) reported that the highest growth of D.
viridis of Çamaltı saltworks was found 25°C. Our study shown that the temperature was 25°C
the high salinity the best growing.
InthestudyheldbyDurmazet al in theyear of 2006, theyisolatedDunaliellasalinathecellsfrom
Konya
Salt
Lake
bythemethod
of
dilution.
Theymonitoredtheirgrowth
in
differentsalinities(0.62M, 0.85, 1.25 ve 1.71M). Inthisstudy, themostconvenient salt
concentrationwasobservedto be 1.71M NaCI. In1.71M NaCI, morecellnumberandhigher Bcarotenevalueswerefoundout.
Inthestudyheldby Dudu et al in 2001 on differentNaCI(10%, 15 %and20%)concentrations,
theyannouncedthattheyattainedthemostgrowthin NaCI10 % concentration.
REFERENCES
Ben-Amotz, A. and M. Avron, 1983. Accumulation of metabolites by halotolerant algae and
its industrial potential. Ann. Rev. Microbial., pp:95-119
Ben-Amotz, A., Avron, M., 1990. The biotechnology of cultivating the halotolerant alga
Dunaliella. Trends Biotechnol. 8, 121–126.
Ben-Amotz, A., Shaish, A., Avron, M., 1991. The biotechnology of
cultivating Dunaliella for production of b-carotene rich algae. Bioresour.
Technol. 38 (2–3), 233–235.
Borowitzka, M.A., Borowitzka, L.J., 1992. Micro-algal Biotechnology. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
Davis, J.S., 1990. Biological Management fort he Productşon Salt from Seawater. In:
Introduction Applied Phycology, Akatsuka, I. (Ed.). SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague,
The Netherlands, pp:479-488.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Dudu Evren, Ü., Ç. Kanlıtepe, C. Çıracı, G. Dönmez, 2001. Tuz Göl,’nden (Konya-Türkiye)
izole edilen Dunaliella türlerinin gliserol üretim kapasitesinin belirlenmesi. Ege Üniversitesi
Su Ürünleri Dergisi, 1. Alg Teknoloji Sempozyumu p, 225-232 (In Turkish).
Durmaz, Y., Gökpınar Ş., 2006. Dunaliella salina (Chlorophyceae) Büyümesi Üzerine
Tuzluluğun Etkileri. E.Ü. Su Ürünleri Dergisi, pp:121-124.
Garcia, F., Freile-Pelegrin, Y., Robledo, D., 2007. Physilogical characterization of Dunaliella
sp. (Chlorophyta, Volvocales) from Yucatan, Mexico. Bioresource Technology,pp:1359-1365
Javor, B., 1989. Hypersaline Enviroments: Microbiology and Biogeochemistry. 1st Edn.,
Springer-Verlag, New York, pp:328.
Lamers, P.P., Janssen, M., De Vos, C.H.R., Bino, J.R. and Wijffels, R.H. 2008. Exploring and
exploiting carotenoid accumulation in Dunaliella salina for cell-factory applications. Cell
Press, pp:631.
Kaçka, A., Dönmez, G., 2008. Isolation of Dunaliella spp. from a hypersaline lake and their
ability to accumulate glyserol. Bioresource Technology, pp.8348.
Massyuk, 1973. Morphology, taxonomy, ecology and geographic distribution
of the genus DunaliellaTeod. and prospects for its potential
utilisation. Kiev: Naukova Dumka. Massyuk. pp. 312.
Taherzadeh, M.J., Adler, L., Liden, G., 2002. Strategies for enhancing fermentative
production of glycerol-a review. Enzyme Microbiol. Technol. 31, 53–66.
Wang, Z.X., Zhuge, J., Fang, H., Prior, B.A., 2001. Glycerol production by microbial
fermentation: a review. Biotechnol. Adv. 19, 201–223.
Interactions between chemicals used in aquaculture and environment in terms of
sustainable development
Muhammet Altunok , Fatih Gülec , Zerife Peker , Klaus Kümmerer
Abstract
Aquaculture that is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and
aquatic plants, is the fastest growing animal production sector in the world. Global production
from aquaculture for human consumption amounted to 73 million tonnes and the value of
US$ 110 billion in 2009 and comprised almost fifty percent of the world’s fish supply.
Aquaculture, thus, plays an important role in global efforts towards eliminating malnutrition
and brings significant health benefits by nutritional well-being. It significantly dominates
most devoloping countries in terms of contribution to development by increasing gross
domestic product, providing employment opportunities and improving incomes.
The potentially adverse impacts of aquaculture that is also threat the sustainability when the
sector grows unregulated or under poor management, is of considerable current environmental
118
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1236
Title
A name given to the resource
Physiological characterization of dunaliella sp. (chlorophyta, volvocales) from çamalti saltworks (izmir-turkey)
Author
Author
Fatih, Aksoy
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Dunaliella (Cyanophyceae) microalgea is a species used for feeding live baits that are used in larval fish production. Dunaliella species are intensively cultivated in algal biotechnology. Because of the nutritional value and chemicals this microalgea contains, it is commonly used in industries such as pharmacy, cosmetics and bait industry. From this point of view, it can be said that this algea species has high economic value. It can be found in areas between ‰ 10 and ‰ 200 salinity content rate. In Turkey this species can be found in salinas near coasts and salty-soft drink lakes. In this research, Dunaliella sp. species which is in Turkey’s biggestmarine based saltworks “İzmir Çamaltı Saltworks” ecosystem isolated and cultivation in controlled circumstances determined. As a part of this research, physicochemical parameters such as optimum light, saltiness, density, biomass and pigment determined. Keywords : Dunaliella sp., saltworks, microalgea, Çamaltı, Izmir, Turkey. 1.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/faef0dea82b11e22b2fc9a153ecdc9ae.pdf
2a121ad6e1d277acfeed98d3c88b6304
PDF Text
Text
3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Santer R.M. & Greer-Walker M. (1980) Morphological studies on the ventricle of teleost and
elasmobranch hearts. Journal of Zoology (London) 190, 259–272.
Smith J.W. (1997) The blood flukes (Digenea: Sanguinicolidae and Spirorchidae) of coldblooded vertebrates: Part 2. Helminthological Abstracts 66, 329–344.
Watts, M. (1995) The development of a fluorescent antibody stain to identify a Uronenla sp.
(Ciliophora: Scuticociliatida) implicated in fatal encephalitis in farmed tuna (Thunnus
maccoyii). Honours thesis, University of Tasmania, Launceston.
Williams E.H. & Bunkley-Williams L. (1996) Parasites of Offshore Big Game Fishes of
Puerto Rico and the Western Atlantic. Puerto Rico Department of Natural Environmental
Resources and the University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez.
Yoshinaga T, Nakazoe J (1993) Isolation and in vitro cultivation of an unidentified ciliate
causing scuticociliosis in Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). Gyobyo Kenkyu
28:131-134.
Parasitic Diseases of Trout and Their Controls
in Sustainable Development of Aquculture: Platyhelminthes
Erol Tokşen1, Erkin Koyuncu2
1Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 35100 İzmir,
Turkey
2Mersin University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases,Yenişehir 33169 Mersin,
Turkey
E-mails: erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr, ekoyuncu@mersin.edu.tr
Abstract
Aquaculture is an important food-producing sector. It provides much needed protein,
employment, income and livelihoods support to many people in the world and this is
especially true in most developing countries. A significant challenge to the expansion of
aquaculture production is the outbreak of disease. Potential economic losses from disease
outbreaks are significant, and can affect the survival of the industry. Fish diseases were
caused by enfectious agents as parasite, bacteria, virus and fungus. Gyrodactylus spp.,
Tetraonchus spp., Discootyle spp., Cyathocephalsus spp., Proteocephalus spp., Eubothrium
spp., Diphyllobothrium spp., Trianophorus spp., Crepidostomum spp., Phyllodistomum spp.,
Sanguinicola spp., Diplostomum spp., Tylodelphys spp., Apatemon spp. are observed in
rainbow trout. Gyrodactylus salaris caused the mortality up to 95 % in salmon population in
some rivers in Norvay. So, G. salaris is a disease between compulsory notifiable diseases in
EU. However, such a pathogen monogenean enfestations have not been appeared in Turkey,
First record of Crepidostomum farionis was carried out in rainbow trout in Elazığ from
Turkey. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trout caused by phylum
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Plathyhelmintes, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on trouts, how they could
be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated.
Keywords: Trout, disease, parasite, platyhelminthes, diagnosis, treatment
1.INTRODUCTION
Turkey has rich inland water sources, about 200 natural lakes, about 750 artificial
lakes or ponds, about 193 reservoirs, 33 rivers and streams of 177.714 km length and 8.333
km of coastal strips. Aquaculture sector in Turkey is new when compared with European
countries. The first fish farm was established as a rainbow trout farm in 1970s. The following
years, new fish farms have been established year by year. The main fish species cultured in
Turkey are Carp (Cyprinus carpio), Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Atlantic salmon
(Salmo salar), Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax),
Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Black sea turbot (Psetta maxima), Mediterranean mussel
(Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Shrimp (Penaeidae spp). Aquaculture production of Turkey
has grown steadily over the years from 5782 tonnes in 1990 to 63 000 tonnes in 1999 and to
152 186 tonnes in 2008. Recently, it is shown in Table.1 that trout pruducts have reached to
68,649 tons in Turkey (TUIK 2012).
Type of fish
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Inland water Trout 56 026
58 433
65 928
75 657
78 165
Marine Trout
1 633
2 740
2 721
5 229
7 079
Total
57 659
61 173
68 649
80 886
85 244
Table.1. Aquaculture production of Turkey (Ton) (TUIK 2012)
The intensification of aquaculture and globalization of the seafood trade have led to
remarkable development in the aqauculture industry. The industry has been plagued with
disease problems caused by viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic pathogens. In recent years,
disease outbreaks are becoming more frequent in he aquaculture and associated morbidity and
mortality have caused substantial economic losses. Health problems have two fiscal
consequences on the industry: loss of productivity due to animal mortality and morbidity, and
loss of trade due to food safety issues. Thus, disease is undoubtedly one of the major
constraints to production, profitability and sustainability of the aquaculture industry. Parasites
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
in fish have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the
development of aquacultural industries in the world. Thus, focus has been placed on parasitic
infections in these enterprises and their economic and ecological impact.
Diseases problem caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the
industry. There are various parasites caused the diseases on the trout. This study consist of
crustaceans parasites. This research presents the individual parasites types producing
problems in sea bream and sea bass. Each section is presented with 1. aetiyology, the parasitic
organism responsible for the disease, 2. epizootiology, the transmission of the diseases and
life cycle of the parasite, 3. pathogenicity, how the parasite produces diseases in the fish, 4.
symptoms, clinical signs of the diseases, 5. diagnose, how the infection can be identificated,
6. treatment, how the infection can be controlled.
