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Determination of Biological Effect of Entomopathogen Fungus on
Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
Ş. Evrim Arıcı
University of Suleyman Demirel,
Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection Isparta/TURKEY
evrima@ziraat.sdu.edu.tr
Mehmet Sedat Sevinç
University of Suleyman Demirel,
Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection Isparta/TURKEY
medantinc@mynet.com.tr
Đsmail Karaca
University of Suleyman Demirel,
Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection Isparta/TURKEY
ikaraca@sdu.edu.tr
Ozan Demirözer
University of Suleyman Demirel,
Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection Isparta/TURKEY
ozand@ziraat.sdu.edu.tr
Abstract: In this study, Entomopathogenic fungi Perlomyces chlamidosporia,
Fusarium subglutinans, Fusarium solani, Baveria bassiana were investigated to the
effect of larvae great wax moth Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). P.
chlamidosporia, F. solani, two isolates of F subglutinans (8, 12), and B. bassiana were
cultured for 10 days potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium and incubated in dark
conditions at 25 ± 1 ºC. 1x107 spor / ml suspension for each isolates was used for each
isolates and Tween 20 was added in. By dipping method suspensions of spore were
experimented on Larvae of G. mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Larvae of G.
mellonella were cultured in 12-cm plastic petrie dishes at 25 ± 1 0C. 1, 24, 48 hours and
8, 13 days after the applications were eveluated the death larvae of G. mellonella. The
mortality rate of G. mellonella was observed between 50-70% but statistical difference
between isolates was not determined. The results obtained in the application used the
types of Entomopathogenic fungus can be used biological control for G. mellonella.
Introduction
Great wax moth (Galeria mellonella) is economical pest of honey bees (A. mellifera) and they are
widespread in particularly low altitude and temperate reason region which beekeeping land (Allan, 2000),
and they known that an important pest which beekeepers fall into trouble to protect their honeycombs all
over the world (Sanford, 2003). Great Wax Moth’s mature individuals, pupae, and egg stages don’t damage
to effervesced honeycombs but their larvaes do different levels of damage to honeycombs in the
appropriate environtenmal conditions (temperature, humidity, food). Great wax moth develops at above
4 °C' temperature and %70 humidity, commonly eliminates possibility of re-use of honeycomb by opening
the tunnels in stored effervesced honeycombs. (HaeWoon et al. 1995, Ritter et al., 1992). Such as chemical
(aluminum phosphide, methyl bromide, ethylene dibromide, paradichlorobenzene (naphthalene), sulfur),
physical applications (cold-hot) and biological insecticides (Bacillus thuringiensis) control methods used
in different ways to protect effervesced honeycombs from great wax moth in some countries (Tutkun et al.
1987; Ritter et al. 1992; Ahmad, 1994; Yacobson et al. 1997; Delaware, 2000; Kumova &Korkmaz 2002).
19
�Many chemical substances which using to Great wax moth reduce the chance of marketing or
eliminate it because of residue on honey or wax. Today from this perspective, residue and ease of
application of insecticide to pest has taken into consideration and lead to new ways is inevitable (Allan,
2000). Biological control is one of the most suitable alternative method for chemical control in different
ecosystems and an environmentally friendly alternative that involve the use of natural enemies and
pathogens to control pests. A number of entomopathogenic fungi have been identified biological control
agents to control insects. These fungal agents are virulent, infect insect by contact persist in the
environment for a long time and have one of the largest host list. Recently it was studied on safety of
entomopathogenic fungi (Goettel & Jaronski 1997; Goettel & Hajek 2000; Goettel et al. 2001; AliShtayeh1 et al. 2002, Shah & Pill 2003, Copping, 2004, Tuininga et al 2009¸ Zeinat et al. 2009).
The aim of the present study was to determine of possible effects of entomopathogenic Fusarium
subglutinans, Fusarium solani, Beauveria bassiana and Pochonia clamydosporia on the Galeria
mellonella’s larvae
Materials and Methods
Galeria mellonella and entomopathogenic fungi two isolates of Fusarium subglutinans (8, 12),
Fusarium solani, Beauveria bassiana and Pochonia clamydosporia were used in this study.
Galeria mellonella were taken to climate room in 25±1 ºC temperature and % 65±5 humidity for
reproduction of their number. Food from mix of honey, glycerin, dry wax and wheat bran were taken into
the jar which closed with tulle for air circulation and G. mellonella’s larvaes were taken into this jars to be
mature individuals. The adults from pupaes were taken into the jars which prepared by same way to laying
egg. The larvaes from egg were removed from food environment before the pupal period for application.
The fungi were cultured on PDA medium and incubated at 25ºC under dark conditions for 10 days.
Suspensions of spore from each isolate were prepared and spore concentrations (1X107) were prepared in
distilled sterillized water with the help of haemocytometer. By dipping method suspensions of spore were
experimented on last instar stage larvae and newly hatched G. mellonella’s larvaes (3-5 sn), after Tween
20 was added in suspensions. For the control experiment, sterillized water was applied to the test insects.
The G. mellonella’s larvaes were put in plastic petri dishes (12 cm) under controlled conditions (25ºC) and
the plastic petri dishes were supplied with honey for nutrition purposes.
Petri dishes containing G. mellonella’s larvaes were sealed with Parafilm to reduce moisture loss.
Samples were then incubated at 25 0C and a photoperiod of 16 hours light for 13 days. For each petri dish
had five larvae of G. mellonella five replicants and experiment for each entomopathogenic fungi consisted
of five replicate according to completely randomized design. For each experiment daily mortality had been
recorded for 13 days. Obtained data from bioassays were analyzed by SPSS version 16.0.1. Data were
analyzed by ANOVA and treatment means separated by TUKEY test (P <0:05) to select isolates for a new
assay with several cultivars
Results and Discussion
In this study G. mellonella larvae found to be infected by entomopathogenic fungi and was
observed mortality of G. mellonella’s larvae (Table 1). Although a statistical difference was found between
the isolates and the control group, no statistical difference was determined between the isolates.
Entomophage
pathogen
Pochonia
clamydosporia
Fusarium solani
Fusarium
subglutinans (12)
Fusarium
Mortality of G. mellonella
24 h
0,2±0,2
48 h
0,6±0,4
8d
1±0,3
13 d
1,4±0,5
0,6±0,4
0,2±0,2
0,6±0,4
0,2±0,2
1,2±0,7
1±0,3
3±0,8
2,8±07
0,6±0,2
1±0,4
1,6±0,7
2,8±0,5
20
�subglutinans (8)
Beauveria
bassiana
0,4±0,2
0,6±0,6
1,6±0,5
2,8 ±0,6
Table 1: Mortality of G. mellonella larvae
It was observed 4% mortality of the larvae of G. mellonella infected with F. subglutinans 12 , 20%
with F. subglutinans 8, while was determinated 12% mortality of larvae of G. mellonella infected with
Fusarium solani, B.bassiana, and P. clamidosporium in 48 h (Table 2). It was recorded in 13 d 28%
mortality of larvae of G. mellonella infected with P. clamidosporium, 60% with F.solani, while was
observed 56% mortality of G. mellonella larvae with F. subglutinans 12, F. subglutinans 8 and with
B.bassiana.
Some researcher indicated similarly results (James & Elzen 2001; Shah & Pill 2003; Mohammed
et al. 2009). In addition same researcher used larvae of G. mellonella to determine the relative abundance
of entomopathogenic nematodes, and fungi (Chadler et al. 1997; Ali-Shtayeh et al. 2001; Tuininga et al.
2009).
Entomophage pathogene
Mortality %
48h
13 d
12
12
4
20
28
60
56
56
12
56
Pochonia clamydosporia
Fusarium solani
Fusarium subglutinans (12)
Fusarium subglutinans (8)
Beauveria bassiana
Table 2: Mortality percentage of G. mellonella ‘s larvae
In conclusion; fungal mycel of entomopathogens used in this study had grown on death larvae of
G. mellonella. Entomopathogenic fungi can used for biological control and in pest management.
References
Ahmad, M. (1994). Biological Control of Greater Wax Moth, Galleria mellonella L. Journal of Apicultural Research
(Pakistan). Vol. 32(3), 319-323.
Allan, L. (2000). Wax Moth and its Control. Departmen of Agriculture Western Australia.
http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/agency/pubns/farmnote/2000/f00697.htm.
Chandler, D., Hay, D., &Reid, A.P. (1997). Sampling and occurrence of entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes in UK
soils Applied Soil Ecology 5 133-141
Copping, L.G. (2004). The Manual of Biocontrol Agents.British Crop Protection Council, Alton, 702 pp
Delaware, M. (2000). New Jersey, Pensylvania, Westiginia and the USDA Cooperating. MAAREC Publication, 4.5.
Goettel, M.S., & Jaronsky, S.T. (1997). Safety and registration of microbial agents for control of grasshoppers and
locust. Mem. Entomol. Soc. Can., 171: 83-99.
Goettel, M.S., & Hajek A.E. (2000). Evaluation of non-target effects of pathogens used for management of arthropods.
In: Wajnberg E,Scott JK, Quimby PC (eds) Evaluating indirect ecological effects of biological control. CABI
Publishing, Wallingford, pp 81–97
Goettel, M.S., Hajek, A.E., Siegel, J.P., & Evans, H.C. (2001). Safety of fungal biocontrol agents.
21
�HaeWoon, O., ManYoung, L., Young Duck, & Chang (1995). Developing Periods and Damage Patterns of Combs by
The Greater Wax Moth, Galleria mellonella. Korean Journal of Apiculture 10: 1, 5-10.
James, R.R., & Elzen, G.W. (2001). Antagonism between Beauveria bassiana and imidacloprid when combined for
Bemisia argentifolii (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) control. J. Econ. Entomol., 94: 357–61
Kumova, U., & Korkmaz, A. (2002). Peteklerin Büyük Bal Mumu Güvesi (Galleria mellonella L.) ‘ ne Karşı
Korunması Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Türkiye 3. Arıcılık Kongresi, Adana.
Mohammed S. Ali-Shtayeh1, Abdel-Basit B.M, & Mara’i Rana M. J. (2002). Distribution, occurrence and
characterization of entomopathogenic fungi in agricultural soil in the Palestinian area Mycopathologia 156: 235–244,
2002.
Ritter, W., Perschill, F., Vogel R. 1992. Comparision of the effect of various methods fort he control of wax moths.
Allgemeine Deutsche Imkerzeitung. 26: 1, 11-13. CAB Abstracts 1993-1994, AN:930234018
Sanfort, M.T. (2003). Controlling Wax moth, one of a series of the Entomology and nematology Department, Florida
Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. EDIS Web Site at
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu
Shah, P. A., & Pell, J. K. (2003). Entomopathogenic fungi as biological control agents. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol,
61:413–423
Tuınınga, A. R., Mıller J. L., Morath S. U., Danıels T. J., Falco R. C., Marchese M., Sahabı, S., Rosa, D., & Stafford K.
C. (2009). Isolation of Entomopathogenic Fungi From Soils and Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) Ticks: Prevalence
and Methods. J. Med. Entomol. 46(3): 557-565
Tutkun E., Çakmakçı, L., & Boşgelmez A. (1987). Bal Arısı Kolonilerinde Bacillus thrugiensis Preparatlarının Büyük
Mum Güvesi (G. mellonella) Larvalarına Karşı Kullanım Olanakları Üzerinde Araştırmalar. TÜBĐTAK, Tarım ve
Ormancılık Araştırma Grubu, Tarımsal Mikrobiyoloji Ünitesi Proje no: Tarmik-8-34 s.
Yacobson, B., Navarro, S., Donahaye, E. J., Azrielli, A., Sloyevsky, Y., & Ephrati, H. (1997). Control of Beeswax
moths using carbondioxide in flexible plastic and metal structure. In: Proc. Int. Conf. Controlled atmosphere and
fumigation in grain storages 21-26 April 1996, Nicosia Cyprus pp: 169-174.
Zeinat K.M., S.A. El-Sayed, Radwan T.E.E., & Ghada, S. Abd El-Wahab (2009). Potency Evaluation of Serratia
marcescens and Pseudomonas fluorescens as Biocontrol Agents for Root-knot Nematodes in Egypt. Journal of
Applied Sciences Research, 4(1): 93-102
22
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324
Title
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Determination of Biological Effect of Entomopathogen Fungus on Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
Author
Author
Arıcı, S. Evrim
Sevinç, Mehmet Sedat
Karaca, İsmail
Demirözer, Ozan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In this study, Entomopathogenic fungi Perlomyces chlamidosporia, Fusarium subglutinans, Fusarium solani, Baveria bassiana were investigated to the effect of larvae great wax moth Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). P. chlamidosporia, F. solani, two isolates of F subglutinans (8, 12), and B. bassiana were cultured for 10 days potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium and incubated in dark conditions at 25 ± 1 ºC. 1x107 spor / ml suspension for each isolates was used for each isolates and Tween 20 was added in. By dipping method suspensions of spore were experimented on Larvae of G. mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Larvae of G. mellonella were cultured in 12-cm plastic petrie dishes at 25 ± 1 0C. 1, 24, 48 hours and 8, 13 days after the applications were eveluated the death larvae of G. mellonella. The mortality rate of G. mellonella was observed between 50-70% but statistical difference between isolates was not determined. The results obtained in the application used the types of Entomopathogenic fungus can be used biological control for G. mellonella.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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Disabled People in Sakarya and the Problems With Public Transport:
What has been done, What should be done.