The Plathelminthes typically are slightly dorso-ventrally flatted, witth a few
exceptions hermophroditic worms without an anus and some of them without a mouth and
intestine. Their surface layer is a tegument which is made of a syncytium. This Phylum
comprise monogeneans, digeneans and cestodes
Monogeneans are flatworms with representatives in freshwater, brackish and marine
habitatts. The most of species are ectoparasitic and they all have a direct life cycle. A few
species have adopted an endoparasitic life. They have a characteristic posterior attachment
organ called an opisthaptor. This organ is equipped with sclerotiinized structures as large
hooks, clamps and marginal hooklets. Also the fore part of the parasite has adhesive pads.
Using these adhesive structures he flatworm can move in a leech-like manner on the host.
2. Tetraonchosis:
2.1. Aetiology: Tetraonchus alaskensis, T. awakurai. T. oncorhynchi
The lenght of the T. awakurai is 650-1080 µm and width is 250-415 µm (Ogawa and Egusa
1978).
2.2. Epizootiology: Tha adult parasite attaches to the gill epithelium with its two pairs of
anchors and their associated marginal hooklets, then produce eggs. These are liberated to the
aquatic enviroment where they develop and hatch. The ciliated larva called oncomiracidium
seeks the its host, attaches, sheds the ciliated cells and moves to the gill filaments. Depending
on the ambient temperature the post larva develops to the adult stage on the gills (Buchmann
and Bresciani 2001). Oncomiracidia hatch from embryonated eggs and transmission occurs
when the temperature is above 10 °C (Ogawa and Egusa 1985).
2.3.Pathogenicity: Heavy infections mat elicit inflamatorry reactions in the gills, hyperplasia
of epithelial and mucous cella and haemorrhages.
2.4. Symtomps: Parasite cause hyperventilation, lethargy and mortality.
2.5. Diagnosis: Detection of the parasite on the gills of the host. The parasite has four eye
spots, four large hooks in the opisthahaptor.
2.6. Prophylaxis: Quarantine measures, mechanical filtration of fish tank water to remove
oncomiracidia.
2.7. Treatment: Formalin, mebendazole and praziquantel may have effect (Buchmann and
Bresciani 2001).
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3. Gyrodactylosis:
3.1. Aetiology: Gyrodactylus salmonis, G. salaris, G. derjavini, G. truttae, G. colemanensis,
Gyrodactylus elegans, G. cobitis. G. salmonis measures 0.5 mm in length and 0.15 mm in
width. The hamuli are stout and 53-65 um long.
3.2. Epizotiyology: They are vivipourus hermophroditic parasites. The female parasite give
birth to an almost fully developed daughter which already has a growing embryo in its uterus.
The parasites attcches to thebody surface, fins, buccal cavity. At a farm nets and buckets are
potential vehicles of transmission. Water-borne transmission occurs in spring when melting
ice frequently causes flooding between holding units. Shipment of fish from other facilities
are also potential sources of infeciton and so is the water supply of the farm.
3.3. Pathogenicity: Due to penetration of the epithelium by the marginal hooklets and the
feeding activitiy the fish may suffer from osmoregulatory distress. Opportunistic infections
may arise in the injured epidermis.
3.4. Symtomps: Heavily infected fish with parasite are cachexic, lethargic and overall dark in
clour (Cone and Cusack 1988).
3.5. Diagnosis: Microscopic examination of slides with the parasite shows the approximately
0.5 mm platyhelminth without eyespot but with two large ventral hamuli, connected by a
dorsal and ventral bar and 16 marginal hooklets. The shape and size of the hamuli and
hooklets are species characteristic.
3.6. Prophylaxis: Quarantine measures. Strict prevention of the introduction of specific
gyrodactylids may be necesssary in farms with susceptible fish species.
3.7. Treatment: 4.5-5 % solution of NaCl for 1.5 to 2.5 min and then transfer immediately to
fresh runnig water. A second bath may be necessary after several days (Cone 1991).
Triclabendazole and nitroscanate are effective at dosages 40 g/kg of feed for 10 d and 0.6 g/kg
of feed for 1 d, respectively (Tojo and Santamarina 1988). Formalin, copper sulphate,
hydrogen peroxide, sodium per carbonate, mebendazole, praziquantel may use.
4. Discocotylosis:
4.1. Aetiology: Discocotyle sagittata, D. ohridana.
D. sagittata is up to 12 mm length, 3-4 mm width. The rectangular opisthaptor is equipped
with four pairs of clamps for attachment to gill.
4.2. Epizotiyology: Sanguinivorous polyopisthocotylean monogenean occur on the gills of
freshwater salmonid fishes, with an extensive geographical distribution in the Northern
Hemisphere. It occurs at low intensities in the wild (Valtonen et al. 1990). Eggs are produced
by the harmaphroditic worm. The egg embryonate and hatch. The larva seek the host and
develops into the adult stage.
4.3. Pathogenicity: The parasite feed on host blood and may cause anameia. Inflammatory
reactions may impair respiration. Heavy infection by D. sagittata can result in deleterious
effects on the host, especially in the context of fish farms. Rainbow trout reared in the Isle of
Man have been shown to harbourhigh parasite burdens (˃1000/fish) and exibit high mortality
rates due toparasite-induced anaemia (Gannicott 1997).
4.4. Symtomps: Anameia, morbiditiy, hyperventilation.
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4.5. Diagnosis: Detection of the up to 12 mm long worm on the gills of the host. They are
charecterized by the clamps on the opisthaptor.
4.6. Prophylaxis: Quarantine measures should be applicated.
4.7. Treatment: Praziquantel (Rubio-Godoy and Tinsley 2004)
Digeneans are heteroxenous and their adult stages are parasitic in vertebrates. They
need more than one host in their life cycles. Molluscs serve as first intermediate host.
Bivalves are also the fisrt intermediate host of Fellodistomatidae, Gorgoderidae
(Phyllodistomum) and Allocreadiidae (Crepidostomum). Adult digeneans usually have a
dorsoventrally flattened oval body with a smooth, spiny or corrugated surface, a sucker
around the anteroventral mouth and an additional ventral sucker, or acetabulum. Both suckers
are used for attachment and locomotion (Paperna 2006).
5. Crepidostomosis:
5.1. Aetiology: Crepidistomum farionis, C. metoecus
5.2. Epizotiyology: The first intermediate hosts in the life history of this trematode are
Pisidium amnicum and Sphaerium corneum. Although the latter is unusual, the second
intermediate host is the larva of the mayfly, Ephemera danica. There are two generations of
rediae, the first gives rise to daughter rediae, which in turn produce cercariae. Final host is
trout (Brown, 2009).
5.3. Pathogenicity. The parasites cause swelling of the intestine. Inflammation of the intestinal
wall may cause malabsorption. Parasite reduce the hemoglobin and hematocrit levels in the
fish (Klein et al. 1969).
5.4. Symtomps: Inflammatory state of intestinal wall, haemorrhages.
5.5. Diagnosis: Detection of parasite in the intestine. The charecteristic cephalic lobes and the
two suckers are found in both species.
5.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermediate host.
5.7. Treatment: Praziquantel is liable to have effect when used in feed oral treatmenta.
Articles
6. Phyllodistomosis:
6.1. Aetiology: Phyllodistomum simile
6.2. Epizotiyology: Brown trout, salmon parr. Large numbers of Phyllodistomum simile were
found in the urinary bladder of the trout from the River Teify. There was no evidence of a
seasonal variation in the occurrence of P. simile in trout aged two years or more.Trout aged
four or more years were more heavily infested than young trout and there was no indication of
the development of a total immunity with increase in the age of fishes. The life history of P.
simile was elucidated under experimental conditions by feeding the trout precocious
metacercariae present in daughter sporocysts obtained from the gill lamellae and epibranchial
cavity of the freshwater bi-valve, Sphaerium corneum (Thomas 1958).
6.3. Pathogenicity: Extension of urethrae.
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6.4. Symtomps: Not clear.
6.5. Diagnosis: Detection of the parasites in the urethrae or bladder.
6.6. Prophylaxis: Removal intermediate hosts.
6.7. Treatment: Praziquantel may have effect (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001).
7. Nanophyetosis:
7.1. Aetiology: Nanophyetus salmincola is a digenic trematode, which means that it is an
unsegmented worm that is flattened dorsoventrally. Adult worms alternate shape from “a
sphere to a long blunt rod. The worms are 0.8 to 1.1mm long and 0.3 to 0.5 mm wide and are
hermaphroditic, having both male and female reproductive organs in the same organism.
(Bennington and Pratt 1960).
7.2. Epizzotiyology: The life cycle of the N. salmincola requires three hosts. The first
intermediate host is an Oxytrema silicula stream snail. The second intermediate host is a
salmonid fish, though some non-salmonid fishes also play a role. Lastly, the definitive host is
most commonly a canid, though many other mammals are also definitive hosts, including
humans. Transmission of N. salmincola to the definitive host occurs upon ingestion of
parasite-infected fish (Bennington and Pratt 1960).
7.3.Pathogenicity: Cercariae invading fish fry may kill the fish probably due toimpairment of
the osmoregulatory system. The parasite can transmit bacterial infection (Neorickettsia
helminthoeca) to the dog.
7.4. Symtomps: Lethargy, morbidity, mortality of fish.
7.5. Diagnosis: Detection of metaacercariae in fish tissue. These are pyriform, unspined, large
oral sucker of same size as ventral sucker, short oesaphagus.
7.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermediate snail hosts.
7.7. Treatment: Praziquantel may have effect in the early stage of infection but this has not
been documented (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001).
8. Sanguinicolosis:
8.1. Aetiology: Sanguinicola alsea, S. davisi, S. fontinalis, S. idahoensis, S. klamathensis.
Sanguinicola fontinalis body very flat, elongate when fixed relaxed, colourless, translucent,
0.90 mm long, 0.21 mm wide after hot fixation, staining and mounting (Hoffman et al. 1985).
8.2. Epizotiyology: The adult parasite lives blood vessels of the fish. Eggs are produced wich
hatch to release the first larval stage called the miracidum.. These larvae from the eggs pass
out of the gills into the pond water. In the pond miracidia infect the intermediate host as snails
of the genus Oxytrema or Fluminicola. In the intermediate host sporocysts are developed and
release cercariae which are infective for the fish. Then parasite penetrate into the blood vessel
and develop there.
8.3. Pathogenicity: The release of eggs and penetrating miracidia mat elicit pathological
reactions in the gill and blood vessels.
8.4. Symtomps: Branchitis (diseased gill), swollaen kidney, mortality, morbidity, lowered
haematocrit.
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8.5. Diagnosis: Detection of parasite (length 0.5-0.9 mm) in the blood vessels (branchial,
renal, cardiac vessels). The adultfluke is lanceolate withour suckers and a narrow
oesophaagus. Eggs are thin-shelled.
8.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of snails from ponds and the environment. Filtration of pond water
to clear infective cercariae.
8.7. Treatment: Praziquantel may have a effect but this has not been documented (Buchmann
and Bresciani 2001).
9. Diplostomosis:
9.1. Aetiology: Larvae (metacercariae) of Diplostomum spathaceum (Diplostomatidae,
Digenea). Body length of cercariae is 160-260 µm and the bifurcated tail stem is as long as
the body. The established metacercariae are flattened, about 400 µm in length, and possess
two suckers and an attachment organ (Hoglund 1999).
9.2. Epizotiyology: The life cycle involves pulmonate snails as first intermediate hosts, fish as
second intermediate hosts, and piscivorous birds as final hosts harbouring the adult worms.