Hakan Aslan
Department of Civil Engineering
Division of Transportation
Sakarya University
Turkey
haslan@sakarya.edu.tr
Abstract: Disability comes in many shapes and forms, but where it affects mobility there are
problems. The use of taxis or a car seems to be most convinient way of travelling for the disabled
people. It is a very demanding and difficult, even sometimes impossible, job to get to a bus route,
then getting on the bus for those having disability problem. Once you manage this part of the
journey, there comes another problem: Will you be able to go whereever you want without multiple
changes? Most city buses in Sakarya do not have wheelchair lifts – and the ones that do- are not
used efffectively due to routine repair problems. This paper is based on a research among the
disabled people from Sakarya, those with audial, visual or physical problems that prevent them
from having freedom of movement. The outcome of this research is shared with the Transportation
Department of Sakarya Municipality.
Introduction
Disability is defined by the World Health Organisation as: “ Disability is an umbrella term, covering
impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions. An impairment is a problem in body function or
structure; an activity limitation is a difficulty encountered by an individual in executing a task or action; while a
participation restriction is a problem experienced by an individual in involvement in life situations.”
As can be seen from this definition, the disability is a quite complex phenomenon reflecting different aspects of
the real life situations for those having difficulty to live in a society according to a standard or norm. Disability
may be in one`s life since his/her birth or it may occur at any part of his/her life time. In transportation
engineering context, disability may be regarded as any sort of impairment limiting the mobility. A person
carrying a couple of bags after shopping, or a mother pushing a push-chair with a child in it could be seen as
disabled person with this regard although he or she may not have any physical or mental problem what so ever.
Falkmer (2001) states that the children with disabilities are prone to a higher degree of accident risk compared
with children in general. Đt has also been stated that the wheel-chair related injuries of disabled people are mainly
due to tips and falls to get on or off the buses (Kirby et al., 1994 ). Shaw ( 2000 ) expresses that as long as
abrupt maneuvers are prevented, the majority of wheel-chair users` injuries can be eliminated.
From another perspective, concessionary fares and policies designed to include older people in both public and
private transport enhance the mobility of these people (Metz, 2003 ) .
The aim of this study is to analyse the perception of the disabled people regarding transportation infrastructure
currently available in Sakarya. A questionare, for this purpose, has been prepared and completed by 207
respondents. The safety issues, such as the possibility of an injury risk in an accident as a passenger when
travelling on a public bus or in a taxi just like other passengers do, have not been considered in this research
simply because the main issues were uniquely regarded as those disabled people experienced while using
transportation system in Sakarya. However, the safety issues directly related to being disabled are included in the
paper.
338
�The Structure of the Questionnaire and Scope of the Study
The first part of the paper describes the general structure of the questionaire. The second part uses and analyses
the findings and data to see the whole picture in order to investigate the mobility problems of the people. The last
section suggests the proper and necessary actions to be taken to make sure that Sakarya is a city of zero difficulty
in performing daily travel activities for so-called disabled people.
The questionnaire consists of fourteen sections. The first one seeks the respondents` information about their
name, age, sex, educational level and disability problem, i.e., visual, audial, orthopaedic, etc. The second section
deals with the issues of the way that respondents travel. The questions have been prepared to collect the
information about the public transportation modes and vehicles that they use along with the information about
the average travel time and distance in a day both on weekdays and weekends. The third part asks questions
regarding if any other way of travel is used apart from public transportation. The following sections are
designed to get information about whether a private vehicle is used, the purpose of travel, Origin and Destination
( O-D ) points including links, if they can travel between O-D points within planned travel time. The coming
two parts are basically about the traffic rules and fines to investigate the attitude of disabled people towards
present law. The following part is related to the concerns of the people regarding the general transportation
system of Sakarya. The sub-questions are about the planning system, enforcement level, paratransit systems and
road users including pedestrians. The next one questions the least safe points and states that disabled people
perceive in the road network, such as zebra crossings, intersection points or when getting off a public vehicle, etc.
The effect of parked vehicles are investigated in the next section. The last question is about the general
impression of the disabled people if they feel safe when travelling at any point in Sakarya.
The answers of these questionnaire were acquired through one-by-one interviews with the members of The
Disabled People`s Association of Turkey, Division of Sakarya.
A total of four sub-social authorities in Sakarya were contacted for investigation. The willingness of these
authorities enabled us to get as broad a picture as possible. The participants are;
•
•
•
•
Six Dots Foundation for the Blinds, Division of Sakarya
Association for the Physically Disabled, Division of Sakarya
Association of Audial Impairments, Division of Sakarya
Autism Association of Sakarya
The selection of respondents ( interviewees ) was grounded on the ambition to obtain as broad a range of
perception categories. As a result, the organisations above were contacted and the interviews were made at the
centre of associations rather than the homes of the participants due to privacy concerns.
As the main motivation of this research is to reveal the transportation related perception of the disabled people in
Sakarya, deep statistical analysis has not been done. Đt is believed that the presentation of the findings of this
study would give a clear picture of the strong and weak points of the transportation system in Sakarya from the
points of the disabled people.
Findings
The quantitative data collected through the questionnaire were grouped to clarify the answers. Đn this way, the
obtained information is believed to be useful to comprehend and highlight the respondents` perspective.
Figure1 below indicates the range of the age of the people in this study.
339
�Figure1: The age groups of the study
As can be seen from this figure, 68,11% of the respondents is quite young people, below 30 years old.. Đt is
believed that this figure illustrates the fact that the obtained results should be seriosly taken into account in order
to plan the future as far as disabled people are concerned. The current situation could have been more precise for
the middle age and elderly people if the number of people of this group had had a higher proportion.
Nevertheless, it is stil believed that the 31,89% can be seen a good proportion to see the general perspective of
these people`s perception.
Figure2: Educational levels of the study group
Figure 2 above clearly states that majority of the respondents, 54.59%, has only the basic educational level.
This is another point to be mentioned for expressing the lack of opportunities for disabled people in terms of the
quality of the education that they get. Đt should be mentioned here that 55,5% of those graduated from the
university has visually disabled people. Those attending special schools are mainly autistic children constituting
17,39 per cent of all respondents.
340
�Figure 3 below illustrates the group of people according to the disability that they have.
Figure 3: Disability type of the respondents
The proportion of the physically disabled people is the highest one, 46,37%. The classified other portion gives
the number of those having autism problem. The interviewees of this type were the parents or gurdians of the
disabled people.
The following figure, Figure 4, denotes the choice of the respondents interms of transportation mode.
Figure 4: The choice of transportation mode for mobility
As some respondents use more than one mode of travelling, total number of people seems to be higher than the
total number of interviewees. The group of own-vehicle mainly consists of battery power-wheelchair owners.
The disabled people travelling with their own cars is only 10 per cent of the group. Special services seems to
perform a very important role for those having autism problem to have a reasonable mobility. There should not
be a reasaon to mention that the autistic people normally travel with their parents or guardians. Đf we look at the
usage, travel time, travel distance and travel speed of the related transportation modes, Figure 5 below is
obtained.
341
�Figure 5: Travel characteristics of transportation modes
The numerical values from Figure 5 presents the fact that disabled people are essentially dependent on the public
transportation vehicles. Buses operated privately or publicly play an important function for the mobility of the
disabled people. Services, operating on scheduled time-tables, also seem to be very important transportation
option. The average travel time with own-vehicle (mainly battery-power wheelchairs ) is 20.5 minutes per day
along an average distance of 2.4km corresponding 7.02km/h average travelling speed. The highest travel speed
is offered by taxis, 45,4km/h. The shared cap and minibus services travel more or less at the same average speed,
42,62km/h and 41,3km/h, respectively. The figures also indicate that considering all the modes, the avreage daily
travel distance is 56,6 km. Đt is intresting to note that the total distance travelled by disabled people travelling on
the vehicles driven by other person rather than himself corresponds 95.75% of total daily average distance. This
clearly means that disabled people heavily dependent on the other people for their mobility. The public service to
respond this structure,hence, must be organised and operated very efficiently for giving a good transportation
opportunity for those in need.
The average travel time for own-vehicle transportation corresponds to the 19.44% of the average total. This
high proportion stems from the fact that the speed of this type of vehicle is quite low ( 7.02 km/h ) causing to
spend more time to travel the unit distance.
The following figure categorizes the critical locations perceived as the least safe points by the respondents.
342
�Figure 6: Perceived locations of least safe points
Figure 6 exhibits that 28.85% of the participants do not feel safe even on the pavements. Đn addition, 19.54% of
the people perceive that all these three locations are not safe enough for them to perform their daily mobility
activities. As expected, conflict points for road crossings, signalised junctions and zebra crossings, represent the
most critical points of safety perception.
Results and Discussion
The outcomes and related suggestions of this study may be summarised as below.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The disabled people in Sakarya require a well established, regular, safe and frequent public
transportation system for having a good opportunity whenever and wherever they want to travel, just
like the other people do.
They deserve more respect and recognition from the other road users.
Signalised intersections, especially the city centre, must be designed and operated by considering the
needs of the disabled people. This could be done by giving extra time for blind people, or presenting
police officer to make sure that road users obey the traffic rules for giving a safe traffic environment
for the others.
Parking on the pavements is a very important problem. It becomes even more problematic when drivers
park their vehicles on the ramps, access points for the disabled people to get on or off the pavements.
Enforcement measures should be taken more seriously to lessen the danger for the disabled people. The
unauthorised usage of allocated disabled parkings by drivers creates another significant problem for
those wishing to travel with their own cars to central parts of the city.
The main concerns of the participants are related to the planning and paratransit transportation system
of the road retworks in Sakarya. The roads are thought to be not wide enough to walk or use the
wheelchair on them safely and there are not sufficient designated road sections for the people.
The transfer opprtunities for long journeys are neither suffucient in number nor frequent enough.
There is also a demand that the long journey routes should be combined and a single route is obtained.
The traffic fines could be categorized to increase the ones related violating disabled people`s right.
The usage of the seat-belt is reasonably acceptable , 87.75 % , among the disabled people even for
relatively short journeys. The violance of the traffic rules among disabled people in Sakarya resulting in
fines is very low to mention. Just one person fined for improper parking.
The reliability of bus services is not satisfactory enough. Some technical, such as bus-lanes, and
operational measures should be taken.
The main destination point seems to be the city centre, although there is a wide range of origin points.
343
�•
•
•
The purpose of the journeys can be classified as 35.6% for education, 27.5% for health, 28.17% for
social activities, 4.2% for job and %4.53 for the others.
The question of whether the participants feel safe in general when using the transportation network
system ( including walking ) was answered as 71.45% no, 28.55% yes. This should urge all the
authorities to take all the required and necessary measures to provide safe mobility environment for the
disabled people.
When the respondents asked to answer if they travel between their origin-destination points within the
expected travel time, 84.52% of the people said, interestingly, yes and 15.48% said no. This means that
although people do not feel safe when using the road network, their anticipation level of travel time
reliability is quite high.
References
Falkmar,T. (2001). Transport mobility for children and adolescents with Cerebral Palsy (CP). Thesis, Faculty
of Health Sciences, University of Linköping,Sweden.
Kirkby, R.L., Ackroyd-Stolarz, S.A., Brown, M.G., Kirkland, S.A., and MacLeod, D.A. ( 1994 ). Wheelchairrelated accidents caused by tips and falls among noninstitutionalized users of manually propelled wheelchairs in
Nova Scotia. Am.J.Phys.Med.Rehabil. 73, (pp. 319-330)
Metz, D. ( 2003 ) Transport policy for an ageing population. Transportation Reviews, Vol. 23, No:4, (pp. 375386)
Shaw, G. (2000) Wheelchair rider risk in motor vehicles: a technical note. J.rehabil.Res.Dev 37 (1)
344
�
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450
Title
A name given to the resource
Disabled People in Sakarya and the Problems With Public Transport: What has been done, What should be done.
Author
Author
Aslan, Hakan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Disability comes in many shapes and forms, but where it affects mobility there are problems. The use of taxis or a car seems to be most convinient way of travelling for the disabled people. It is a very demanding and difficult, even sometimes impossible, job to get to a bus route, then getting on the bus for those having disability problem. Once you manage this part of the journey, there comes another problem: Will you be able to go whereever you want without multiple changes? Most city buses in Sakarya do not have wheelchair lifts – and the ones that do- are not used efffectively due to routine repair problems. This paper is based on a research among the disabled people from Sakarya, those with audial, visual or physical problems that prevent them from having freedom of movement. The outcome of this research is shared with the Transportation Department of Sakarya Municipality.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/be95e0f57de58b08cf09aea79fd76f4d.pdf
b7378ebed8c215e0d6237537a3bc5670
PDF Text
Text
Strategic Sustainable Development and Creating Strategies from
TOWS Matrix at Kipaş Group
Imran Aslan
The University of Erzincan, Turkey
Business Administration Department
imranaslan@gmail.com, iaslan@erzincan.edu.tr
Ramazan Bozkurt
The University of Erzincan, Turkey
Business Administration Department
rbozkurt@erzincan.edu.tr
Abstract: The aim of this study is to develop new strategies for sustainable development of a
group and to establish a holding from several companies by considering the regulations in the
World Trade, recent developments in textile sector and raising conflicts among stakeholders.
In this study, internal analysis of the group was carried out with interviews and surveys. To
prepare external analysis, the economical situation of Turkey and the World was researched
and categorized under standard PEST categories. Important problems were identified and then
the purposes and objectives of the firm were determined by focusing on opportunities. Later,
SWOT analysis of the group was prepared and most significant factors were chosen. In the
light of these factors, TOWS matrix was prepared to combine external and internal factors of
the enterprise in order to deploy strategies. New organization structure of the group was
determined and presented based on these strategies.
Introduction
Kipaş Group founded 26 years ago when the Turkish textile and apparel sector initiated continuing progress by
joint-venture of two families and now employs more than 4000 workers in different sectors. Kipaş Group, a
leading institution within its sector and renown due to its professionalism, its expertise and its high quality
standards, is a precious member of Turkish Textile Industry whereby it transformed a mere cotton yarn
manufacturing plant over years into a fully-integrated textile manufacturing giant. The companies of the group
which have benefited from incentives of Turkish Textile and apparel sector have been growing very rapidly.
Kipaş Group has been formalized by including numerous subsidiary companies through the reorganization of the
group companies since 2005. It decided to change their management structure considering the recent
developments in textile sector and raising conflicts among stakeholders due to the management system of the
company. The removal of quotas and Chinese effects to world textile were the focus point of researches. The
effects of removal of quotas to Turkish textile were assessed with the premature indicators of Turkey's total export
and import. By taking account of enormity of the group and economical situation, the group was proposed to
establish a holding.
Theoretical Background
The regulations in World Trade oblige the national wide companies to develop new strategies for their
sustainability in the market. However, companies must be aware of their internal and external environments to
identify their advantages and disadvantages in order to develop strategies. Self assessment, which is a structured
internal process to identify strengths and weakness for improvement is used by companies for years. (Higgins, J.
M. and Vincze, J. W., 1991, p.3) Strategies for sustainable development are used to initiate change by learning
and continuous adaption rather than by challenging the existent institutions. Such approach has been named as
step-by-step procedure. (Volkery, 2006, p.2048) Interaction between culture, structure and technology, the
approaches optimization–improvement–renewal and the parties involved are three relevant dimensions of
sustainable development.( L. Jansen, 2003, p.233) The change is unavoidable to keep competitiveness in today's
global market. It is important to use right methods to collect data against resistance and misunderstandings while
769
�doing changes. ( McLean, G. N. P., 2006) Deep changes occur in this era with unexpected results. (Diskienė D.,
et al., 2008, p.376 ) Each organization has a capability or ability initiating, managing and implementing largescale changes in organization structure to improve organization ability for a quick adaptation, flexibility and
innovation. There should be a trade-off between available assets of the firm and its continuous development
requirements for firm-specific capabilities. (Yan, Y. , et al., 2009, p.53) Management systems of the firm use
internal and external information to gain a better strategically competitive position in the market by providing
outstanding services and products. (Phelan, Steven E., 2005)
Many approaches and techniques are used for strategic management processes. It is not directed just a single
functional area of group. All efforts are directed toward the mission and vision of the firm to find the best for the
whole group. (Houben G.,et al., 1999, p.130; Dincer O., 2004; Ketelhohn W., 2006, p.307) Strategic management
requires including both short-term and long-term perspective. Both a vision for the future of the organization and
a focus on its present operating needs must be taken into account. (Gregory G., et al., 2005) Strategy defines
‘Where do you want to go?’ and ‘How do you want to get there? Strategy manages the correlation between
organization and changing environment. Internal and external factors effecting company are identified to form
strategies. There should be a relationship between internal competences and values to firm’s external environment.
(Viljoen, J. and Dann, S., 2003, p.68) There is a challenge for the firms to find the ‘fit’ what the firm does and
what the environment requires. Moreover, it should be ready for the new environment that future may bring. This
environment can be totally different and firm should evolve its capabilities and culture to tackle with new
environment. ( Porter, et al., 2001, p.615) Managers may scan their environment and decide that there are major
changes occurring in their business world to which they have to adapt. Or they might decide, through internal
analysis, that they have the ability to develop a new way of doing business that will redefine the nature of the
business they are in. If change is the order of the day, then two issues need to be addressed: external analysis and
internal analysis. For a change of strategy to work, there must be alignment between internal capability and
external opportunity. This is described as ‘strategic fit’. (Tiwana, Amrit, 1999, p.126)
SWOT (Strengths-Weaknesses-Opportunities-Threats) Analysis
SWOT analysis is a tool for auditing an organization and commonly used for analysing internal and external
environments in order to attain a systematic approach and support for decision making. If it is used correctly, it
can provide a good basis for successful strategy formulation (Hsu-Hsi C. and Wen-Chih H. , 2006). It involves
the design of the organizational structure and control systems necessary to implement the chosen strategy. SWOT
analysis can be conducted before mission and goal statement. (Hax, A.C. and Majluf, N.S., 1991) SWOT
identifies Strengths and Weakness and examines the Opportunities and Threats of an organization. SWOT
analysis suggests that firms that use their internal strengths in exploiting environmental opportunities and
neutralizing environmental threats, while avoiding internal weakness, are more likely to gain competitive
advantages than other kinds of firms (Jay B and William H., 2007).
SWOT analysis is drawn from external and internal environments of the organization to determine the strategic
vision of the firm based on the analysis of shareholders. One can think of a well developed strategic vision in
terms of probing opponents’ weaknesses; withdrawing to consider how to act, given the knowledge of the
opposition generated by such a probing; forcing opponents to stretch their resources; concentrating one’s own
resources to attack an opponent’s exposed position; overwhelming selected markets or market segments;
establishing a leadership position of dominance in certain markets; then regrouping one’s resources, deciding
where to make the next thrust; then expanding from the base thus created to dominate a broader area. The leading
strategy is the best strategy geared towards radical change and creating a new vision in which the firm is a leader
rather than a follower of trends set by others to help managers improve organizational effectiveness and corporate
profitability. (El Sawy, et al., 1988, p.455-460)
The coverage of the SWOT Analysis is determined by the firm’s and competitors’ resources. Major types of
resources are financial, organizational, intellectual, informational, relational, legal, human resources and resources
related with reputation. The coverage can be extended for management information, supply of raw materials and
production process. However, these are more specific titles. In this study, we had also the opportunity to assess the
management information, however, couldn’t examined supply of raw materials and production process. The
technicians of the organization could assess raw materials and production process in the project.
770
�There are several tools such as TOWS Matrix and PEST Analysis that are used in strategic management. Some of
them are used as complementary to SWOT.
TOWS Matrix
TOWS matrix is the essential completing tool. It enhances deploying strategies systemically considering the
relations between Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities, and Threats. The consequences of the internal and external
factors can be replaced in a matrix called TOWS Matrix is shown in Figure 1. TOWS matrix helps to
systematically identify relationships between threats, opportunities, weaknesses and strengths, and offers a
structure for generating strategies on the basis of these relationships. (Weihrich, H., 1982, p-45-66)
TOWS
Matrix
Internal Strengths(S)
1.
2.
3.
Internal Weaknesses
(W)
1.
2.
3.
4.
External Opportunities
(O)
1.
2.
3.
SO
External Threats (T)
1.
2.
3.
ST
Strategies that use
strengths to maximize
opportunities.
WO
Strategies that use
strengths to minimize
threats.
WT
Strategies that minimize
weaknesses by taking
advantage of
opportunities.
Strategies that
minimize weaknesses
and avoid threats
Figure 1: TOWS Matrix (Weihrich, H., 1982)
PEST
PEST analysis, which stands for Political-Economical-Social-Technological, is another complementary tool.
Social environment is another concept that must be evaluated by PEST Analysis. The external environment of any
organization can be analyzed by conducting a PEST analysis. External factors usually are beyond the firm's
control and sometimes present themselves as threats. For this reason, some say that "PEST" is an appropriate term
for these factors. However, changes in the external environment also create new opportunities and the letters
sometimes are rearranged to construct the more optimistic term of STEP analysis. The organization’s environment
is made up from three factors known:
�
The internal environment: staff (or internal customers), office technology, wages, finance etc.
�
The micro - environment: the external customers, agents, distributors, suppliers, competitors etc.
�
The macro - environment: Social-cultural forces, Economic forces, Environmental forces, and
Political (legal) forces.
Macro-environment’s components are known as STEP factors. (Dyson, Robert G., 2004, p.630-641)
771
�Strategic Development and SWOT Analysis
The reorganization of the group was done after internal and external analyses of the firms and observations from
surveys and interviews. From internal and external analysis, SWOT Analysis of the group was carried out. The
details of project were explained to every person from top management during interviews. Everything must be
planned well otherwise desired changes may be resisted and not accepted by persons. It was expected from them
that they evaluate the firm objectively for such a critical project. Moreover, their political considerations were also
taken into account. They were employed by both families. Thus, they support the family that employed them.
Every family desired to get more control over the group.
SWOT Analysis of Kipaş
In this part, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of Kipaş group are presented in the light of the
internal analysis and external analysis. The strengths and weaknesses stem from the interviews, observations and
results of questionnaire, however, the opportunities and threats are drawn out from external analysis, especially
from SWOT analysis of Turkish textile & apparel industry and removal of quotas. The summary of SWOT
Analysis of the group is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: SWOT Analysis of Kipaş Group
Case Study- Application of the TOWS Matrix to KIPAş
Kipaş is a successful company having experienced in great difficulties, but then it has developed strategies that
resulted in an excellent market position in the late 2010s. The TOWS Matrix shown in Figure 3 is focusing on the
crucial period from late 2005 to 2010. The external threats and opportunities pertain mostly to the situation Kipaş
faced in textile sector.
Weaknesses and Threats (WT)
A company with great weaknesses often has to resort to a survival strategy. Kipaş could have seriously considered
the option of a joint operation with Asian firms. Another alternative would have been to make investments in
Asian countries. Although in difficulties Kipaş did not have to resort to a survival strategy because the company
still had much strength. Consequently, a more appropriate strategy was to attempt to overcome the weaknesses
and develop them into strengths. In other words, the direction was toward the strength-opportunity position (SO)
772
�in the matrix shown as Figure 3. Specifically, the strategy is to reduce the competitive threat by developing a
more flexible new R&D department to products individualized textile products .
Weaknesses and Opportunities (WO)
The growing affluence of customers has resulted in customized products. Yet, Kipaş have not had a special brand.
Especially when considering big brands in EU such as Nike or Adidas, in long run kipaş should create a brand
name for aimed markets. Kipaş has many problems with its management system due to two families desires to get
more control over the group, improvements in management systems and human resource department were enable
them to establish a new management style in order to take more favorable decisions more quickly. In order to
minimize the additional costs of logistics, E-business and Logistics departments were opened to decrease the
inventors and increase their selling capabilities. Another weakness at Kipaş was the increasing labor costs in
Turkey when compared low labor cost countries in Asia. Kipaş can increase the effectiveness of production or
make production in low labor cities in Turkey.
773
�Figure 3: TOWS Matrix of Kipaş Group Strengths and Threats (ST)
774
�One of the greatest threats to Kipaş was removal of quotas. To overcome this threat, the qualities of the products
have been improved against cheap and unqualified Chinas’ products. To reduce the threats of removal of quotas,
domestic market against china and others should be protected by decreasing textile production costs and
governments should subsidize that. Moreover, Research and Development Department in domestic and foreign
markets can avoid Chinese effects by producing more individualized products. Labor costs are so low in china.
To meet this threat, Kipas has used its capital not only to make investments in Turkey, but also in low labor
countries. This tactic which was congruent with its general strategy helped to improve the firm’s market position.
Strengths and Opportunities (SO)
In general, successful firms build on their strengths to take advantage of opportunities. Kipaş is no exception.
Throughout this discussion Kipaş 's strengths are shown in Figure 2. These strengths have enabled the company
to open a new Opening Business Development and Planning Department. Eventually the same company's
strengths enabled the firm to investments in GAP region and in energy sector providing many employment
opportunities. In another tactical move, Kipaş is expected to increase its market share in EU by using its
experience in these markets and proximity of Turkey to EU.