Fish are infected with cercariae. The adult parasite in the small intestine of a fish eating bird
releases eggs. These pass with the host faeces to the aquatic environment where they hatch
and release free swimming miracidia. These infect the first intermediate host, a pulmonate
snail, Lymnaea pereger or L. stagnalis. In the snails a new larval stage, the sporocyst,
develops. Tail bearing larvae, cercariae, in turn appear in the sporocysts and are liberated to
the water where tthey seek a fish host. When attached to the skin the tail is lost and the
invasion process is initiated. Following penetration of the fish skin, the larva migrates
through the lymphatic ducts to the final locality (the eye) in the fish. In the eye the larva
develops into the metacercarial stage (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001).
9.3. Pathogenicity: The free-living feeding metacercariae lie in the cortex of the lens. Rupture
of the lens and proliferating lens epithelium are sometimes observed at the site of parasite
entry (Hoglund 1999). Cercarial penetration of skin may compromise osmoregulation
(Buchmann and Bresciani 2001).
9.4. Symtomps: Infection may result in cataract formation within the lens, leading to partial or
total blindness. Starvation may cause a significant reduction in condition, or even death. After
penetration of the cercariae, lesions may form on the gills, body surface, and fins, which can
cause death, especially in young fish, at high infection rates (Hoglund, 1999).
9.5. Diagnosis: Detection of the metacercaria in the lens of the fish.
9.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermediate snail hosts. Preventing access of final host (fish
eating birds) because they release parasite eggs. Mechanical filtration of pond water may
reduce density of cercariae. Increrase of water flow in ponds may flush away the positevely
phototactic cercariae.
9.7. Treatment: Praziquantel (330 mg/kg) has been used orally in feed (Buchmann and
Bresciani 2001).
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10. Apatemonosis:
10.1. Aetiology: Apatemon gracilis
10.2. Epizotiyology: Adult trematodes live in birds. First intermediate host is a freswater
snail, the trout is the second intermediate with infective metracercariae. When the fish-eating
birds eats the fish it will result in maturation of tehe metacercaria into the adult stage in the
intestine of the bird.
10.3.Pathogenicity: The presence of metaccercariae in host tissue produce inflammatory
reactions which may affect physiological function of the organ. Trout infection with
Apatemon gracilis resulted in fibrogranulomatosis of the epicardium and failure in in-vitro
pumping performance (Tort et al. 1987, Watson et al. 1992).
10.4. Symtomps: Heavy infections associated witth lethargic fish. Heart function may
decrease.
10.5. Diagnosis: Detection of metacercaria in the fish tissue.
10.6. Prophylaxis: Eradication of intermediate host snails in the culture system and
surroundeings. Prevention of bird entry.
10.7. Treatment: Anthelmintic such as praziquantel may have effect (Buchmann and Bresciani
2001).
11. Tylodelphysosis:
11.1. Aetiology: Tylodelphys clavata, metacercariae; body lenght is 0.28-0.69 mm, width is
0.8-0.21 mm. Diameter of oral sucker is 0.025–0.047 x 0.021–0.039 mm, ventral sucker is
0.016–0.029 x 0.020-0.029 mm. Brandes's organ 0.048-0.079 x 0.021–0.045 mm (Karatoy
and Soylu 2006).
11.2. Epizotiyology: The adult parasite in the small intestine of a fish-eating bird sheds
parasite eggs. these are delivered with the host faeces to the aquatic environment where they
hatch and release free awimminng miracida. The first intermediate host, a pulmonate
snail,become infected by penetration. In the snails a new larval stage, the sporocyst, develops.
Tail-bearing larvae, cercariae, in turn appear in the sporocyst and are liberated to the water
where they seek a fish host. When attached to the skinthe tail is lost and the invading process
is initiated. Following penetration of the fish skin, the larva migrates in the lymphatic ducts to
the final locality (the eye) in the fish. In the eye the larva develops into the metacercarial
stage.
11.3. Pathogenicity: The movements and excretion from the metracercaria may cause
disturbances of the eye function.
11.4. Symtomps: Normally metacercariae do not cause serious disease. However, penetration
of cercaria into small fish ma elicit mortality.
11.5. Diagnosis: Detection of metacercaria in the vitreous humour of the fish.
11.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermaediaate snail hosts. Preventing access of final fisheating hosts releasing parasite eggs. Mechanical filtration of pond water may reduce density
of cercariae. Increase of water flow in ponds may flush away the positively phototactic
cercariae.
11.7. Treatment: Praziquantel (330 mg/kg) may be used orally in feed (Buchmann and
Bresciani 2001).
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The cestoda or tapeworms are exclusively endoparasitc and hermoaphroditic with no
asexual propagation in the intermediate host. Cestodes are oviparaous and have complicated
life cycles which in many cases include free-swimming ciliated larvae called coracidia. Other
cestode eggs infectt the host by hatching after ingestion. They have no mouth nor intestine.
They feed by absorbing of substances through their tegument.
12. Cyathocephalosis
12.1. Aetiology: Cyathocephalus truncatus
12.2. Epizootiyology: Hexacanth embryos of C. truncatus were found to develop optimally in
eggs cultured at between 15 °C and 20 °C for about 25 days. Gammarus pulex became
infected only by swallowing egg capsules a containing hexacanth embryos fed to them. The
young developing embryo grows over a period of about 10 weeks to the infective procercoid
stage in the body cavity of the amphipod. In fish, the tapeworm forms an attachment in the
distal end of a pyloric caecum 3 days after infection and matures in 8-10 days with production
of eggs. By the 15th day the attachment to host tissue has become so firm that it is impossible
to separate the worm from it. The tapeworm's hold on the caecal wall is probably achieved by
the sucking effect of the funnel-shaped scolex supplemented by the spike-like microtriches of
the inner scolex surface (Okaka 1984).
12.3. Pathogenicity: In heavily infected fish, the entire region of the pyloric caeca becomes
fused into a single mass which may additionally fuse with the abdominal body wall
immediately adjacent to it. In some cases, tapeworms were seen to have penetrated through
the caecal wall and were attached directly to the muscles of the abdominal wall with the
strobila still within the caecum. In other cases the whole tapeworm had moved through the
perforated distal tip of the caecum and was found free in the body cavity. Worms could also
be discharged into the intestinal tract with the detached distal, end of the caecum still held in
the soolex as described previously. Caeca with perforated tips are common in heavily infected
fish.
12.4. Symtomps: Heavily infected fish are often pale in colour, appearing very anaemic and
showed blister-like pustules on the skin of the abdomen. Light infections do not elicit
symptoms but mass mortalities in association with heavy infections have beeen described
(Okaka 1984).
12.5.Diagnosis: Unsegmented cestode with a maximum length of 5 cm. The scolex is cupshaped.
12.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermaediate snail hosts.
12.7. Treatment: Praziquantel, mebendazole or albendazole may have effect due to their
anticestodal activity (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001).
13. Proteocephalosis
13.1. Aetiology: Procephalus longicollis
13.2. Epizootiyology: The adult hermaphroditic cestode produce eggs which are liberated to
the water. Following hatching the larava (coracidium) will be ingested by a copepode which
in turn becomes infected with the procercoid stage. When the fish eats the copepod this
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crustacean will get deigested whereas the cestode larva develops into the adult stage in the
fish intestine. Adult cestodes are usually located in the anterior part of the intestine or caeca,
while juveniles may be found throughout the intestine (Scholz 1999). Parasite abundance is
highest in the period mid June - mid July
13.3. Pathogenicity: Mainly due to absorption of nutritive substances in the host intestine.
Inflammation of intestinalepitthelium due to cestode attachment.
13.4. Symtomps: It has been suggested that infections with P. longicollis reduce the growth of
rainbow trout (Priemer and Goltz 1986, Engelhardt et al. 1988).
13.5. Diagnosis: Detection in intestine of cestodes with four suckers.
13.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermaediate copepod hosts.
13.7. Treatment: Praziquantel (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001).
14. Eubothriosis
14.1. Aetiology: Eubothrium crassum E. salvelini
14.2. Epizootiyology: Transmission of E. crassum occurs when fish ingest infected copepods,
and the first site of E. crassum is either the stomach or intestine, where digestion of the
copepod happens. Growth only commences when a plerocerciform worm moves into a
caecum, and larger worms are more likely to be found in anterior caeca, the preferred site of
E. crassum (Kennedy 1996). The increase in prevalence and abundance of E. crassum occur
from late March to mid May.
14.3. Pathogenicity: The presence of the cup-shaped scolex in the tip of the pyloric caecum
induces an extensive ball-shaped tissue reaction.
14.4. Symtomps: infection by E. crassum may have a negative effect on host condition factor..
Parasite cause direct mortalities among the heavily infected fish, and indirect mortalities by
predation from reduced growth, poor swimming performance and aberrant behaviour. The
negative growth effects highlighted are considered caused either by poor host nutrition due to
demands of the parasite or from reduced food gathering capabilities (Smith 1973).
14.5. Diagnosis: Detection of cestodes in the pyloric caeca and intestine.
14.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermaediate copepos hosts. Filtration of water.
14.7. Treatment: Di-n-butyl tin oxide 80-160 mg/kg three days (Mitchell 1993)
15. Diphyllobothriosis
15.1. Aetiology: Diphyllobothrium is a genus of tapeworm which can cause
Diphyllobothriasis in humans through consumption of raw or undercooked fish. The principal
species causing diphyllobothriosis is Diphyllobothrium latum, known as the broad or fish
tapeworm, or broad fish tapeworm. D. latum is a pseudophyllid cestode that infects fish and
mammals. D. latum is native to Scandinavia, western Russia, and the Baltics, though it is now
also present in North America, especially the Pacific Northwest. In Far East Russia, D.
klebanovskii, having Pacific salmon as its second intermediate host, was identified (Muratov
and Posokhov 1988).
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15.2. Epizootiyology: Adult tapeworms may infect humans, canids, felines, bears, pinnipeds,
and mustelids. Immature eggs are passed in feaces of the mammal host. After ingestion by a
suitable freshwater crustacean such as a copepod (the first intermediate host), the coracidia
develop into procercoid larvae. Following ingestion of the copepod by a suitable second
intermediate host, typically a minnow or other small freshwater fish, the procercoid larvae are
released from the crustacean and migrate into the fish's flesh where they develop into a
plerocercoid larvae. The plerocercoid larvae are the infective stage for the definitive host.
15.3. Pathogenicity: Inflammatory reactions in the affected tissue.
15.4. Symtomps: Clinical signs of diphyllobothriasis are generally mild, and can include
diarrhea, abdominal pain, vomiting, weight loss, fatigue, constipation and discomfort in
human. Approximately four out of five cases are asymptomatic and may go many years
without being detected (Scholz et al. 2009). In a small number of cases, this leads to severe
vitamin B12 deficiency due to the parasite absorbing 80% or more of the host’s B12 intake,
and a megaloblastic anemia indistinguishable from pernicious anemia (David and William
2006).