Organization Structure of Kipaş
After wide analysis, it showed that there was a need for change and this change must be started from top. Thus,
the old organization structure of the Group was changed by taking into consideration the current needs and future
expectations. The SWOT Analysis and TOWS Matrix were very helpful while designing the structure. It was not
only the decision of project team to change the structure but the decision of two families. Both families must agree
on new structure otherwise conflicts would start again. The main characteristic of the old organization of Kipaş
Group illustrated at Figure 4 was its dual headed structure. Every department and company was directly
responsible to this structure and every decision must be made or approved by chairmen of the board. These
decisions vary from very simple ones such as an official procurement to very extensive ones. Moreover, the single
approve of a chairman was not enough to execute; both of the chairmen had to approve and sign any decision or
document. There were many conflicts between families. There were two individuals, fiscal coordinator and an
internal auditor, who was also directly related to chairmen. The major duty of fiscal coordinator was to assist in
budget preparation and accounting support. The internal auditor was responsible for finding out any factors which
conflict to benefits of the organization. These factors can be action, such as a theft, or worker, such as an insider.
There were 6 functional departments in Kipaş: Finance, Procurement, IT (Information Technology), Accounting,
Sales and Personal Department as shown in Figure 4.
775
�ASSEMBLY
OF PARTNERS
Fiscal
Coordinat
or
Coordinat
1st CHAIRMAN
CHAIRMAN
BOARD
2nd
BOARD
FINANCE
ACCOUNTING
PROCUREMEN
T
SALES
IT
PERSONNEL
Internal
Auditor
Coordina
tor
DEPARTMENT
Bozkurt
Kipaş
Denim
Mills
Kipaş
Mipsan
Erdem
Text.
Teksan
KEAŞ
Pera
App
arel
KAREN
Kipaş
Ginning
Agri.
Kipaş
Insurance
TOYMAR
Figure 4: The old organization structure
In this part, the proposed organization structure shown in Figure 5 and the factors of SWOT analysis in Figure 2
how they affected new design is explained. New organization structure of new holding is designed regarding the
outputs of assessment studies. Strategies deployed from TOWS Matrix analysis in Figure 3 of Kipaş is directly
used in this process.
776
�Figure 5: New Proposed Organization Structure of Holding
Considering the financial and consequently political power of company, it is not so tough to venture in new
sectors. Business Development and Planning is a critical directory that aims to integrate the strategic planning of
the current business as well as evaluating the opportunities for the whole group to assure the sustainability of the
Holding Group in international environment. Duties and responsibilities of each function were prepared. Each
company has his own planning unit that deals with the operational planning which feeds the Holding with
information. Yet, integrating all the operational plans is a necessity not only to improve the effectiveness of the
tactical plans but also to prepare the basis for long-term strategic business plans. For example, denim production
plans and Kipas textile production plans are separately prepared but exportation is handled by Vice President of
External Business. Integration gives the possibility for using the spot or durable opportunities in exportation
besides domestic sales. To perform business development, there is one planning engineer tracing the global
business opportunities in all fields concerning Kipas Holding and informing the decision makers (President and 2
Vice Presidents). He prepares the feasibility reports before presentation. Once an opportunity is found realistic in
the Board, the case is taken as a particular project to be run. Then, the Project Team is established to include the
experts from the field to analyze the business in detail. This department handles the project until the project is
started as:
a) a new function of one of the companies
b) a new company
After that state, it is handled to the General Manager of the Company concerned (existing or new) to continue the
operations. In fact, this function is performed by 1st Chairmen of Board. Business Development and Planning
Department have significant responsibilities for enlargement in energy sector to value the new regulations and
possible demand rise in this sector.
The lack of human resources was considered one of the most important problems of Kipaş. Additionally, our
observations resulted in a consensus on the majority of the inappropriate managers in company, especially, at the
Kahramanmaraş. To compensate this drawback, a robust human resources department is proposed for company.
By this department, the company can also measure the performances of the workers, this was absent at that time.
777
�Creating a brand requires hard, intensive and lots of efforts. However, if the image of brand is set down, then the
company can reach very high yield. The profit margin of the company can increase with creation of this high
value added product. Firstly, the creation of brand requires a vigorous marketing department that would firstly
decide the appropriate promotion process and then keep the sustainability of this brand. Moreover, to improve the
attributes of product and use new technologies in an innovative way, the presence of Research and Development
Department is fundamental. The quality concept of brand is developed by quality departments. Being at the right
point at the right time would be run by E-business and Logistics departments.
EU is an important market for Kipaş and the foreign structure of Kipaş would enhance the activities in this market.
Moreover, with dismiss of quotas, new markets are emerging and the new players would place to these virgin
markets. The shares created in this process would be very easy but after a while, when the markets reach steady
state, to penetrate these markets would not be easy. On the other, the low labor cost countries are threats in this
foggy weather. However, this structure enables Kipaş differ from the companies of these countries by their service
level and product quality. To evaluate these opportunities and eliminate this threat, the foreign part is strictly
proposed
The other threats for Kipaş are increasing customer demands and improvements in competitors. The R&D
(Research and Development) and Quality Departments could be effective to eliminate these threats. The R&D
department focuses on not only the products but also the process and by developing processes of production the
company increases its competitiveness. Quality department works with R&D concurrently for continuous
improvement. This would enable to value Kipaş’s experience in the sector and turn its knowledge assets to added
value.
Conclusion
Noticing the reactions and rapid increasing portion of China’s in the market after removing 40 years quotas since
2005, the developed countries have been taking precautions and China respond to reactions with a little increase
in tax of these sectors. Despite of these recent developments, it is impossible to turn to conditions before 2005
and the revolution in the sector initiated with new rules.
Countries and companies have developed new strategies for the new game. SWOT analysis of Kipaş Group
mainly focused on textile and apparel sector. TOWS Matrix helps to deploy strategies while preparing new
organization chart. A new organization structure was prepared to respond to highly competitive markets. It is
clear that, China and other low labor cost Asian Countries, such as India, have been gained advantage in the
market. However, these regulations would undisputedly increase the competitiveness and in this environment
companies would attempt to differentiate by design. Particularly in clothing, the importance of time to market
would ascend dramatically. Consequently, the importance of proximity to markets such as EU and North
America would intensify, which is an important advantage for both Turkey and Kipaş considering proximity to
E.U. However, Turkish companies and Kipaş are obliged to concentrate on quality and supply chain activities
and establish robust R&D structures to create innovative products and design in short periods to turn over these
opportunities to yield. The yields of vertical growth are uncontroversial and Kipaş is a good instance of this.
Kipaş had all steps of supply chain of textile from cotton apparel. However, just last step of general supply chain
was neglected by Kipas that was retailing. Kipaş must concentrate on last and most value added part of chain.
Creation of own brand is the most important step in this essence. In the light of the developments in EU journey
of Turkey, as a strategy, Kipaş can start its retailing activities in Western Europe, more value-added markets
rather than domestic market. The company has the knowledge, culture and values to implement the
aforementioned strategies and proposed organizing structure.
References
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�
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Title
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Strategic Sustainable Development and Creating Strategies from TOWS Matrix at Kipas Group
Author
Author
Aslan, Imran
Bozkurt, Ramazan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The aim of this study is to develop new strategies for sustainable development of a group and to establish a holding from several companies by considering the regulations in the World Trade, recent developments in textile sector and raising conflicts among stakeholders. In this study, internal analysis of the group was carried out with interviews and surveys. To prepare external analysis, the economical situation of Turkey and the World was researched and categorized under standard PEST categories. Important problems were identified and then the purposes and objectives of the firm were determined by focusing on opportunities. Later, SWOT analysis of the group was prepared and most significant factors were chosen. In the light of these factors, TOWS matrix was prepared to combine external and internal factors of the enterprise in order to deploy strategies. New organization structure of the group was determined and presented based on these strategies.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e3a7406b76028941d656b5afb2a04442.pdf
dbb30bf2f3c85bfab9f7b96b7295ed0b
PDF Text
Text
Effects of Chicken Manure Application on Olive (Olea europaea)
Growth
Sabriye Atmaca
Akdeniz University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Horticulture Antalya / Turkey
Sara Demiral
Akdeniz University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Horticulture Antalya / Turkey
Salih Ülger
Akdeniz University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Horticulture Antalya / Turkey
Abstract: In this research, the possibilities of use of chicken wastes which have
significant potential in Turkey were investigated in olive orchards. Different doses of
solid and liquid chicken manure wastes were applied to high density planted olive trees
to determine their effects on plant growth and developing. Trunk diameter development
and plant height were measured 3 month cycles during the experiment.
Introduction
The olive tree (Olea europaea L.) originated from Upper Mesopotamia and Southwest Asia,
including a part of South East Anatolia Region of Turkey (Özkaya et al., 2004). Archaeological studies
showed that olive cultivation was started in 4000 BC (Ülger, 2010).
Olive cultivation in the worldwide is made in Mediterranean Basin with 90% and the rest part in
the Latin American countries. Approximately 17 million ton olive is produced from 900 million trees in 9
million hectares of land in the world (Ülger, 2010).
In Turkey, according to 2006 data, approximately 1.8 million tons of olive produced from 650.000
hectares of land (Table 2) and 550.000 tones table olives and 170.000 tons olive oil were obtained from this
production (Ülger, 2010).
High density olive growing, a growing system is made to obtain high-efficiency oil. The system
has also significant advantage in terms of early fruiting of trees (usually in 3 years), reduction of trend of
alternate-bearing, allowing to mechanical harvest, collecting of fruits untouched by hand and quick
processing (Anonymous, 2008).
Fertilization is one of the important factors for fruit growing. Fertilization is essential to obtain
enough growing and yield. Fruit trees remove nutrients from the soil in significant amounts in yearly. If
these removed nutrients can not be substituted the trees show some nutrient deficiency and yield reductions
occur. Necessary nutrient supplements should be made to soil to prevent this situation (Anonymous, 2009).
In the poultry business, juicy chicken manure is an important environment problem due to its bad
smell and overflows of sewage to the environment. Therefore, juicy chicken manure, polluting the
environment should be turned organic fertilizer to use in agriculture. U.S. and European developed
countries solved this problem by the processing of poultry waste to animal feed and fertilizer in years ago
(Dogan, 2003).
Many researches have determined nutrient content of chicken manure. Fresh chicken manure
contents as 51.9% water and 30.8% organic matter, 1.78% N, 1.78% P, 1% K, 1% Na, 0.07% Ca and 1.6%
Mg (Şeker, 2005). Inal et al., (1996) found that the chicken manure had high plant nutrient and they
recommend the chicken manure to be used as fertilizer in agriculture.
In this study, the effects of different doses of solid and liquid forms of processed chicken manure
on tree height and trunk diameter growth in olive (Olea europaea L.) trees were investigated.
150
�Materials and Methods
This study was conducted on 3 years old and 4x1.5 m planted “Gemlik” olive trees in Application
and Research Field of Faculty of Agriculture, Akdeniz University in 2009-2010. Processed solid chicken
manure (PSCM, trade name ORG-M-VIT) and processed liquid commercial manure (PLCM, trade name
KAL) were applied to the trees in the experiment. First 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 kg/tree PSCM (Table 1) were applied
to the olive trees in March and then 150 mL PLCM were applied to these olive trees in March, April, May,
June, July and August (Table 1). Trunk diameter and plant height were measured three months intervals
after application. Tree height was determined from ground level by tape measure and trunk diameter was
measured from 30 cm above the ground level by calliper. The experiment was designed as randomized
block and three replications, and each block has 3 trees.
Applications
Control
2. application
3. application
4. application
5. application
6. application
Application dosages and application dates
0 kg/tree PSCM + 0 PLCM
1 kg/tree PSCM (March) + 150 mL PLCM (March, April, May, June, July, August)
2 kg/tree PSCM (March) + 150 mL PLCM (March, April, May, June, July, August)
4 kg/tree PSCM (March) + 150 mL PLCM (March, April, May, June, July, August)
6 kg/tree PSCM (March) + 150 mL PLCM (March, April, May, June, July, August)
8 kg/tree PSCM (March) + 150 mL PLCM (March, April, May, June, July, August)
Table 1. Used dosages and application time of PSCM and PLCM.
Results and Discussion
The best average tree height developing was obtained from application of 4 kg/tree PSCM in
March +150 mL PLCM in March, April, May, June, July, August. The average height of tree was 121 cm
at first measuring time, and then the average height was reached 186 cm at the fourth measuring time in the
fourth application group trees. The differentiation between the first and fourth measurement was 75 cm.
The average smallest tree height developing was determined in sixth application groups with 24 cm
differentiation (Figure 1).
200
190
Tree height (cm)
180
1. application
170
2. application
160
3. application
150
4. application
140
5. application
130
6. application
120
110
100
1
2
3
4
Time
Figure 1. Average plant height after application of different dosages and application time of PSCM+PLCM
151
�Average trunk diameter and thickness increased depending on time after PSCM+PLCM
application. The strongest and weakest body diameter development were observed with 43.70 and 8.25 mm
respectively in number 4 applications (4 kg/tree PSCM in March + 150 mL PLCM in March, April, May,
June, July, August) and in number 6 applications (8 kg/tree PSCM inMarch+150 mL PLCM in March,
April, May, June, July, August) (Figure 2).
PSCM+PLCM application positively affected trunk and height development of “Gemlik” olive
cultivars. Similarly, positive results were obtained by Polat (2001) in organic lettuce growing, Dogan
(2003) in tomato and cucumber seedlings growing and Şeker (2005) in maize development after chicken
manure application.
Since olive is a perennial plant, the effects of chicken manure may not be seen with one year
results. But one year results showed that some dosages of chicken manure had positive effect in terms of
plant height and trunk development in olive trees.
45
Trunk diameter (mm)
40
1. application
35
2. application
3. application
30
4. application
5. application
25
6. application
20
15
1
2
3
4
Time
Figure 2. Average plant trunk diameter developing after application of different dosages and application
time of PSCM+PLCM
References
Anonymous, 2008. http://www.provedo.com/html/eng/olivo_superintensivo.htm
Anonymous, 2009. Meyve Ağaçlarında Gübreleme, Eğirdir Bahçe Kültürleri Araştırma Enstitüsü, www. 3.
Ulusal Gübre Sempozyumu.
Doğan, D., 2003. Domates ve Hıyar Fidesi Üretiminde Yetiştirme Ortamlarına Katılan Tavuk Gübresinin
Fide Gelişimi ve Kalitesine Etkileri. Ankara Universitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Yüksek Lisans Tezi,
Ankara.
Seker, C., Gümüş, I. and Zengin, M., 2005. Mısır Bitkisinin Ilk gelişimine Kompostlaştırılmış Tuzlu Tavuk
Gübresinin Etkisi. S.U. Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 19 (37): 113-117.
Inal, A., Sözüdoğru, S. and Erden, D., 1996. Tavuk Gübresinin Içeriği ve Gübre Değeri. Tarım Bilimleri
Dergisi, 2 (3): 45-50.
152
�Ozkaya, M.T., Ergülen, E., Ulger, S. and Ozilbey, N. 2004. Genetic And Biologic Characterization Of
Some Olive (Olea Europaea L.) Cultivars Grown in Turkey. Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi, 10(2):231-236.
Polat, E., Sönmez, S., Demir, H. and Kaplan, M. 2001. Farklı Organik Gübre Uygulamalarının Marulda
Verim, Kalite ve Bitki Besin Maddeleri Alımına Etkileri. Türkiye 2. Ekolojik Tarım Sempozyumu, Antalya,
69-77.
Ulger, S. 2010. Subtropik Iklim Meyveleri (Zeytin) Ders Notu. Yayın no:16, Akd. Univ. Zir. Fak. Basım
Unitesi.
153
�
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345
Title
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Effects of Chicken Manure Application on Olive (Olea europaea) Growth
Author
Author
Atmaca, Sabriye
Demiral, Sara
Ülger, Salih
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In this research, the possibilities of use of chicken wastes which have significant potential in Turkey were investigated in olive orchards. Different doses of solid and liquid chicken manure wastes were applied to high density planted olive trees to determine their effects on plant growth and developing. Trunk diameter development and plant height were measured 3 month cycles during the experiment.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2fac7945c69ca89330241346ffaad8e6.pdf
a3f53a99691521c0f0d9d5adeb843a4c
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Text
Compressive and Flexural Behavior of Hybrid Use of GFRP Profile
with Concrete
Ferhat Aydın
Technology Faculty, Department of Civil Engineering,
Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey
ferhata@sakarya.edu.tr
Mehmet Sarıbıyık
Technology Faculty, Department of Civil Engineering,
Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey
mehmets@sakarya.edu.tr
Abstract: Research activities have been taking on place for new construction materials
in order to produce more effective constructions. One of the new technological
materials is Pultruded Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic (GFRP) materials. High tensile
strength, lightweight and non-corrosive properties allowed GFRP to become a
competitive alternative to traditional structural materials. Having resolved fundamental
manufacturing constraints through the development of the pultrusion process, the mass
adaptation of GFRP sections as primary load bearing elements have been used in a
number of civil engineering applications.
In this study; compressive strength and flexural properties of hybrid use of GFRP
profile with concrete have been investigated. The tests applied on the specimens
including plain concrete, GFRP box profiles and concrete filled GFRP profiles to
demonstrate the advantages and importance of GFRP profiles used in civil engineering
applications.
Keywords: Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic, Concrete, Hybrid structure, Compressive
properties, Flexural properties
Introduction
The investigations on the technical development have been continuous on the new methodology
and construction materials following to the technological development in the world. The limitation of
classical construction materials can be overcome by using new technological materials. In the continuing
quest for improved performance of structural materials, scientists and engineers strive to improve the
traditional natures or produce completely new one. Composite materials are an example of the latter
category. Within the past five decades there has been a rapid increase in the development of advanced
composites incorporating fine fibres, termed fibre reinforced composites. Due to the high cost of metal and
ceramic matrix composite materials, the majority of composites used in the construction industry are based
on polymeric matrix materials. Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites are formed by embedding
continuous fibres in a resin matrix which binds the fibres together. Common fibres include carbon, glass,
and aramid fibres while common resins are epoxy, polyester, and vinyl ester resins. The most widely used
FRP composite is glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) composite which is a new generation of structural
materials for civil engineering structures. The GFRP materials have been manufactured using Pultrusion
method.
In the Pultrusion method, a continuous E-glass fibre reinforcement in the form of alternate layers
of randomly oriented mat and layers of unidirectional roving bundles are pulled through a resin
impregnator and then on through a heated die to form continuous prismatic members similar in geometry to
those produced by the steel industry as seen Figure 1.
44
�Figure 1. Examples of Pultruded GFRP profiles (www.strongwell.com. 2005)
Pultruded GFRP profiles have great potential as construction materials, presenting several
advantages when compared with traditional materials, related to the higher strength to weight ratio, the
lower self-weight, the electromagnetic transparency, the possibility of being produced with any crosssection geometry, the easier installation, the lower maintenance requirements and the improved durability
under aggressive environments (Karbhari and Seible, 1999, Keller, 2002). The construction industry
appears to be gradually recognizing the additional benefits offered by these materials. Having resolved
fundamental manufacturing constraints through the development of the pultrusion process, the mass
adaptation of GFRP sections as secondary and primary load bearing elements have been used in a number
of civil engineering applications (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. Examples of structure constructed using pultruded GFRP profiles (www.strongwell.com. 2005)
GFRP profiles have been used in the buildings that exposed to the negative effect of the sea and
chemicals. GFRP materials also used in hybrid bridges and soil improvement systems. GFRP–concrete
hybrid elements have also been developed for new structural systems, combining the directional behaviour,
the lightness and the high mechanical performance of GFRP pultruded profiles with the concrete
45
�compressive strength. The use of concrete-filled fibre reinforced tubes has been used in piles for maritime
structures. The concept of hybrid system was first introduced for bridge systems (Seible, 1996).
Preliminary studies, however, have shown that the design of concrete filled FRP tube bridge girders is
stiffness driven, and that material strength may not be fully utilized. While concrete resists compression
and prevents the failure of the tube due to instability phenomena, the FRP element confines the concrete,
contributing to a strength and ductility increase, and protection from aggressive environment (Snow, 1999).
The results from the tests showed that it is possible to manufacture a fibre reinforced plastic hybrid beam
with concrete that can have excellent stiffness and be able to bear heavy loads (Nordin and Taljstena, 2004).
The alternative use of GFRP pultruded profiles in GFRP–concrete hybrid structural elements has a
very interesting potential. Compressive strength and flexural properties of hybrid use of GFRP profile with
concrete have been investigated to use in construction system to demonstrate the advantages and
importance of GFRP profiles used in engineering applications. The study focused on the specimens
including plain concrete, GFRP box profiles and concrete filled GFRP profiles.
Compressive Tests
Three different groups (C20, C30 and C40) of concrete using Ordinary Portland Cement washed
river sand and crashed aggregate were used in manufacturing the specimens. All specimens were made
from the same delivery of materials (sand, aggregate and cement) and similar manufacturing and curing
procedures were adopted throughout the test program.
Concrete and concrete filled GFRP cube specimens in three groups with six specimens in each
groups, concrete classes were prepared according to the Turkish Standard (TSE 802, 1985). Wall thickness
of 4 mm and cross-section of 100x100 mm GFRP box profile were used to produce concrete filled
specimens (see Figure 3). Portions of fresh mixed concrete were filled in cube mould and the remainder
was filled in GFRP profiles. The specimens were kept in the water for 28 days and then tested to determine
compressive strength according to the Turkish Standard (TS EN 12390-3, 2002). Average compressive
strength and unit weight values are presented in Table 1.
Figure 3: Samples of Compressive Tests
46
�Sample
Concrete Class
Unit Weight
(gr/cm3)
Ultimate Load
(N)
Plain Concrete
C 20
2.33
272383
Compressive
Strength
(N/mm2)
27
Concrete filled
GFRP Profiles
C 20
2.21
328450
33
Plain Concrete
C 30
2.37
393250
39
Concrete filled
GFRP Profiles
C 30
2.27
430480
43
Plain Concrete
C 40
2.41
479816
48
Concrete filled
GFRP Profiles
C 40
2.19
532817
53
Table 1: Results of Compression Tests
Compressive tests outcomes of C20 class specimens showed that the strength of concrete-filled GFRP has
about 22% higher strength when compared with plain concrete. Comparisons between plain concrete and
concrete- filled GFRP profiles average values are given in Figure 4. However; compressive tests outcomes
of C30 and C40 class’s specimens showed that the strength of concrete-filled GFRP has about 10% higher
strength when compared with plain concrete as seen in Figures 5 and 6. Unit weight of concrete was
reduced about 10% as seen in Table 1. The results showed that the hybrid use of GFRP with concrete
increased the compressive strength in three different concrete classes. The outcomes showed that increases
of concrete quality reduce the effect of GFRP profiles. In addition; failure patterns of concrete filled GFRP
profile were examined. Test results showed that all samples were broken from the corner as seen in Figure
7.
Figure 4: Compression results of C20 concrete samples
47
�Figure 5: Compression results of C30 concrete samples
Figure 6: Compression results of C40 concrete samples
48
�Figure 7: Concrete filled GFRP samples failure pattern
Flexure Tests
Concrete and concrete filled GFRP bending specimens in three groups (C20, C30 and C40)
concrete classes were prepared according to the Turkish Standard (TSE 802, 1985). Wall thickness of 4
mm and cross-section of 74x74 mm length of 500 mm (beam’s span 400 mm) GFRP box profile were used
to produce concrete filled bending specimens (see Figure 8). Portions of fresh mixed concrete were filled in
GFRP box section and remainder was filled in same size of mould. The specimens were kept in the water
for 28 days and then tested to determine bending strength according to the Turkish Standard (TS EN
12390-5, 2002). Three point bending tests were performed using universal tensile test machine as shown in
Figure 9. Deflection of plain concrete, plain GFRP box section and concrete filled GFRP profile were
recorded to determine the relative bending of the specimens. The load cell and LVDTs were connected to a
PC via a signal conditioning unit. Measurements were taken at five intervals giving approximately 150 sets
of measurements per test.
Figure 8: Samples of Flexure Tests
49
�Figure 9: Flexure Test with Concrete Filled GFRP Box Profile
After experiments in the load-deflection graphs are formed and the bending strength values of all samples
were calculated by the equation 1. The obtained results have been compared to each with others. Average
bending load and bending strength values are presented in Table 2.
M×y
(1)
I
Where; σ is bending strength, M is bending moment, I is moment of inertia and y is neutral axis distance.
σ=
Bending Strength
(N/mm2)
Plain Concrete
Ultimate Load
(kN)
4.84
Box Profile
11.70
47.17
Concrete Filled GFRP Profiles (C 20)
19.45
28.79
Concrete Filled GFRP Profiles (C 30)
19.07
28.23
Concrete Filled GFRP Profiles (C 40)
21.15
31.31
Sample
7.17
Table 2: Results of Flexure Tests
Tests outcomes of specimens showed that the bending load of concrete-filled GFRP has about four
times and two times higher values when compared with plain concrete and plain GFRP box section
respectively. Comparisons between plain concrete, plain GFRP and concrete- filled GFRP profiles loaddeflection graphs are given in Figure 10-12. The results showed that the hybrid use of GFRP with concrete
increased the bending load capacity in three different concrete classes. In addition; the GFRP box section
protects the concrete and the filled concrete defends the local failure of GFRP profile. Test results showed
that all samples were broken from the corner as similar as compressive samples as seen in Figure 13.
50
�Figure 10: Comparison between beam samples in C20 compressive strength
Figure 11: Comparison between beam samples in C30 compressive strength
51
�Figure 12: Comparison between beam samples in C40 compressive strength
Figure 13: Beam Sample after Flexure Test
Conclusions
High tensile strength, lightweight and non-corrosive properties allowed GFRP to become a competitive
alternative to traditional structural materials. Research activities have been taken in order to produce more
effective constructions materials using hybrid use of pultruded GFRP and concrete. Compressive strength
and flexural properties of hybrid use of GFRP profile with concrete have been investigated. The tests
applied on the specimens including plain concrete, GFRP box profiles and concrete filled GFRP profiles.