15.5. Diagnosis: Detection of pleurocercoids in the fish viscera of flesh.
15.6. Prophylaxis: Contamination of the environment with worm eggs should be prevented.
15.7. Treatment: Praziquantel may have effect (Buchmann and Bresciani 2001)
16. Triaenophorosis
16.1. Aetiology: Triaenophorus crassus, T. nodulosus
16.2. Epizootiyology: Adults of T. crassus and T. nodulosus occur in the intestine of the pike,
Esox lucius L. The first intermediate hosts of Triaenophorus spp. are cyclopoid copepods and
in European waters Cyclops vicinus and C. strenuus are the most important first hosts of T.
crassus (Kuperman 1973). Plerocercoids of T. crassus occur in the musculature of the fish
host, and in wild populations of salmonids and coregonids may cause loss of quality in fish
products. Infection first occurs in early June when the trout fry have been moved into the
cages (Bauer and Solomatova 1984).
16.3. Pathogenicity: Severe inflamatory reactions in muscles due to infectins with T. crassus.
The plerocercoids may exert pressure on organs and thereby disturb normal physiological
function.
16.4. Symtomps: Parasite cause letthargy and mortality of fingerlings.
16.5. Diagnosis: Detection of plerocercoids in the organs or muscles of the intermaediate host.
The worms have four characteristic hooks shaped as three-toothed combs in the scolex.
16.6. Prophylaxis: Removal of intermaediate copepod hosts. Any pike in the surrondings
should be removed. Water filtration prevent to contaminate of copepods.
16.7. Treatment: Anticestodal drugs such as praziquantel mat have effect (Buchmann and
Bresciani 2001).
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REFERENCES:
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(Pseudophyllidea: Triaenophoridae) as a pathogen of cage-reared salmonids, Journal of Fish
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Bennington, E. and Pratt, I. (1960) The Life History of the Salmon-Poisoning Fluke,
Nanophyetus salmincola (Chapin). Journal of Parasitology, 46, 91-100.
Brown, F.J. (2009) On Crepidostomum farionis O. F. Müll. (Stephanophiala laureata Zeder), a
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Buchmann, K. and Bresciani, J. (2001) An Introduction to Parasitic Diseases of Freshwater
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Gannicott, A.M. (1997) The biology of Discocotyle sagittata (Monogenea) infecting trout,
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Hoffman, G. L., Fried, B. and Harvey J. E. (1985) Sanguiiucola fonthialis sp. nov. (Digenea:
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63
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1227
Title
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Parasitic Diseases of Trout and Their Controls in Sustainable Development of Aquculture: Platyhelminthes
Author
Author
Erol, Tokşen
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Aquaculture is an important food-producing sector. It provides much needed protein, employment, income and livelihoods support to many people in the world and this is especially true in most developing countries. A significant challenge to the expansion of aquaculture production is the outbreak of disease. Potential economic losses from disease outbreaks are significant, and can affect the survival of the industry. Fish diseases were caused by enfectious agents as parasite, bacteria, virus and fungus. Gyrodactylus spp., Tetraonchus spp., Discootyle spp., Cyathocephalsus spp., Proteocephalus spp., Eubothrium spp., Diphyllobothrium spp., Trianophorus spp., Crepidostomum spp., Phyllodistomum spp., Sanguinicola spp., Diplostomum spp., Tylodelphys spp., Apatemon spp. are observed in rainbow trout. Gyrodactylus salaris caused the mortality up to 95 % in salmon population in some rivers in Norvay. So, G. salaris is a disease between compulsory notifiable diseases in EU. However, such a pathogen monogenean enfestations have not been appeared in Turkey, First record of Crepidostomum farionis was carried out in rainbow trout in Elazığ from Turkey. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trout caused by phylum Plathyhelmintes, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on trouts, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Keywords: Trout, disease, parasite, platyhelminthes, diagnosis, treatment
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9e3d3e71d30efd54c99963097aa79973.pdf
9c0077332787dec126ee0fe786dd3570
PDF Text
Text
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acid modified soybean straw. Journal of Hazardous Materials 153, 300–308.
Parasitic Diseases And Their Controls In Sustainable Development Of Aquculture Of
Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus Thynnus)
Erol Tokşen, Egemen Nemli,Uğur Değirmenci, Ulviye Karacalar
Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 İzmir, Turkey
E-mails: erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr, egemen.nemli@ege.edu.tr, ugur.degirmenci@ege.edu.tr,
ulviye.karacalar@ege.edu.tr
Abstract
In the last decades Turkish and Mediterranean mariculture has focused its production mainly
on two species, gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.).
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
However, due to its high commercial value bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) has been
considered as an alternative aquaculture target. The culture of bluefin tuna has started by
private sector in 2001 in Turkey. The catched fishes are fed by frozen herring, sardina,
mackerel between May and June and after fattened, they are sold. Total feeding time in
Turkey 4 to 10 months like other countries which are culturing bluefin tuna. As an developing
sector in Turkey and in the world, blue fin tuna farming require to further studies on larvae
production, feed investigations and diseases occur on the fish. According to studies conducted
to date, 28 species were found in Pylums Ciliphora, Myxozoa, Platyhelmintes, Aschelmintes
and Arthropoda. The present work aim to reveal diseases of bluefish tuna caused by parasites,
how they are transmitted, which effects they have on tuna fish, how they could be diagnosed,
and how they could be controlled and treated.
Keywords: Bluefin tuna, disease, parasite, diagnosis, treatment.
1.INTRODUCTION
Aquaculture is one of the fastest growing industries in Turkey having grown in
volume by over 20 percent for the past ten years (Table 1). Production of the three major
species, namely rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and
seabream (Sparus aurata) increased rapidly during the 1990s, with efforts having been given
to the development of new species, such as the Black Sea turbot (Scophthalmus maeoticus)
and some Mediterranean species such as sharpsnout seabream (Diplodus puntazzo), common
seabream (Pagrus pagrus), common dentex (Dentex dentex) and groupers (Epinephelus spp.).
Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) fattening, which started at the turn of the millennium
has been the latest development in terms of species diversity.
Species
Seabass/seabream
Trout
Shell
Tuna
Trout & seabass
Seabass & bream & new species
Trout
Seabass & bream & trout
Seabass
Total
Farm number
Rate (%)
Rate (%)
87
1
1
2
4
4
Capacity
(tonnes)
99 869
820
1 925
7 440
9 613
9 529
309
5
4
8
14
13
1
1
0
0
4 800
100
3.6
0.1
1
356
0
100
25
134 121
0
100
74
0.6
1.4
5.5
7.2
7.1
Table 1. Number of marine fish farm, capacities and production in 2009.
(http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_turkey/en)
Tuna aquaculture is presently in its early stages of development and will likely
continue to expand, but with this expansion, parasitic disease will become increasingly
important. Thus, focus has been placed on parasitic infections in these enterprises and their
economic and ecological impact. Diseases problems including parasitic organisms are the
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main threat to further increas of the industry. There are various parasites caused the diseases
on tuna fish. This research presents the individual parasites types producing problems in tuna
fish. Each section is presented with 1.aetiyology, the parasitic organism responsible for the
disease, 2.epizootiology, the transmission of the diseases and life cycle of the parasite,
3.pathogenicity, how the parasite produces diseases in the fish, 4.symptoms, clinical signs of
the diseases, 5.diagnose, how the infection can be identificated, 6.treatment, how the infection
can be controlled.
2. Coccidiosis
2.1. Aetiology. Goussia auxidis
Mature oocysts (18-28 µm diameter) occur in the splenic pulp and in melanomacrophage
centres in the spleen and liver, and in the peribiliary connective tissues of the liver. The
oocyst has a thin membranous wall, and each contains four sporocysts but no oocyst
residuum. Sporocysts (length 8-12 x 6-7 µm) have a thickened wall with a faint dehiscence
suture occasionally visible (Jones 1990).
2.2. Epizootiology: The method of transmission of infection is unknown. 98 % (140 of 143)
of albacore, T. alalunga, and an individual yellowfin tuna, T. albacares, from the South
Pacific were found be infected (Jones 1990).
2.3. Pathogenicity: Oocysts occurred in both the liver and spleen where they produced
minimal host response. Host response appears to be minimal with slight proliferation of
fibroblasts around the oocyst in some fish. The spores are positively associated with
melanomacrophage centres but the degree of association varies from fish to fish (Jones 1990).
2.4. Symptoms: No clinical signs have been reported.
2.5. Treatment and Prophylaxis: Not required.
3. Uronemosis
3.1. Aetiology: Uronema nigricans
Fixed and stained parasite is variable in size ranging from 19.8-34 µm in length by 7.1-20 µm
in width. They contained distinctive somatic ciliature consisting of 12-14 longitudinal kineties
arranged in meridional rows (Munday et al. 1997).
3.2. Epizootiology: Until recently, infections of fish with Uronema sp. had been mainly
reported in aquarium species in which they were invasive and resulted in severe tissue
damage and subsequent mortalities (Cheung et al. 1980, Bassleer 1983). More recently the
potential for scuticociliatids to be a problem in mariculture has been highlighted by reports of
serious disease of larval and juvenile fish in Japan and Spain attributed to infection with
Uronema sp. (Yoshinaga and Nakazoe 1993, Dykova and Figueras 1994) and of mature sea
bass in the Mediterranean, where parasite was described as Philasterides dicentrarchi
(Dragesco et al. 1995). In Australia mortalities of southern bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii in
growout seacages have also been reported with the causative agent being identified as
Uronema nigricans (Munday et al. 1997). Epizootiological factors which may be implicated in
the initiation of the disease in SBT are water temperature and host immune status. The
"swimmer" syndrome has not occurred when water temperatures have exceeded 18°C. SBT
maintain a body temperature of about 24°C, even in much colder water, so it is possible that
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
the parasite, which would be expected to have an optimum growth temperature of about 25°C
(Parker 1976), would be preferentially attracted to the fish under conditions of relatively low
water temperatures (< 18°C).
3.3. Pathogenicity: U. nigricans initially parasitizes the olfactory rosette at which stage the
host mounts a vigorous inflammatory response. If the host response is inadequate, the ciliate
then invades branches of the olfactory nerve present in the axis of the olfactory rosette. Even
though there is still some host response to invasion of the olfactory nerve the migration of U.
nigricans is probably then inexorable, ending in invasion of the brain, which causes locomotor
dysfunction and, ultimately, death. Generalised infections leading to severe mortalities in
larval marine fish were reported (Munday 1996).
3.4. Symptoms: Typically, affected tuna fish came to the surface, turned light blue and swam
vigorously around the cage. Eventually, the fish ceased compulsive swimming and exhibited
short bursts of forward motion with their heads out of water, followed by periods of sinking,
before once again coming to the surface and then repeating the process. Finally, the fish sank
and died at the bottom of the netpen (Munday et al. 1997).
3.5. Diagnosis: Presumptive diagnosis of the disease in SBT can be made by examining wet
preparations of CSF and brain. However, although a fluorescent antibody test has been
developed for cultured and environmental organisms (Watts 1995), this is not suitable for
clinical material because of autofluorescence of host tissues. Definitive diagnosis can be made
by microscopic examination of histological slides of nervous tissues. As clinical pathology
only reflects general stress and perturbed osmoregulation, it is of no specific diagnostic value.