The outcomes demonstrate the advantages and importance of GFRP profiles will be used engineering
applications. With respect to the experimental behaviour, the following conclusions have been drawn:
•
Compressive tests outcomes of C20 class specimens showed that the strength of concrete-filled GFRP
has about 22% higher strength when compared with plain concrete. The tests outcomes of C30 and
52
�•
C40 class’s specimens showed that the strength of concrete-filled GFRP has about 10% higher when
compared with plain concrete. The results showed that the hybrid use of GFRP with concrete
increased the compressive strength.
Bending tests outcomes of specimens showed that the bending load of concrete-filled GFRP has about
four times higher values when compared with plain concrete and two times higher than plain GFRP
box section. The results showed that the hybrid use of GFRP with concrete increased the bending load
capacity in all concrete classes. GFRP box section protects the concrete and the filled concrete
protects the local failure of GFRP profile.
•
Compressive and bending test results showed that all samples were broken from the corner of
pultruded GFRP box profiles.
•
There are several structural advantages of hybrid use of pultruded GFRP profiles with concrete,
including the increase of the flexural stiffness, reducing the structures deformability, and the increase
of the structures strength capacity, and preventing the local failure of the GFRP profiles.
References
Nordin H.& Taljstena B. (2004). Testing of hybrid FRP composite beams in bending. Composites: Part B 35 (27–33)
Karbhari VM. & Seible F. (1999). Fiber-reinforced polymer composites for civil infrastructure in the USA. Struct Eng
Int, IABSE 1999;9(4):274–7.
Keller T. (2002). Fibre reinforced polymer materials in bridge construction. In: Towards a better built environment—
innovation, sustainability, information technology, IABSE Symposium, Melbourne (CD-Rom).
Snow RK. (1999). Encapsulation: protecting concrete piles in marine environments. Concr Int, ACI 21(12):33–8.
TS EN 12390-3. (2003). Testing hardened concrete - Part 3 : Compressive strength of test specimens, Türk Standardları
Enstitüsü, Ankara
TS EN 12390-5. (2002). Testing hardened concrete - Part 5: Flexural strength of test specimens, Türk Standardları
Enstitüsü, Ankara
TS 802. (1985). Design Concrete Mixes, Türk Standardları Enstitüsü, Ankara
www.strongwell.com. (2005). web page of Strongwell Company
53
�
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328
Title
A name given to the resource
Compressive and Flexural Behavior of Hybrid Use of GFRP Profile with Concrete
Author
Author
Aydın, Ferhat
Sarıbıyık, Mehmet
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Research activities have been taking on place for new construction materials in order to produce more effective constructions. One of the new technological materials is Pultruded Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic (GFRP) materials. High tensile strength, lightweight and non-corrosive properties allowed GFRP to become a competitive alternative to traditional structural materials. Having resolved fundamental manufacturing constraints through the development of the pultrusion process, the mass adaptation of GFRP sections as primary load bearing elements have been used in a number of civil engineering applications. In this study; compressive strength and flexural properties of hybrid use of GFRP profile with concrete have been investigated. The tests applied on the specimens including plain concrete, GFRP box profiles and concrete filled GFRP profiles to demonstrate the advantages and importance of GFRP profiles used in civil engineering applications.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8061bc4924bce1217bad9a33f92c6f4c.pdf
eb156b79af7d80ce6b042fa6064ce2f2
PDF Text
Text
Determination of Genetic Polymorphism within Güney Karaman
Sheep-Breed via RAPD-PCR Method
Đbrahim Aytekin
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture,
Selcuk University, 42075, Konya / Turkey
aytekin@selcuk.edu.tr
Saim Boztepe
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture,
Selcuk University, 42075, Konya / Turkey
sboztepe@selcuk.edu.tr
Abstract: Analysis of individual genotypes aims to provide information for
understanding within population genetic parameters such as genetic similarity,
polymorphism and heterozygosity. The aims of this research were to determine the
genetic parameters within Güney Karaman sheep involved in a protection programme of
gene resources by using randomly oligonucleotide primers via Randomly Amplified
Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) method.
Among the primers tested, 10 most suitable ones, in terms of repeatability and
scorability, were used and 1451 DNA fragments were scored. All the RAPD fragments
were determined to be between 600 - 3000 bp in size. From 147 fragments, 133 were
polymorphic (90.48%) and 14 fragments were monomorphic (9.52%). Within
population average genetic similarity (Fragment Sharing Frequency, Fxy) and genetic
distance were calculated as 0.7001 and 0.2991, respectively. The average expected
heterozygosity was estimated as 0.3273 ± 0.1697.
Keywords: Güney Karaman sheep-breed, polymorphism, RAPD-PCR
Introduction
It is of great importance to determine, at DNA level through molecular techniques, the variations
of farm animals that have a huge genetic potential in number and variety, to define them, to prepare
schemes to preserve and develop them to this end. The majority of the sheep in Turkey are composed of
domestic breeds and types that haven’t been refined. Also known as Black sheep, the Güney Karaman
sheep breed is raised in South and south-eastern cities, notably on the Taurus Mountains and looks very
much like Karagül with its fat-tail. Its proportion is rather low in the Turkish sheep population (Öztürk,
2000).
In sheep breeding, genotype confusion has emerged in domestic sheep breeds, which constitute the
gene resources, through a gradual genetic change as a result of selection on the economically important
yields in certain breeds. Consequently, the present gene resources are getting lost, and the continuation of
offspring is put in jeopardy with the risk of these genotypes disappearing. The disappearance of the
domestic breeds means the disappearance of the distinctive traits that they bear. At this stage, it is hard or
impossible to say which of these traits will be required in the future. Also, the possible traits of these gene
resources, which haven’t been identified yet, can be kept available with the survival of these breeds
(Ertuğrul et al., 2005). One of the Turkish domestic breeds, the Güney Karaman sheep is a breed in danger
of extinction. For this reason, the breed involved is brought under protection within the context of
protecting gene resources with the declaration of guidelines for subsidizing animal farming (Rescript No:
2006/9) by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (Anonymous, 2006).
Genetic evaluation has usually started by analysing phenotypes to identify genetic influences,
whereas molecular genetics often begins with known alleles or DNA sequences and then examines their
influence on phenotypes. Eukaryotic genomes show considerable DNA sequence variations
183
�(polymorphisms) between species and among individuals within a species (Beuzen et al., 2000). Studies of
molecular genetics and molecular biology at DNA level have recently come to the fore so as to determine
these variations in individuals and populations. Molecular techniques are utilized for determination of the
genetic makeup of farm animals at DNA level and for selection studies based on a marker in amelioration
studies. It is rather difficult especially in stock raising to detect the genotypes that carry the best alleles by
examining the phenotypes of animals which have an economical value, and that have expensive- and
difficult-to measure quantitative characteristics. In such cases, so as to determine the individuals that carry
the related alleles with DNA markers, intense studies have been conducted in recent years on such
quantitative characters as milk yield, resistance to diseases and fecundity (Schnabel et al., 2005). In the
QTL analysis concerning quantitative characters, quantitative characters are identified in cattle, sheep and
swine for commercial and experimental purposes. The markers that are connected with milk and milk
components yields in dairy cattle, birth weights, horn development and preweaning growth in beef cattle,
fecundity and muscle hypertrophy in sheep have been identified (Davis and DeNise, 1998).
One of the molecular techniques, the RAPD technique (Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA)
is based on the amplification of PCR and DNA fragments of randomly spread areas in the genome by
using random primers (9-10 bp). Unlike the other PCR applications, only one primer is used for DNA
production both in the pattern DNA chain and in the complementary chain. It is required that the ratio of G
+ C primers used in RAPD techniques be 50–80% , that they not contain any palindromes and that they
shouldn’t be complementary to each other (Williams et al., 1990; Williams et al., 1993). Compared with
other PCR applications, RAPD method is easy to apply, and more preferable because of its low cost and
high and quick efficiency. Among its advantages are the sufficiency of a minimum and low quality DNA in
nanogram levels and also no prerequisite information regarding DNA sequence. Moreover, the rate of
polymorphism is high (Bowditch et al., 1993; Kantanen et al., 1995; Öz Aydın, 2004). It is reported that the
disadvantages of this technique are low repeatability with different equipment and chemical material, and
low reliability as a result of diverse results in diverse laboratories by diverse researchers. Nevertheless,
RAPD technique is fit for automation under laboratory conditions (Tingey and Tufo., 1993).
Along with its widespread use in molecular biology and in many various areas, the RAPD-PCR
technique is successfully used in many fields, such as the identification of genetic similarity and difference
in livestock, prediction of the genetic relationship between different breeds and ecotypes, identification of
wild species (Lee and Chang, 1994), study of evolution (Stepniak et al., 2002), genetic mapping (Cushwa et
al., 1996), pedigre determination (Cerit, 2001), determining the sex of ovine embryos (Gutiérrea-Adán at al.,
1997), and developing species-related markers. RAPD method have found application in various animal
species, such as cattle and sheep (Kantanen et al., 1995; Cushwa et al., 1996; Tahmoorespur et al., 2003;
Ahmed Ali, 2003; Paiva et al., 2005), goat (Li et al.,2002; Şahin, 2005), turkeys (Smith et al., 1996),
chickens (Smith et al., 1996; Sharma et al., 2001), quails (Sharma et al., 2000), fish (Akhan and Canyurt,
2005), bees (Suazo et al., 1998), horses (Apostolidis, 2001) and pigs (Yen et al., 2001). This has
demonstrated the efficiency RAPD as a potential genetic marker. The studies conducted with the RAPDPCR technique have shown that this method can be successfully used in predicting genetic makeup of
species and intra- and inter-population genetic parameters. This study aims to demonstrate both the
applicability of RAPD-PCR method and to reveal the DNA fingerprints belonging to the population
involved with the aim of identifying, at DNA level, genetic variation of Güney Karaman sheep breed,
which constitutes the recent gene resources.
Material and Method
Animal Material and DNA Isolation
In the context of preservation and protection of gene resources, the blood samples that were taken
from 8 male and 8 female Güney Karaman sheep, which were kept in Bahri Dağdaş International
Agricultural Research and Application Center, were used. For DNA isolation, the blood samples that were
taken from Vena jugularis of the animals by using vacuum blood tubes with sodium citrate were preserved
in cold chain (+4°C), taken to the Molecular Genetic and Biotechnology Laboratory of Faculty of
Agriculture in Selcuk University in the shortest possible time, and were kept at -20°C until DNA isolation
were achieved. DNA isolation kit (Bio Basic Inc., Canada) was used for the purpose of pursuing a method
that wouldn’t yield different results between different blood samples and that consisted of as few
184
�components as possible in DNA isolation. In the study, the DNA concentrations that dissolved in the 100 ul
1xTE buffer solution were read through spectrophotometer, and the concentrations were equalized with
sterile pure water so as to get 20 ng/ul.
PCR Amplification
In the RAPD technique, 10-base primers, some of which had been tried before, were utilized and
10 best efficient primers (18, 19, Op15, Opm10, Opp15, Opq04, Opq06, Ra03, Ra35, Ra59) were chosen
in connection with their monomorphic/polymorphic characteristics and with their productivity of sufficient
number of strips and then used in RAPD analyses.
The PCR protocol was optimized as Şahin (2005) and Ahmed Ali (2003) reported, and PCR
application was carried out. The DNA samples of 1 ul that were obtained as a result of DNA isolation and
that were balanced so as to be 20 ng/ul each were put in PCR tubes. Reactions were triggered in thin-walled
PCR tubes with a volume of 25 ul in total with 1 ul DNA+24 ul mix. The mix for PCR reaction was
prepared with 14.0 ul sterile distilled water, 2.5 ul 10x Buffer pH: 8.5 (48.4 g Tris base, 10.22 ml Glacial
Acetic Acid, 20 ml EDTA pH: 8.0), 2.5 ul 25 mM MgCI2, 4.0 ul dNTPs, (2.5 mM from each), 0.5 ul primer
(50 pmol/ul) and 0.5 ul Taq Polymerase (Taq Bioron 5 U/ul). The PCR applications conducted in Thermal
Cycler (Eppendorf Master Gradient) were exposed to 40 cycles in total- hot start at 94°C for 2 min., at
denaturation level at 94°C for 50 sec., at annealing stage at 32-34°C for 55 sec. and at extension stage at
72°C for 50 sec and final extension at 72°C for 5 min. Some optimizations were made in the heat and
duration units connected to the primers that were used. The RAPD fragments were separated on a 1.5%
agarose gel by electrophoresis. Then it was taken out of the gel solution containing 0.5 µg/ml Ethidium
Bromide, RAPD fragments were viewed in gel documentation system under UV light with the help of
transilluminator. The resulting data were stored in an electronic setting. DNA Moleculer Weight Marker
(100 bp Ladder, AMRESCO) was used as standard to determine the size range of amplified bands (bp) on
which RAPD fragments moved in gel according to their molecule sizes.