3.6. Treatment: The most effective concentrations of formalin were 100 and 200 ppm where
total cell lysis occurred after 120 and 60 min respectively. Hydrogen peroxide was lethal to
the ciliate at all concentrations (Crosbie and Munday, 1999).
4. Kudoasis
4.1. Aetiology: Kudoa prunusi, K. crumena
Typical Kudoa crumena spores measuring 7.5 x 9.9 µm and 4.4-5.6 x 7.8-10.0 µm. Average
spore size of Kudoa prunusi is 9.63 μm in width and 7.50 μm in length (Meng et al., 2011).
4.2. Epizootiyology: K. crumena was reported in a yellowfin tuna (Kent et al. 2001). The
infections described by Langdon (1990) were in southern bluefin tuna caught off
southwestern Western Australia when the fish would have been 1-3 years of age and feeding
on cephalopods, crustaceans and salps (Kailola et al. 1993). Infections have also been
reported in southern bluefin tuna in South Australia (Rough 2000) and wild fish caught off the
New South Wales coast where the prevalence of about 1% affected fish was a cause of
commercial loss. The prevalence of K. crumena in albacore was reported as 5%. Kudoa sp.
infection of northern and southern bluefin tuna producing lesions in the flesh.
4.3. Pathogenicity: The infection in southern bluefin tuna produces white cysts 1-10 mm in
diameter which are apparently in the muscle (Rough 2000) although Langdon (1990)
produced evidence to suggest that most, if not all, cysts in southern bluefin tuna were in
peripheral nerves, especially the intercostal nerves. Histologically the cysts are found to
consist of numerous Kudoa spores surrounded by a fibrous capsule. Similar lesions because of
an unidentified Kudoa sp. have been reported in southern bluefin tuna and Langdon (1990)
suggested that the parasite could be K. nova, but as it does not produce myoliquefaction, this
seems unlikely.
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4.4. Symptoms. None reported.
4.5. Diagnosis. Kudoa sp. can be seen in wet preparations or histological sections. Numerous
plasmodia were localized not only in the cavity of the optic tectum but also in the tissue of
cerebellum. Host inflammatory response and gliosis were occasionally found around
plasmodia (Meng et al. 2011).
4.6. Treatment and Prophylaxis. Neither treatment nor prevention are practicable.
5. Hexacapsulosis
5.1. Aetiology: Hexacapsula neothunni
Spores measure 6.2-11.0 µm and have six shell valves each containing one polar capsule
(Lom and Dykova 1992). Kudoa nova spores measure 5.3-6.5 x 8.5-9.8 µm and have four
shell valves each containing one polar capsule.
5.2. Epizotiology: Most myxosporeans, for which life cycles are known, have a two-host
cycle with the myxosporean in a fish and an actinosporean in an invertebrate (Kent et al.
2001). As most juvenile tuna consume invertebrates such as squid and crustaceans (Kailola et
al. 1993), it is conceivable that these prey species could be alternative hosts.
5.3. Pathogenicity: The postmortem liquefaction of the muscle caused by the release of
proteases from the parasites that is the most dramatic result of the infection (Ogawa 1996).
Histologically, the myxosporean spores are found aggregated in the cystic structures and
usually produce minimal host response.
5.4. Symptoms: The parasites produce no clinical signs, and, while with heavy infections
cysts may be visible in the musculature
5.5. Diagnosis: Typical myxosporean spores can be easily found in wet preparations or
histological sections of affected muscles.
5.6. Treatment and Prophylaxis. Neither treatment nor prevention is practicable.
6. Cardicolosis
6.1. Aetiology: Cardicola ahi, Cardicola forsteri
Adult flukes are dorsoventrally compressed and 100-150 μm in width, with marginal
tegumental spines, parenchymous body cavity, and indistinct reproductive and digestive tracts
(Cribb et al. 2000).
6.2 Epizootiyology: C. ahi has been reported from yellowfin and bigeye tunas (Smith 1997).
C. forsteri (Cribb et al. 2000) occurs in southern bluefin tuna. The intermediate hosts of
Cardicola ahi and C. forsteri are not known. It is also not known if teleosts, other than
Thunnus spp., act as final hosts. Colquitt et al. (2001) reported that the prevalence and
severity of the infection increased with the time that southern bluefin tuna were held in
captivity suggesting that the life cycle was maintained in the vicinity of the cages.
Additionally, tuna farmers have reported that infections tend to be more severe at new cage
sites suggesting that the parasite may also have a deleterious effect on the intermediate host.
6.3. Pathogenicity: Multifocal, white to yellow lesions involving the gills of infected southern
bluefin tuna are described. The lesions ranged in size from 2 to 12 mm and often extended in
an arc across the gills. The lesions appeared to be the result of the fluke ova impacting in the
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
afferent filamentary arteries where they stimulated a host response. Cardiac lesions were also
reported and noted many ova surrounded by granulomas. There was marked hypertrophy of
the cardiac spongiosa, presumably because of increased resistance to blood passing through
the partly occluded branchial vasculature (Colquitt et al. 2001). It may not be a coincidence
that bigeye tuna, which are known to be infected with C. ahi, have a much more compact
ventricular myocardium (74%) compared with northern bluefin tuna (30–50%) which have
not been reported to be to be infected with blood flukes (Santer and Greer-Walker 1980,
Smith 1997).
6.4. Symptoms: C. forsteri infections of cultured southern bluefin tuna lead to increased
mucus on the gills and have been associated with signs of respiratory distress, lethargy and
slightly increased mortality (Rough 2000).
6.5. Diagnosis: In southern bluefin tuna the gross lesions are characteristic enough to enable a
presumptive diagnosis. Histopathology is even more diagnostic, but definitive diagnosis
depends upon flushing the adults from the heart and identifying them.
5.6. Treatment and Prophylaxis: Prevention of blood fluke infections depends upon an
understanding of the parasites life cycle and, therefore, is not possible at present.
7. Didymocystiasis
7.1. Aetiology: Didymocystis wedli
The membranous cysts on the gill filament are oval in shape and measure 3-6 mm in length by
1.5-2.8 mm in width, depending on the stage of development and contain two similar worms
applied closely against each other with opposite extremities. Under higher magnification we
can observe the porous surface of the cyst. The characteristic feature of the body shape of
D. wedli, with two distinct parts, can be well observed by light and scanning electron
microscopy. The forebody is elongate, cylindrical, and slender, measures 1-2.2 mm long by
00.1-0.3 mm wide. The tegument of ventral and dorsal surfaces of forebody is wrinkled
cobblestone-like, without spines or papillae. At higher magnification the oral opening is seen
in the retractil tip of the forebody. Sensory papillae were not observed around the oral
opening. The large hindbody has two symmetrical rounded lobes on the anterior end, forming
a groove, from which emerges the elongated forebody; the posterior third of the hindbody is
curved ventrally forming a somewhat pointed tail. The hindbody measure 3.4-10.2 mm in
length by 0.9-3.1mm largest widht. The dorsal surface is more prominent than the ventral,
forming a cover with tegumental transversal striations. There are no spines or papillae on
either the ventral or the dorsal tegumentary surface of the hindbbody, which presents the same
wrinkled cobblestone-like appearance (Kohn et al. 2001)
8. Anisakisasis
8.1. Aetiology: Anisakis simplex and Hysterothylacium cornutum (Williams and BunkleyWilliams 1996).
8.2. Epizootiyology: The definitive hosts of these parasites are marine mammals. Many other
species of fish can act as intermediate hosts.
8.3. Pathogenicity: The small third-stage larvae are found encapsulated in the peritoneal
mesenteries and, sometimes, the liver. If the fish are not quickly eviscerated it is possible for
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
the larvae to migrate to the abdominal muscles. Anisakis sp. infections are of importance
because they can potentially infect humans.
8.4. Symptoms: The infections are covert.
8.5. Diagnosis: The presence of tightly coiled, encapsulated larval nematodes in the
mesenteries of tunas is suggestive of anisakid nematode infection, but definitive identification
of the larvae can be difficult.
8.6. Treatment and Prophylaxis: Human infection can be prevented by rapid evisceration of
the fish and/or cooking of the flesh. In most instances tuna destined for sashimi are
eviscerated soon after capture. There is no practicable treatment.
9. Copepodiasis
9.1. Aetiology: C. elongatus, Euryphros brachypterus, Penella filosa and Pseudocycnus
appendiculatus
Overall length of female of Pseudocycnus appendiculatus is 13.7 mm-15.6 mm. Anterior
quarter of ventral length bright red, rest of body yellowbrown, the red pigment persistent in
alcohol for at least several months. Cephalothorax subovate, (1.2 mm-1.3 mm x 1.2 mm),
greatest width a little posterior to midpaint. Second thoracic segment subovate, length/width
(0.6 mm-0.8 mm x 1.1 mm). Third thoracic segment, length/width (0.5 mm-0.6 mm x 1.0
mm-1.2 mm). Fourth thoracic segment subovate, length/width (1.7 mm x 1.2 mm-1.3 mm).
Trunk, excluding the anterior swollen portion, cylindrical, length more than 6 times width (6.6
mm-7.9 mm x 1.0 mm-1.1 mm), lateral margins parallel with 2 plate-like subsemicircular
dorsal projections, % trunk width, length % width, carried laterally on posterior margin.
Abdomen, length % width (0.6 mm-0.7 mm x 0.9 mm-l.0 mm), caudal laminae borne laterally
on posterior margin of abdomen, length 12 times basal width (3.4 mm-3.8 mm x 0.3 mm-0.4
mm). Egg strings extending from posterior margin of trunk, beneath platelike projections
dorsal to abdomen, present on only 1 specimen, as long as body, eggs uniserial, length 13.7
mm, posterior of egg strings empty of eggs in this individual (Hewitt 1969, Purivirojkul
2011).
9.2. Epizootiyology: As C. elongatus and Penella filosa have multiple hosts, tuna may become
infected from a variety of sources. However, Euryphorus brachypterus is almost genus
specific for Thunnus spp. (Williams and Bunkley-Williams 1996). In the case of C. elongatus
infecting captive southern bluefin tuna, capture trauma and high stocking densities are
believed to predispose to heavy infections (Rough et al. 1999).
9.3. Pathogenicity: Lesions because of the copepods are related to their grazing behaviour (C.
elongatus) or the damage caused by their attachment to the host (Euryphorus brachypterus and
Penella filosa). Opportunistic infections of the bacterium Aeromonas sp. have also been
reported in association with louse-associated damage to tuna eyes (Munday et al. 2003).
9.4. Symptoms: C. elongatus grazes on the integument of southern bluefin tuna and may
produce grazing trails including over ocular tissues. Damage to the eye results in keratitis,
panopthalmitis, cataract formation and blindness, leading to significant production losses
(Rough 2000, Munday et al. 2003). Very heavy infections of Euryphorus brachypterus have
been reported in northern bluefin tuna in which the pseudobranch has been carpeted with the
parasite leading to ulceration and bleeding (Rough et al. 1999). Similar, but less severe lesions
may be present on the gills and skin. The very large copepod Penella filosa penetrates into the
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
muscles of a number of tuna species. It has been reported to cause the fish considerable
discomfort (Williams and Bunkley-Williams 1996).