Scoring and Statistical Analysis
The photographs related to RAPD fragments were scored on the basis of present/absent (1=present,
0=absent), and data matrix was formed. By using this obtained data matrix, genetic similarity between
individuals, the ratio of polymorphism, the values of heterozygosity were obtained through POPGEN-1.32
pc program, and the dendogram that showed genotypical relation between individuals and PCoA (Principle
Coordinates Analysis) were obtained according to the UPGMA method through NTSYS-2.1 pc (Numerical
Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis System) program. The genetic similarity between individuals (Fxy)
was calculated using the formula below as defined by Nei (1987).
Fxy = 2 Mxy / (Mx + My)
Fxy: Genetic similarity; Mxy: The number of common RAPD fragments between sheep X and Y,
Mx: The total RAPD fragment number of sheep X, My: The total RAPD fragment number of sheep Y
In calculating the average value of heterozygosity (H), the formula given below was used (Nei,
1987). H=Σh/r; In the formula; r: The number of locus, h: The expected single locus heterozygosity,
which was calculated as; h=1- ΣXi2; In the formula; Xi2: This is the ratio of homozygot genotypes
Where the ratio of polymorphism was calculated with a comparison of the number of observed
polymorphic fragments with the total fragment number.
Results and Discussion
The RAPD-PCR fragments of 16 animals were obtained, using 10 primers. The primers used in the
study and the sequences, melting temperatures (Tm), the size range of fragments (bp), the total fragment
numbers (TFN), fragment numbers (FN), polymorphic fragment numbers (PFN), polymorphism (P%), the
ratios of heterozygosity and standard devision (H±SD), obtained from 16 Güney Karaman breed sheep are
given in Table 1.
185
�Primers
18
19
Op15
Opm10
Opp15
Opq04
Opq06
Ra03
Ra35
Ra59
Sequence (50-30)
Tm
Size range of
fragments (bp)
GGG CTA GGG T
ACC GGG AAC G
GAC GGA TCA G
TCT GGC GCA C
GGA AGC CAA C
AGT GCG CTG A
GAG CGC CTT G
CGA TCG AGG A
AAG CTC CCC G
CGG GCA ACG T
Total
Average
34
34
32
34
32
32
34
32
34
34
700 - 3000
700 - 3000
600 - 3000
800 - 3000
600 - 3000
700 - 3000
600 - 3000
800 - 3000
900 - 3000
900 - 3000
TFN
FN
PFN
116
155
148
124
160
217
160
154
96
121
1451
10
16
17
12
15
18
19
16
8
16
147
9
12
15
12
15
14
19
14
8
15
133
P (%)
90
75
88.23
100
100
77.77
100
87.50
100
93.75
90.48
H±SD
0.3452 ± 0.1405
0.2304 ± 0.1956
0.3158 ± 0.1914
0.4006 ± 0.1527
0.4055 ± 0.1166
0.3104 ± 0.1960
0.3301 ± 0.1440
0.3013 ± 0.1790
0.4121 ± 0.1422
0.2946 ± 0.1571
0.3273 ± 0.1697
Table 1. Some information obtained from 16 Güney Karaman breed sheep with the 10 primers
As can be seen in Table 1, the fragments obtained with the 10-mer primers generally ranged from
600 to 3000 bp. In total 1451 fragments were obtained, of them 673 being in male individuals, 778 being
in females. When the number of fragments obtained from each individual, Opq04 primer is the one which
yielded the highest number of fragments, with 217, and Ra35 is the one that yielded the lowest number of
primers, with 96.
Of the 147 fragments that were obtained with all the primers, 133 were determined to be
polymorphic, and 14 monomorphic. The average polymorphism ratio obtained in the study was found as
90.48%. When all the fragments that could be scored were examined, the Opm10, Opp15, Opq06 and Ra35
primers proved to be the primers with the highest ratio of polymorphism (100%). The lowest polymorphism
ratio (75%) was obtained from the primer 19. The 10 primers that were used and the locus of the individuals
that we studied had a high level of polymorphism, which made it unnecessary to scan more diverse locus.
Cushwa et al. (1996) identified the polymorphism ratio, with RAPD method, to be between 65% and 96%
with a mean 85%, using 53 primers in total from 5 sheep breeds (Coopworth, Merino, Perendale, Romney
and Texel) and from their crossbreds. In a study made with 17 RAPD primers on 5 Iranian sheep breeds
(Arman, Balouchi, Iranblack, Kordi and Karakol), Tahmoorespur et al. (2003) reported that they obtained
10 polymorphic fragments from only three of these primers (Moh-4, Moh-13 and Moh-21) and that they
found the variation within and between the markers used and the 5 Iranian sheep breeds to be rather low,
and that more studies were required with more primers so as to determine, in more details, the relations
within and between sheep breeds. In this study, enough polymorphic fragments (133 pcs.) to exhaustively
evaluate individual genotypes of the RAPD primers that were used in Güney Karaman sheep breed. In
other words, when compared with the Güney Karaman sheep breed (90.48%), the ratio of polymorphism
was seen to be lower in their studies. Paiva et al. (2005) stated that polymorphism ratios in 5 Brasilian hairsheep breeds (Santa Đnes, Rabo Largo, Somali, Morada Nova and Bergamasca) were found as (%) 100,
98.15, 98.15, 94.44 and 90.74, respectively. When compared with these breeds in terms of polymorphism
ratio, it displayed a rate relatively closer to Bargamasca hair sheep, but had a lower value than all the
Brazilian hair sheep. As to primers, in the study made by Ahmed Ali (2003) with 19 RAPD primers in total
for the identification of genetic similarity in Barki, Rahmani, Baladi and Suffolk sheep breeds raised in
Egypt, though the primers no. 18 and 19 yielded no polymorphic fragments, it appeared that they could be
effectively used for the identification of individual genotypes in this study. Similarly, Sharma et al. (2001)
used the Opm10 and Opp15 primers, which were also used in this study, to determine the genetic variation
between White Leghorn, Rhodes Island Red, Red Cornish, White Plymouth Rock and Kadaknath chicken
strains. However, they reported that they couldn’t obtain any polymorphic fragments with Opp15 primers.
In this study, it has appeared that both Opm10 and Opp15 primers could be effectively used for identifying
individual genotypes.
The heterozygosity values in polymorphic locus calculated according to Nei (1987) generally
varied between 0.0615 and 0.5000, and the rate of heterozygosity on the basis of primers was changed to be
between 0.2304 and 0.4121. In general, the average heterozygosity was calculated to be 0.3273 ± 0.1697.
As defined by Stephen et al. (2001), in a study they made with 4 RAPD primers so as to identify the genetic
186
�relations between 5 Tanzanian sheep ecotype, reported that the highest average heterozygosity value was
the Arusha ecotype (0.203) and that the lowest heterozygosity value was in the Dodoma ecotype (0.137).
When compared with these sheep ecotypes in terms of the average heterozygosity value, Güney Karaman
sheep (0.3273) can be said to have a higher value. For this reason, since the higher the heterozygosity value
is in a population, the wider the genetic variety of the population will be, it is understood that Güney
Karaman sheep have a higher genetic variation than 5 Tanzanian sheep ecotypes. Paiva et al. (2005) stated
that heterozygosity values in Snata Ines, Rabo Largo, Somali, Morada Nova and Bergamasca hair sheep by
using 19 RAPD primers were found as 0.3881, 0.3857, 0.4050, 0.3929 and 0.3229, respectively. When
compared with Bergamasca hair-sheep in terms of heterozygosity, Güney Karaman sheep has a little higher
heterozygosity value, but a lower value when compared with other breeds.
As seen in Table 2, K9 and K10 sheep were the individuals genetically closest to each other
(0.8844). The sheep, genetically the most distant from each other were K5 - K7 (0.5646), K5 - K9
(0.5646), and K5 - K15 (0.5646). In this respect, the sheep no K5 can be said to be genetically different
from the rest. The genetic similarity between individuals is estimated to be 0.7009 on average; the genetic
distance 0.2991 on average (Table 2). In the study made by Ahmed Ali (2003), genetic similarities
between Barki, Rahmani, Baladi and Suffolk sheep breeds raised in Egypt were found to be between the
values 0.8190 and 0.9570. When compared with Güney Karaman sheep breed, the genetic similarity in
this study was determined to be higher between 4 Egypth sheep breeds
In Table 2, the genetic similarity values of 16 Güney Karaman sheep breeds were given in terms of
10 RAPD markers.
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6
K7
K8
K9
K10
K11
K12
K13
K14
K15
K16
K1
0.6599
0.6803
0.7959
0.6599
0.7687
0.7687
0.6463
0.7551
0.7483
0.8299
0.7415
0.7211
0.8027
0.7007
0.7347
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6
K7
K8
K9
K10
K11
0.7347
0.6871
0.7415
0.6735
0.6054
0.6327
0.6327
0.6395
0.6395
0.6463
0.5986
0.6667
0.6054
0.6259
0.7483
0.5850
0.6531
0.6259
0.6259
0.7211
0.6871
0.7007
0.7075
0.5918
0.7415
0.6395
0.6190
0.6054
0.8503
0.7687
0.6463
0.8231
0.8299
0.7755
0.7687
0.6395
0.7347
0.7551
0.6939
0.6599
0.5646
0.6735
0.5646
0.5986
0.6939
0.5918
0.7075
0.6531
0.5646
0.6259
0.7687
0.6735
0.7687
0.8027
0.7619
0.7687
0.6803
0.7211
0.7415
0.6531
0.6599
0.7823
0.7347
0.7619
0.8095
0.6803
0.6531
0.7143
0.7211
0.6327
0.6395
0.6667
0.7007
0.8163
0.6395
0.6054
0.6939
0.8844
0.7483
0.7959
0.6122
0.7075
0.7415
0.6667
0.7415
0.7347
0.6190
0.7279
0.7347
0.6735
0.7619
0.7959
0.7687
0.6939
0.7823
K12
K13
K15
0.6803
0.6803 0.7143
0.7415 0.6531 0.6939
0.7075 0.7959 0.7143 0.7075
Table 2. The genetic similarity values of 16 Güney Karaman sheep breeds
187
K14
K16
-
�Figure 1. The UPGMA dendogram of 16 Güney Karaman sheep breeds
At the final stage of the study, the NTSYS-pc out of the RAPD fragments that could be scored and
the genetic relation dendogram on which genotypic variation was displayed were formed through UPGMA
method. As seen in Figure 1, 16 sheep were divided into two main groups, one with K2 and K5 individuals,
and the other with all the other individuals. The individuals that made up the other group apart from K2 and
K5 again were sub-grouped with K8, K13 and K16 out of them and with the remaining individuals. Again
these sub-groups had their own sub-groups within themselves. From the dendogram, it can be seen that the
individuals no K9 and K10 are genetically the closest genotypes. As seen in Table 2 and in Figure 1, the
individuals no K2 and K5, particularly the individual no K5, can be said to be genetically different from
other sheep.
Figure 2. PCoA analysis of Güney Karaman sheep breed in terms of RAPD markers
It can be seen in the PCoA, the three dimensional vectorial analysis, the individuals no K9 and
K10, which are closest to each other in genetic makeup on the dendogram are genetically related.
Genetically the most distant individuals were the individuals no K2 and K5. Again during PCoA analysis,
K8, K13 and K16 individuals as well as the individual no K3 are seen, on the dendogram and in PCoA
analysis, to form a different group, unlike the individuals that constituted the other group outside K2 and
K5.
Conclusion
As a result, it can be said that these 16 individuals, which are representative of Güney Karaman
sheep, has a heterogenous nature and that this genetic variation has the potential use for purposes of
improvement. In this study, the genetic similarity/distance values identified between individuals and the
genetic relation dendogram on which genotypic variation is shown and PCoA analysis have shown that
genotypic variation on individual basis can be obtained through RAPD-PCR method. However, with a
more comprehensive study that will include all Turkish domestic sheep breeds, determination of certain
188
�genetic parameters within and between all sheep breeds that make up the population would be more
informative. Moreover, by making use of the available endemic gene resources, creating populations that
have such characteristics as resistance to diseases and adverse weather conditions would be of great
importance.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by a master research project from the Coordinatory of Scientific Research
Projects of Selcuk University, Turkey (Project No: 06101029). We are thankful to Bahri Dağdaş International
Agricultural Research and Application Center for providing blood samples.