9.5. Diagnosis: Experts can make a presumptive diagnosis of these copepod infections based
on the morphology of the parasites and the types of lesions induced by their activities.
However, definitive diagnosis is only possible by a scientist skilled in identifying the
parasites.
9.6. Prophylaxis: Trauma may predispose to C. elongatus infections then reduction of damage
because of capture, towing and harvesting should simultaneously reduce the level of
infestation/damage caused by this copepod. Additionally, as this parasite and Penella filosa
are carried by other species of fish, it would be appropriate to keep other forms of aquaculture
separate from tuna farms (Rough et al. 1999).
9.7. Treatment: Although a number of therapeutants are capable of killing copepod parasites
(Lester and Roubal 1999) it is impracticable to use these agents under current tuna
aquaculture conditions. In addition, at the present level of loss of production, such treatments
would be uneconomical.
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Cheung, P.J., Nigrelli, R.F. and Ruggieri, G.D. (1980) Studies on the morphology of Uronema
marinum Dujardin (Ciliatea: Uronematidae) with a description of the histopathology of the
infection in marine fishes, Journal of Fish Disease, 3, 295-303.
Colquitt, S.E., Munday, B.L. and Daintith, M. (2001) Pathological findings in southern
bluefin tuna, Thunnus maccoyii (Castelnau), infected with Cardicola forsteri (Cribb, Daintith
& Munday, 2000) (Digenea: Sanguinicolidae), a blood fluke, Journal of Fish Diseases, 24,
225-229.
Cribb, T., Daintith, M. and Munday, B.L. (2000) A new blood-fluke, Cardicola forsteri
(Digenea: Sanguinicolidae), of southern blue-fin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) in aquaculture,
Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia, 124, 117-120.
Crosbie, P.B.B. and Munday, B.L. (1999) Environmental factors and chemical agents
affecting the growth of the pathogenic marine ciliate Uronema nigricans, Diseases of Aquatic
Organisms, 36, 213-219.
Dragesco, A., Dragesco, J., Coste, F., Gasc, C., Romestand, B., Raymond, J.C. and Bouix, G.
(1995) Philasterides dicentrarchi, n. sp., (Ciliophora, Scuticoclliatida), a histophagous
opportunstic parasite of Dicentrarchus labrax (Linnaeus, 1758), a reared marine fish,
European Journal of Protistology, 31, 327-340.
Dykova, I. and Figueras, A. (1994) Histopathological changes in turbot Scophthalmus
maximus due to a histophagous ciliate. Diseases of Aquatic Organisims, 18, 5-9.
Hewitt, G.C. (1969) Pseudocycnus appendiculatus Heller, 1868 (copepoda, dichelesthiidae)
in New Zealand waters, New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 3, 169176.
48
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Jones, J.B. (1990) Goussia auxidis (Dogiel, 1984) (Apicomplexa: Calyptosporidae) from tuna
(Pisces: Scombridae) in the South Pacific, Journal of Fish Diseases 13, 215–223.
Kailola, P.J., Williams, M.J., Stewart, P.C., Reichelt, R.E., McNee, A. and Grieve, C. (1993)
"Australian Fisheries Resources" Commonwealth of Australia, Brisbane.
Kent, M.L., Andree, K.B., Bartholomew, J.L., El-Matbouli, M., Desse,r S.S., Devlin, R.H.,
Feist, S.W., Hedrick, R.P., Hoffman, R.W., Khattra, J., Hallett, S.L., Leste,r R.J.G.,
Longshaw, M., Palenzeula, O., Siddall, M.E. and Xiao, C. (2001) Recent advances in our
knowledge of Myxozoa. The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 48, 395-413.
Kohn, A., Santos, A.L. and Baptista-Farias, M.F.D. (2001) Report of Didymocystis wedli
Ariola, 1902 (Digenea; Didymozoidae) from Thunnus albacares in Brazil, Memorias do
Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 96, 951-954.
Langdon, J.S. (1990) Observations on new Myxobolus species and Kudoa species infecting
the nervous system of Australian fishes, Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 6, 107-116.
Lester, R.J.G. and Roubal, F.R. (1999) "Phylum Arthropoda" in: P.T.K. Woo (ed) Fish
Diseases and Disorders, Volume 1: Protozoan and Metazoan Infections. Second Edition, CAB
International, Wallingford, U.K., 475-598.
Lom, J. and Dykova, I. (1992) "Protozoan Parasites of Fish" Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Meng, F., Yokoyama, H., Shirakashi, S., Grabner, D., Ogawa, K., Ishimaru, K., Sawada, Y.,
Murata, O. (2011) Kudoa prunusi n. sp. (Myxozoa: Multivalvulida) from the brain of Pacific
bluefin tuna Thunnus orientalis (Temminck & Schlegel, 1844) cultured in Japan, Parasitology
International, 60, 90-96.
Munday BL (1996) Infectious diseases of finfish. In: Bryden D (ed) Fish health workshop.
Post Graduate Foundation in Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, p 81-123.
Munday BL, Sawada Y, Cribb T, Hayward CJ (2003) Diseases of tunas, Thunnus spp. J Fish
Dis 26:187–206
Munday BL. O'Donoghue PJ, Rough K, Watts M, Hawkesford T (1997) Fatal encephalitis
due to the scuticociliate Uronerna nigncans (Mueller) in sea-caged, southern bluefin tuna,
Thunnus rnaccoyii (Castelnau). Dis Aquat Org 30:17-25.
Munday, B L., Sawada, Y. Cribb, T. and Hayward, C.J. (2003) Diseases of tunas, Thunnus
spp. Journal of Fish Diseases, 26, 187–206
Ogawa K. (1996) Marine parasitology with special reference to Japanese fisheries and
mariculture. Veterinary Parasitology 64, 95–105.
Parker, JG (1976) Cultural characteristics of the marine ciliated protozoan Uronema marinum
Dujardin. J Exp Mar Biol Eco124:213-226.
Purivirojkul, W. Chaidee P. and Thapanand-Chaıdee, T. (2011) New Record Of
Pseudocycnus Appendiculatus Heller, 1868 Parasites Of Yellowfin Tuna Thunnus Albacares
(Bonnaterre, 1788) in The Andaman Sea, Thailand, Walailak J Sci & Tech 2011; 8(1): 81‐85.
Rough KM (2000) An illustrated guide to the parasites of southern bluefin tuna Thunnus
maccoyii. South Australian Research and Development Institute, Adelaide.
Rough K.M., Lester R.J.G. and Reuter R.E. (1999) Caligus elongatus a significant parasite of
cultured southern bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii. Book of Abstracts, World Aquaculture, 99,
26 April–2 May 1999, Sydney, p. 655. World Aquaculture Society.
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Santer R.M. & Greer-Walker M. (1980) Morphological studies on the ventricle of teleost and
elasmobranch hearts. Journal of Zoology (London) 190, 259–272.
Smith J.W. (1997) The blood flukes (Digenea: Sanguinicolidae and Spirorchidae) of coldblooded vertebrates: Part 2. Helminthological Abstracts 66, 329–344.
Watts, M. (1995) The development of a fluorescent antibody stain to identify a Uronenla sp.
(Ciliophora: Scuticociliatida) implicated in fatal encephalitis in farmed tuna (Thunnus
maccoyii). Honours thesis, University of Tasmania, Launceston.
Williams E.H. & Bunkley-Williams L. (1996) Parasites of Offshore Big Game Fishes of
Puerto Rico and the Western Atlantic. Puerto Rico Department of Natural Environmental
Resources and the University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez.
Yoshinaga T, Nakazoe J (1993) Isolation and in vitro cultivation of an unidentified ciliate
causing scuticociliosis in Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). Gyobyo Kenkyu
28:131-134.
Parasitic Diseases of Trout and Their Controls
in Sustainable Development of Aquculture: Platyhelminthes
Erol Tokşen1, Erkin Koyuncu2
1Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 35100 İzmir,
Turkey
2Mersin University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases,Yenişehir 33169 Mersin,
Turkey
E-mails: erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr, ekoyuncu@mersin.edu.tr
Abstract
Aquaculture is an important food-producing sector. It provides much needed protein,
employment, income and livelihoods support to many people in the world and this is
especially true in most developing countries. A significant challenge to the expansion of
aquaculture production is the outbreak of disease. Potential economic losses from disease
outbreaks are significant, and can affect the survival of the industry. Fish diseases were
caused by enfectious agents as parasite, bacteria, virus and fungus. Gyrodactylus spp.,
Tetraonchus spp., Discootyle spp., Cyathocephalsus spp., Proteocephalus spp., Eubothrium
spp., Diphyllobothrium spp., Trianophorus spp., Crepidostomum spp., Phyllodistomum spp.,
Sanguinicola spp., Diplostomum spp., Tylodelphys spp., Apatemon spp. are observed in
rainbow trout. Gyrodactylus salaris caused the mortality up to 95 % in salmon population in
some rivers in Norvay. So, G. salaris is a disease between compulsory notifiable diseases in
EU. However, such a pathogen monogenean enfestations have not been appeared in Turkey,
First record of Crepidostomum farionis was carried out in rainbow trout in Elazığ from
Turkey. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trout caused by phylum
50
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
1226
Title
A name given to the resource
Parasitic Diseases And Their Controls In Sustainable Development Of Aquculture Of Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus Thynnus)
Author
Author
Erol, Tokşen
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In the last decades Turkish and Mediterranean mariculture has focused its production mainly on two species, gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.).However, due to its high commercial value bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) has been considered as an alternative aquaculture target. The culture of bluefin tuna has started by private sector in 2001 in Turkey. The catched fishes are fed by frozen herring, sardina, mackerel between May and June and after fattened, they are sold. Total feeding time in Turkey 4 to 10 months like other countries which are culturing bluefin tuna. As an developing sector in Turkey and in the world, blue fin tuna farming require to further studies on larvae production, feed investigations and diseases occur on the fish. According to studies conducted to date, 28 species were found in Pylums Ciliphora, Myxozoa, Platyhelmintes, Aschelmintes and Arthropoda. The present work aim to reveal diseases of bluefish tuna caused by parasites, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on tuna fish, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Keywords: Bluefin tuna, disease, parasite, diagnosis, treatment.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e479f1b5c68fca5ef618b00e00a9b498.pdf
c9edbbbe388ff4749c360abe7a3f730d
PDF Text
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3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Uzun S., İlbaş A.İ., İpek A., Beyzi E.Uranbey, S. and Arslan, N. (2012). In Vitro Propagation
of Endemic Iris galactica Immature Zygotic. XI. International Symposium on Flower Bulbs
and Herbaceous Perennials. Abstract Book. P: 109. ANTALYA.
Yıldırım Z., Öztürk G. and Esen, M. (2010). Propagation of Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.)
in In Vitro Conditions. III. National Ornamental Plants Congress.p:98-102. İZMİR
Zencirkıran M.and Mengüç A. (2002).The Effects of Twin Scale and Chipping
Techniques on Bulblet Production in Galanthus elwesii Hook. II. National Ornamental
Plants Congress.p: 24-28.ANTALYA.
Zeybekoğlu E. and Özzambak E, 2012. XI. International Symposium on Flower Bulbs and
Herbaceous Perennials. Abstract Book. P: 225. ANTALYA.
Sustainable Collection of Laurel (Laurus nobilis L.) Leaves in Antalya Province
Deniz Hazar1 Ibrahim Baktir2
Ozgul KaraguzeL3
Levent Ht4
1*Akdeniz University, Kumluca Vocational School
2 Akdeniz University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture
3Bati Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute
4Antalya Forest Department
E-mail: dhazar@akdeniz.edu.tr
Abstract
Laurel (Laurus nobilis L.) is an evergreen shrub which belongs to the Lauraceae family. It
grows naturally along the entire coastal line of Turkey up to altitude of 1200 m. Laurel has
been regarded as an important medicinal and aromatic plant for years in the Mediterranean
Basin. Meantime, it is also often used as an ornamental plant in parks and gardens because it
is very much suitable to pruning and to give the desired forms. Turkey provides about 97% of
the world’s laurel leaf need. It is one of the top five plants collected from nature and exported
from Turkey. However, there are some serious problems about the production system of
laurel. Laurel production is done in conventional methods by local people. These areas are
under threat due to overgrazing and uncontrolled collection. Ultimately, laurel growing areas
have been exploited. In recent years, the researches related to sustainable use of laurel have
increased. In this study it was investigated the researches conducted to sustainable use of
laurel in Sırtkoy, Manavgat district and some other districts of Antalya. The aim of these
studies was to develop an inventory method and to prepare management plans to be used by
forest service and regional people. The cut shoots and leaves of laurel should be controlled
and they should not be cut from the same locations every year. The rotation must be strictly
applied in every 3 or 4 years intervals. Leaf collections should be done by experienced people
in right period of the years and the leaves should be dried in a proper way.
Keywords: Laurel, leaf, sustainability
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1.INTRODUCTION
Medicinal and aromatic plants are used for many purposes. There is a growing demand for
them at the global level. They are mostly collected from nature. Therefore, conservation and
sustainable use of these species are necessary to meet the needs of present and future
generations. Laurel is an important medicinal and aromatic plant in Turkey. Laurel areas are
under threat due to some serious problems such as uncontrolled collection and overgrazing. In
this study, it was investigated the researches have been conducted so far (e.c. SırtkoyManavgat district) to conservation and sustainability of laurel areas.
Laurel (Laurus nobilis L.) is a member of the Lauracea family which contains 45 genera and
about 1000 species. It is also known, as sweet bay, bay laurel, Grecian laurel, true bay and
bay. In Turkish, it is named as Akdeniz defnesi or only defne. The homeland of the Laurel is
Anatolia and Balkans. But it was taken to the shores of the Mediterranean in ancient times.
Today it is one of the characteristic plants of the Mediterranean. Laurel grows wild and is
cultivated in many warm regions of the world particularly in the Mediterranean countries
(Turkey, Greece, France, Spain, Portugal, Algeria and Morocco). It grows naturally along the
entire coastal line of Turkey up to altitude of 1200 m (Davis, 1982; Başer and Ekim, 2003). It
has a wide distribution in Turkish flora: Balıkesir, Bursa, İstanbul, Zonguldak, Kastamonu,
Sinop, Trabzon, Rize, İzmir, Muğla, Antalya, Mersin and Maraş (Davis, 1982) (Figure 1). It
isn’t selective in terms of soil request and prefers stream beds (Göker and Acar, 1983; Özel,
2008). Its distribution area is related to water (in soil or in weather) every time (Özel, 2008)
Laurel is an evergreen large shrub or small tree growing up to 15 m in height (Davis, 1982).
The leaves are elliptic and shiny dark green about 5-10 cm long, rather thick, aromatic and
leathery. It has shiny gray bark. The laurel is dioecious plant with male and female flowers on
separate plants. Clusters of small yellow or greenish white flowers are produced in spring on
the female plants. The fruits are small (about 1-2 cm long), egg-shaped, green single-seeded
berries that ripen to shiny, purplish black in the fall (Gökmen 1973; Seçmen et al., 1992).
Figure 1. Distribution of Laurel in Turkey (Davis, 1982)
Laurel has been symbolised of victory, strength and protection since ancient times. After the
victory or success, a crown of laurel leaves was worn by the emperors, generals, heroes and
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athletes in ancient Rome and Greek. Also it has been used for many purposes for ancient
times (Jirovetz et al., 1997).
The tree is grown primarily for its leaves. Fresh or dried, they are used as a culinary herb and
also for leaf essential oil. Dried leaves are used as flavour and spice, especially in canned
meat and fish, storage of olive, packaging raisins and dried figs. Laurel leaf essential oil has
got widely usage in the flavouring, cosmetic and perfume industries. The oil extracted from
berries is utilized in the food, drink, pharmaceutical, chemical and cosmetic industries. The
leaves are also used in traditional medicine and to rheumatism, joint pains, epilepsy,
parkinsonism, schizophrenia, stress, stomach ulcers, to stimulate the appetite and as a sedative
and antiseptic. The oil extracted from the berries is used as a cure for irritated skin, earache,
asthma and urinary ailments.
Furthermore, it was widely cultivated and used mainly in Europe and the USA as an
ornamental plant in parks and gardens because of suitable to pruning and to give the desired
forms. (Barla et al., 2007).
Turkey has an important potential for production and exports of the laurel. About 90% of
world’s laurel production is done in Turkey. It is one of the top five plants collected from
nature and exported from Turkey.
Laurel leaf production is arranged according to laws and principles and the annual production
programs of the General Directorate of Forestry. Laurel leaf production is done between July October due to vegetative growth has stopped.
Since the best quality leaves are on 2-3 year-old shoots, leaf production is the collection of
these leaves. This process is not in the form collection of single leaves, is obtained by cutting
the 2-3 year old leafy shoots (Bozkurt et al., 1982; OGM, 1987).Leafy shoots are made bunch
and are dried in the shade. So, the green color of leaves is protected. After the leaves dried,
they are collected from shoots. Yellowed leaves and contaminated foreign substances are
eliminated. Then the dried leaves are separated into quality classes and packed. The drying
process is made very primitive conditions. Ultimately, percent of the unqualified leaf is
increased.
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Figure 2. A graph showing the production quantities until 2006 and the estimated demand
quantities after 2006 in the laurel areas
As seen from the Figure 2, the demand quantities are increasing every year. However, there is
no increase in the laurel areas. On the contrary, it decreases with each passing day.
Accordingly, the amount of production also decreases. The reasons for this are as follows:
1. The dense, irregular and uncontrolled leaf collecting is made.
2. These areas are under threat due to overgrazing.
3. There is not an applicable inventory method and management plan accepted and
implemented by forest service and small farmers.
4. Laurel production is done in conventional methods by local people.
5. Laurel production is mostly done from its native areas. The newly established plantations
are very limited.
6. The clonally propagation techniques aren’t used for sampling production. Therefore, the
standard product can not be obtained from the new plantations.
7. Diseases and pests of laurel are damaged its leaves. This situation causes a loss in product.
8. The lack of information
Some researches have been conducted to ensure the sustainability of production and exports
of laurel leaves in the laurel production areas of Antalya and other provinces.
2.Researches on Laurel in Antalya:
1. Sırtkoy-Manavgat: This is the main study in laurel. Sırtkoy-Manavgat district were chosen
to study the criteria of sustainable use of laurel. The aim of this study was to develop an
inventory method and prepare a management plan to be used by forest service and farmers. In
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the first step, the inventories of the areas were carried out and the areas were assigned into
homogenous classes. In the second step, fresh laurel leaf yield was measured on 30 sampling
plots. In the third step, an index named “crown index” was developed to estimate actual leaf
stocking in sample plots taken for inventory. The index is determined by multiplying
of crown diameter and crown height and gives the values represent the amount of leaf
production for a tree. Correlation of this index values with measured values was significant
(r=0.79; P<0.0001). This index was used successfully for inventory of study area. The index
was also suggested to planers to use for inventory studies. The digital maps produced by the
use of GIS (Geographic Information System). The leaf harvesting rotation plans were
developed on digital maps. GPS (Global Positioning Systems) was also used to locate all the
fieldwork plots. As a result, a management plan was prepared for practitioners and forest
service (Baş et al., 2005).
2. Yardop project: After the huge forest fire (16 000 ha) in Tasagil-Serik in 2008, Yardop
project was developed in order to establish fire-resistant forests by forest service. This project
aims to establish with leafy forest trees 50-150 m wide area between forest and farmland. For
this purpose selected plants are laurel, carob, acacia, olives, almonds and cypress. Especially
laurel is preferred because it is fire resistant and provides income.
3.The Other Researches on Laurel in Turkey:
1. The aim of this study was to determine the most suitable leaf harvesting method and cutting
period which were yield good quality and quantity leaves of laurel and its economy.
Experimental design was completely randomized parcel design with three different leaf
harvesting methods (clear cutting, pollarding, combination) and three different shoot cutting
periods (every year, once in two years, once in three years) on total 108 plots. First treatment
was clear cutting method (coppice system). Second treatment was pollarding method. Within
this method, one shoot which good growing and 1.0-1.5 m height at each plot was selected
and were cut over its shoots on 1/3 ratio. The third treatment is combination method. It was
combination of first and second methods. Shoot cutting periods were every year cutting, at
two years interval cutting and at three years interval cutting. Commercially important dry leaf
yield/plot (g/plot), the best quality dry leaf yield/ dry leaf yield ratio (%), the best quality dry
leaf yield/plot (g/plot) and dry base essential oil contents (%) were given.
According to results of this research; combined leaf harvesting method and two years interval
cutting period were suggested for laurel areas (Polat et al., 2009).
2. The aim of this study was to determine the most suitable vegetative propagation method of
laurel. For this, the cuttings were taken in 11 different time periods and treated with 5
different dose of IBA, were planted in 4 different medium. The best results were obtained
from cuttings taking on 30 July and applied with 5000 ppm IBA. The mix of peat and perlite
was determined as the best media (Parlak, 2008).
4.CONCLUSION
In this study, to ensure the sustainability of laurel areas have been revealed primarily the
problems. Some researches done in these areas are examined and some proposals are
presented. One of the oldest and the most comprehensive studies were done in SırtkoyManavgat district and it was followed by several other studies. Considering the results of
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these studies, the following recommendations can be presented to the sustainability of the
laurel areas: The cut shoots and leaves of laurel should be controlled and they should not be
cut from the same locations every year. The rotation must be strictly applied in every 3 or 4
years intervals. Leaf collections should be done by experienced people in right period of the
years and the leaves should be dried in a proper way. To prevent destruction in natural laurel
areas and to promote management of culture fields should be primarily carried out education,
information and organization activities. For this purpose, the state, producers and private
sector must be provided coordination and unity of purpose.
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Parlak, S. (2008). Defne (Laurus nobilis L.)’nin Çelikle Üretilmesi. Ege Ormancılık
Araştırma Müdürlüğü. Teknik Bülten Serisi. No:42, İzmir.
Polat, S., Gülbaba, A.G., Tüfekçi, S. ve Özkurt, A. (2009). Defne (Laurus nobilis L.)
Alanlarında En Uygun Yaprak İşletme Şekli ve Maliyetlerinin Belirlenmesi (Tarsus Örneği).
Doğu Akdeniz Ormancılık Araştırma Enstitüsü. Teknik Bülten Serisi. No: 34, Tarsus.
Seçmen, Ö., Gemici, Y., Görk, G., Bekat, L. and Leblebici E. (1992.) Tohumlu Bitkiler
Sistematiği (Ders Kitabı). Ege Üniversitesi Fen Fakültesi Kitaplar Serisi No:116. Ege Ünv.
Basımevi. Bornova-İzmir.
109
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1234
Title
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Sustainable Collection of Laurel (Laurus nobilis L.) Leaves in Antalya Province
Author
Author
Deniz, Hazar
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Laurel (Laurus nobilis L.) is an evergreen shrub which belongs to the Lauraceae family. It grows naturally along the entire coastal line of Turkey up to altitude of 1200 m. Laurel has been regarded as an important medicinal and aromatic plant for years in the Mediterranean Basin. Meantime, it is also often used as an ornamental plant in parks and gardens because it is very much suitable to pruning and to give the desired forms. Turkey provides about 97% of the world’s laurel leaf need. It is one of the top five plants collected from nature and exported from Turkey. However, there are some serious problems about the production system of laurel. Laurel production is done in conventional methods by local people. These areas are under threat due to overgrazing and uncontrolled collection. Ultimately, laurel growing areas have been exploited. In recent years, the researches related to sustainable use of laurel have increased. In this study it was investigated the researches conducted to sustainable use of laurel in Sırtkoy, Manavgat district and some other districts of Antalya. The aim of these studies was to develop an inventory method and to prepare management plans to be used by forest service and regional people. The cut shoots and leaves of laurel should be controlled and they should not be cut from the same locations every year. The rotation must be strictly applied in every 3 or 4 years intervals. Leaf collections should be done by experienced people in right period of the years and the leaves should be dried in a proper way. Keywords: Laurel, leaf, sustainability
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
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3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Length-length and length-weight relationships of the round sardinella Sardinella aurita
Valenciensis, 1847 (Osteichthyes, Clupeidae) from the Aegean Sea
Bahar Bayhan, Ali Kara
Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Department of Hydrobiology,
35100 Bornova-Izmir, Turkey
E-mail: bahar.bayhan@ege.edu.tr
Abstract
This study describes the length-weight (LWR) and length-length (LLR) relationships of round
sardinella Sardinella aurita (Linnaeus, 1758) from Izmir Bay, Turkey. A total of 1948
specimen of S. aurita collected from fisherman’s catch with gillnets from November 2004 to
October 2005 were used for this study. Fish size ranged in total length (TL, minimum) 15.0
cm for males, 14.2 cm for females and 14.2 cm for both sexes. The parameters a and b of the
length-weight relationships were calculated as W=aLb and LWRs for males, females and the
total sample population determined to be W=0.0033L3.279, W=0.0025L3.375 and
W=0.0027L3.340 respectively. The values for allometric coefficient b of the LWRs showed
positive allometric growths in the both sexes.
LLRs were measured as TL=a+bFL, FL=a+bSL and SL=a+bTL equation in all sexes and
combined. In all the samples together, LLRs are as follows: TL=-1.3284+1.2087FL,
FL=1.4623+0.9581SL and SL=0.0000+0.8382TL. The results further indicated that LLRs
were highly inter correlated (r2˃0.9, p˂0.01).
Keywords: Round sardinella, Sardinella aurita, length-weight relationship, condition factor,
Izmir Bay, Aegean Sea.
1. INTRODUCTION
Length-weight relationhips, LWRs, are important because they; (a) allow the conversion of
growth-in-length equations to growth-in-weight, (b) for use in stock assessment observations;
(c) allow an estimate of the condition of fish and (d) are useful for between region
comparisons of life histories of a certain species (Wooton, 1990; Pauly 1993; Petrakis and
Stergiou, 1995; Gonçalves et al., 1997; Binohlan et al., 1998; & Moutopoulos and Stergiou,
2002).
Relationships between different types of length (length-length relationships, LLRs), are also
very important for comparative growth studies and also useful in local and interregional
morphological and life historical comparisons in species and populations. In fish studies, fish
length is often more rapidly and easily measured than mass. Thus information on the lengthweight relationships makes it more convenient to determine mass where only the length is
known. In the field, the tail flukes of fish are often cut, making it difficult to measure the total
110
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
length correctly to measure the total length. Knowledge of the standard length should allow
the total length to be determined (Binohlan et al., 1998; & Lalèyè, 2006).
The aim of this study is to determine relationships of length-weight and length-length in S.
aurita captured from Izmir Bay in central Aegean Sea and find out monthly differences in
view of the parameters involved.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Fish samples were collected monthly during commercial fishing trials using gillnets from
Izmir Bay (Fig. 1). The study period was from November 2004 to October 2005. Gillnets used
to catch S. aurita in Izmir bay have the characteristics below: twine thickness 210 D/3 no,
multiflament mesh size (bar length) 23-25 mm, 105-210 meshes deep, hanging ratio of the
float line, E=0.67. Gillnets are utilized as drift nets ranging from 800 to 1600 m in length.
They are usally used within 5m from surface down to bottom. Mean annual temparature of
sea water in Izmir bay is 18.5 Cº with the lowest 10.5 Cº in February and the highest 25 Cº in
July.
Figure 1 Sampling locality of Sardinella aurita in Izmir bay (central Aegean Sea) .
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Length-weight and length-length of S. aurita inhabiting Izmir Bay of central Aegean Sea in
Turkey were estimated by sexes and sampling time. All relationships were found to be
significantly linear in all cases.
111
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
A total of 1948 individuals were sampled during the study period and the shortest, 14.2 cm
TL and the longest, 28.5 cm TL individuals obtained in August. It was determined that 52.4%
of the fish were female (n=1014), 47.5% male (n=921) and 0.07% immature (n=13). Because
immature individuals did not reach adult body shape, length-weight relationship was not
measured (Froese, 2006). The sex ratio was not significantly different from parity (x2=4.469;
p˂0.01). female:male ratio was calculated as 1:10. Erkoyuncu (1995) and Avşar (1998)
pointed out that female:male ratio may vary between 1:1 and 1:1.3 in a typical population.
The values obtained in our study were within the reasonable range expected for a natural
population.
Monthly length-weight relationships for males, females and the total sample population were
determined as W=0.0033L3.279, W=0.0025L3.375 and W=0.0027L3.340 respectively (Table
1). The b value was used in the length-weight relationship as the indicator of the growth type
of S. aurita, to find out whether there deviation from isometric growth had occurred between
the sexes and among the sampling times. Monthly LWRs of S. aurita presented in Table 1
show that the calculated allometric coefficients vary between 2.121 (May) and 3.777
(February) in males and between 2.350 (October) and 3.762 (December) in females.
As expected, an allometric relationship was observed between length and weight of the
species. In males, allometry was closer to isometry, however total population found a positive
allometry including males and females. Gonadal development affected the relationship
between length and weight of the individuals positively, of females in particular. The t-test
was used to compare a significant distinction between the calculated slope (b) values and the
cube of the length (Table 1). Male and female individuals did not exhibit a significant
difference during spring summer and autumn months, however they showed a significantly
defined variation especially in winter months, which was found to be caused by the fact that
gonads mature in winter when the slope value of female individuals was highest in particular.
On the other hand, slope values (b) of males began to increase in autumn to reach maximum
in winter in the same way as in females. In winter months, abdomen of the fish increased most
just because of gonadal development, with a even more positive allometric growth. The
intercept a values diminished in winter for both female and male individuals as compared to
the rest of the year. The index of length-weight pointed to winter months when reproduction
occurs intensively and condition is minimum.
All allometric coefficients (b) estimated in this study were within the expected range 2.1-3.7,
and according Benegal and Tesch (1978); Koutrakis and Tsikliras (2003) allometric
coefficients may range from 2 to 4.
112
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
1235
Title
A name given to the resource
Length-length and length-weight relationships of the round sardinella Sardinella aurita Valenciensis, 1847 (Osteichthyes, Clupeidae) from the Aegean Sea
Author
Author
Bahar, Bayhan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This study describes the length-weight (LWR) and length-length (LLR) relationships of round sardinella Sardinella aurita (Linnaeus, 1758) from Izmir Bay, Turkey. A total of 1948 specimen of S. aurita collected from fisherman’s catch with gillnets from November 2004 to October 2005 were used for this study. Fish size ranged in total length (TL, minimum) 15.0 cm for males, 14.2 cm for females and 14.2 cm for both sexes. The parameters a and b of the length-weight relationships were calculated as W=aLb and LWRs for males, females and the total sample population determined to be W=0.0033L3.279, W=0.0025L3.375 and W=0.0027L3.340 respectively. The values for allometric coefficient b of the LWRs showed positive allometric growths in the both sexes. LLRs were measured as TL=a+bFL, FL=a+bSL and SL=a+bTL equation in all sexes and combined. In all the samples together, LLRs are as follows: TL=-1.3284+1.2087FL, FL=1.4623+0.9581SL and SL=0.0000+0.8382TL. The results further indicated that LLRs were highly inter correlated (r2˃0.9, p˂0.01). Keywords: Round sardinella, Sardinella aurita, length-weight relationship, condition factor, Izmir Bay, Aegean Sea.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)
-
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
3615
Title
A name given to the resource
ROLE OF GOOD GOVERNANCE AND LOCAL ASSETS IN DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL AREAS IN FEDERATION OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Author
Author
TANDIR, Natasa
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is one of the most rural countries in Europe with around 61% of population living in predominantly rural areas. The characteristics of rural areas in BH are similar to the ones in other countries but are also specific in relation to the overall country development, natural resources and mentality of the people (social and human capital). The aim of the study is to investigate the reasons for the differences in economic performance, in particular, to investigate the role of tangible and less tangible factors influencing development outcomes, and to show how people in rural areas perceive the role of local governance, as influential, as mediating or without significant contribution to their development level. The basis of the designed theoretical model is drawn primarily from completed research projects conducted in European Union. Model assumes that the different economic performance of rural areas is the result, in part at least, of five locally available capitals: (1) natural capital; (2) built capital; (3) human capital; (4) social capital; and (5) cultural capital. In order to ensure the significance of this research and contribution to the field, the framework takes into consideration effective governance as having an important role in development of rural areas. To include this driver into the model it evaluates governance through defined principles of good governance found in the literature. This study represents a cross-sectional study which used both quantitative and qualitative methodology. Target population were residents in 72 municipalities classified as rural. In total 521 questionnaires were used in the analysis. The conducted method of analysis that was used was structural equation modelling. The results showed that only natural and human capital have statistically significant influence on development of rural areas. Related to institutional capital or good local governance there is no direct influence on the development, however some kind of contribution exists through other capitals. This research could present, along with other studies and sector analysis, useful base for constructive discussions on direct and long lasting measurements for improving rural development in our country in consistent, systematic and strategic way. Keywords: rural development, capitals, good governance, structural equation modelling
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2016
Keywords
Keywords.
Thesis
NonPeerReviewed
S Agriculture (General)