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Title
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Determination of Genetic Polymorphism within Güney Karaman Sheep-Breed via RAPD-PCR Method
Author
Author
Aytekin, İbrahim
Boztepe, Saim
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Analysis of individual genotypes aims to provide information for understanding within population genetic parameters such as genetic similarity, polymorphism and heterozygosity. The aims of this research were to determine the genetic parameters within Güney Karaman sheep involved in a protection programme of gene resources by using randomly oligonucleotide primers via Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) method. Among the primers tested, 10 most suitable ones, in terms of repeatability and scorability, were used and 1451 DNA fragments were scored. All the RAPD fragments were determined to be between 600 - 3000 bp in size. From 147 fragments, 133 were polymorphic (90.48%) and 14 fragments were monomorphic (9.52%). Within population average genetic similarity (Fragment Sharing Frequency, Fxy) and genetic distance were calculated as 0.7001 and 0.2991, respectively. The average expected heterozygosity was estimated as 0.3273 ± 0.1697.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ea24957ee4f90fee5443e0db4ee0173c.pdf
6532ad82883b4a9d0ff27acbbe3cd153
PDF Text
Text
The Effect of Current Density and pH of Cadmium Removal by
Electrochemical Processes
Serkan BAYAR
Atatürk University, Engineering Faculty
Department of Environmental Engineering
Erzurum, TURKEY
sbayar@atauni.edu.tr
Alper Erdem YILMAZ
Atatürk University, Engineering Faculty
Department of Environmental Engineering
Erzurum, TURKEY
aerdemy@atauni.edu.tr
Recep BONCUKCUOĞLU
Atatürk University, Engineering Faculty
Department of Environmental Engineering
Erzurum, TURKEY
rboncuk@atauni.edu.tr
Abstract : Removal of cadmium from synthetically prepared solution using
electrochemical processes is studied in the present study. To determine the optimum
operation conditions, the effect of several parameters such as current density and
initial solution pH have been investigated. Iron electrode was used as electrode
materials. Experiments were carried out with different current densities ranging from
0.25 to 1.25 A/m2. It was observed that the removal of cadmium increases with
increasing current densities. The distance of between electrodes was chosen as 5 mm.
Initial cadmium concentrations was kept constant at 100 mg/L while other
parameters such as current density and initial solution pH were investigated.
Cadmium concentration in the solution was determined using Atomic absorption
spectrophotometer. The experimentally obtained results were shown that
electrochemical processes were achieved to cadmium removal (e.g. 99.99%) from
synthetically prepared solution.
Key words: Cadmium, removal, electrocoagulation, electroreduction
1. Introduction
Heavy metals pose a significant hazard to environment and human health. Wastewater generated from cadmium
processing is extremely toxic to environment and to humans. Due to their high toxicity, industrial wastewaters
containing heavy metals are strictly regulated and must be treated before being discharged in the environment.
Cadmium is a toxin of environmental concern. The impact for non-cancer causes includes kidney, liver, and lung
damage [1]. It is also classified as a probable human carcinogen for lung cancer. The association of cadmium
with hormone-related cancers such as prostate and breast cancers has being actively investigated since the initial
implication [2-4]. There is no known function of cadmium in the human biological system. The presence of such
foreign metal ion in the human is likely a result of various exposures. In addition to direct exposure from air and
drinking water, another potential exposure is to result from crops grown in the contaminated water and soil
environment, which transports the metal into food chain where cadmium is accumulated in various parts of crops
[5]. Electroplating, nickel–cadmium battery production and disposal, fossil fuels, pigments, fertilizers, certain
electronic components are all potential sources of contamination to water [6]. Various methods can be applied to
remove toxic metals from industrial effluents [7,8]. These methods include precipitation, co-precipitation,
electrodeposition, electrocoagulation, cementation, membrane separation, solvent extraction, ion-exchange,
518
�adsorption and biosorption [9, 10]. Precipitation is most applicable among these techniques and considered to be
the most economical. Among these methods, electrocoagulation is particularly interesting.
The
electrocoagulation has been successfully used to treat oil wastes, with a removal efficiencies as high as 99%
[11,12]. A similar success was obtained when treating dye-containing solutions [13–14], potable water [15],
urban and restaurant wastewater [16,17] and nitrate or fluoride containing waters [18,19]. In addition, a great
deal of work performed in the last decades [20–21] has proved that electrocoagulation is an effective technology
for the treatment of heavy metal containing solutions.
This technology delivers the coagulant in situ by anodic dissolution and produces subsequently, iron (or
aluminium) hydroxides having a considerable sorption capacity, while the simultaneous cathodic reaction allows
pollutant removal either by deposition on cathode electrode or by flotation (evolution of hydrogen at the
cathode) [22]. Likewise, during electrocoagulation process, liquid is not enriched with anions and salts content
does not increase, compared to chemical metal precipitation [23]. This contributes to production of metallic
sludges which are compact using electrocoagulation compared to those generated by chemical precipitation
[24,25]. Moreover, electrocoagulation requires simple equipment, small retention time and is easy to operate
[26,27]. These characteristics contribute to reduction of operating cost for industrial applications.
In the present work, the efficiency of electrocoagulation in removing cadmium from synthetically solution was
reported. The effect of initial pH and current density on the removal efficiency is explored and discussed to
determine the optimum operational conditions. Aim of this study is to investigate the effects of initial pH and
current density on cadmium removal from wastewater by electrocoagulation method using iron electrodes.
2. Materials and methods
2.1 Materials
Wastewater sample used in the experiments were prepared synthetically using CdCl2H2O having 99.99 of purity
from Merck. The solution with cadmium concentration of 100 mg/L was prepared by dissolved 0,1796 mg in
distilled water and completed with distilled water to 1 L. The electrolyte was synthetically prepared by using
analytical reagents and distilled water. A stock solution of cadmium chlorine, 100 mg/l was prepared. The pH of
the solution was adjusted to the required value with 10−2M nitric acid and 10−2M sodium hydroxide. All
measurements were carried out at ambient temperature approximately (22 ± 1 oC)
2.2. Experimental setup and procedure
The experimental setup is schematically shown in Figure 1.The EC unit consists of six pair of electrodes made of
plate iron with total area of approximately 1000 cm2 and the gap between the electrodes is 5 mm. Electrodes
were connected to a digital DC power supply (Good Will) in monopolar mode. Two digital multimeters (Brymen
Bm 201) as ampermeter and voltmeter were used to measure the current passing through the circuit and the
applied potential, respectively. The EC unit has been stirred at 150 rpm by a magnetic stirrer. (Heidolp MR 3004
S). The thermostated electrocoagulator is made of plexiglass with the volume of 900 mL. During the
experiments, temperature, conductivity and pH of the solutions were measured by a multi-parameter (WTW
Multiline P-4 F-Set-3). Reactor was operated in batch and galvanostatic mode. Figure 1.
519
�1.Water Cırculator
4.Digital Voltmeter
2.Digital D.C Power Supply
5.Electrochemcial Reactor
3.Digital Ampermeter
6.Digital Magnetic Stirrer
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.
2.3. Brief description of electrocoagulation mechanism
Electrocoagulation is based on the in situ formation of the coagulant as the sacrificial anode corrodes due to an
applied current, while the simultaneous evolution of hydrogen at the cathode allows for pollutant removal by
flotation. This technique combines three main interdependent processes, operating synergistically to remove
pollutants: electrochemistry, coagulation and hydrodynamics. An examination of the chemical reactions
occurring in the electrocoagulation process shows that the main reactions occurring at the electrodes are:
When iron is used as electrode material, the reactions are as follows.
• At the cathode:
3H2O + 3e− → 3/2 H2(g) + 3OH−
(1)
• At the anode:
(2)
4Fe(s) → 4Fe2+(aq) + 8e−
• and with dissolved oxygen in solution:
(3)
4Fe2+(aq) + 10 H2O (l) + O2(g) → 4Fe(OH)3 +8H+(aq)
• overall reaction:
(4)
4Fe(s) + 10 H2O(l) + O2(g) → 4 Fe(OH)3(s) + 4 H2(g)
2. Result and discussions
The effects of parameters: In the runs, it has been investigated the effects of parameters such as initial pH and
current density under the conditions which the reaction time, temperature of solution and stirring speed hold in
constant.
The effect of pH: It has been established that the pH has a considerable influence on the performance of
electrocoagulation and reduction process. To evaluate this effect, a series of experiments were performed, using
solution containing cadmium of 100 mg/L. The effect of pH on the cadmium removal was examined at 3.0, 4.0,
5.0 and 6.0 pH’s. Solution temperature of 293 K and stirring speed of 100 rpm were kept constant in the
experiments. The results of the experiments conducted to examine the effect of pH are shown in Figure 2.
520
�removal efficiency, %
90
70
pH 3
pH 4
50
pH 5
pH 6
30
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
1,2
1,4
1,6
current, A
Figure 2. The effects of solution pH on cadmium removal (100 rpm of stirring speed, 293 K of solution
temperature and 100 mg/L of initial cadmium removal)
As seen in Figure 2, while there had effects of pH variation on cadmium removal efficiency, the effects of pH
variation were not important with increasing current density. At the lower current density, solution pH had
effects on cadmium removal efficiency. When cadmium removal was investigated by electrochemical process,
energy consumption values obtained in the system. Energy consumption values in the electrochemical reactor
related to solution conductivity. The conductivity of an electrolyte solution is a key property. In an
electrochemical process, the conductivity determines the cell resistance while the properties of solvent and
electrolyte determine their interaction with the electroactive species and thereby influence the electrode
reactions. The results obtained for energy consumption were shown graphically in Figure 3.
2,00
energy consumption, kW-h/m3
pH 3
pH 4
1,50
pH 5
pH 6
1,00
0,50
0,00
0
10
20
30
40
time, min
50
60
70
Figure 3. The effects of solution pH on energy consumption(100 rpm of stirring speed, 293 K of solution
temperature, 0,5 A of current and 100 mg/L of initial cadmium removal)
521
�The effect of current density: The effect of current density on cadmium removal by electrochemical process
using iron plate electrodes was investigated using 100 mg/L Cd+2 and pH 5. Effects of current density on system
parameters have been analyzed. Variation of cadmium removal efficiency versus time and variation of energy
consumption versus time in various current densities with iron plate electrodes is shown in Figures 4-5.
100
removal efficiency, %
80
60
0,25 A
40
0,50 A
1,00 A
20
1,50 A
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
time, min
Figure 4. The effects of current on removal efficiency (100 rpm of stirring speed, 293 K of solution temperature,
pH 5 of solution and 100 mg/L of initial cadmium removal)
As seen in Figure 4, efficiencies of cadmium removal and removal rate have increased by increasing current
density. The removal efficiency depends on the quantity of iron generated, which is related to the time and the
current density. It is seen that system energy consumption has mainly increased over a specific current density,
respectively.
energy consumption, kW-h/m3
3,00
0,25 A
2,50
0. 50 A
1,00 A
2,00
1,50 A
1,50
1,00
0,50
0,00
0
10
20
30
40
time, min
50
60
70
Figure 5. The effects of current on energy consumption (100 rpm of stirring speed, 293 K of solution
temperature, pH 5 of solution and 100 mg/L of initial cadmium removal)
522
�Since applied potential have increased by increasing current density, system energy consumption has increased.
Although potential and current have linearly increased, energy consumption has exponentially increased. Thus,
when it has been studied in high current, this state might be taken into consideration. Besides, when it is studied
on high potential and current, electrode reactions have taken one's way to secondary reactions from major
reactions. Thus, when optimal current density and potential are selected, either high removal rate or low energy
consumption might be taken into account.
4. Conclusions
In this study, effects of solution pH and current density on cadmium removal by electrochemical process using
iron plate electrodes were investigated and effects of these parameters on system parameters were analyzed.
When lower current density was applied to electrochemical process, solution pH must taken into consideration.
In the experiments, effects of current density on cadmium removal by electrochemical process were investigated.
According to results obtained from the experiments, removal rates and removal efficiencies have increased by
increasing current density using iron plate electrodes. But system energy consumptions have increased by
increasing current density.
References
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[2] M.P.Waalkes, S. Rehm, (1994) Cadmium and prostate cancer, J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 43 251–269.
[3] A. Åkesson, B. Julin, A. Wolk, (2008) Long-term dietary cadmium intake and postmenopausal endometrial
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[4] M. Filipic, (2006) Molecularmechanisms of cadmium inducedmutagenicity,Hum.Exp. Toxicol. 25 67–77.
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microorganisms cultivated in a liquid soil extract medium: effects of Cd, pH and techniques of culture, Sci. Total
Environ. 291 73–83.
[6] R. Salim, M.M. Al-Subu, E. Sahrhage, (1992) Uptake of cadmium from water by beech leaves, J. Environ.
Sci. Health A27 603–627.
[7] C.S. Brooks, 1991. Metal Recovery from IndustrialWastes, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI,
[8] A.P. Chmielewski, T.S. Urbanski,W. Migdal, (1997) Separation technologies for metals recovery from
industrial wastes, Hydrometallurgy 45 333–344.
[9] J.F. Blais, S. Dufresne, G. Mercier, (1999) État du développement technologique en matière d’enlèvement
des métaux des effluents industriels, Rev. Sci. Eau 12 687–711 (in French).
[10] M. Bissen, F.H. Frimmel, (2003)Arsenic—a review. Part II. Oxidation of arsenic and its removal in water
treatment, Acta Hydroch. Hydrob. 31 (2) 97–107
[11] N. Biswas, G. Lazarescu, (1991) Removal of oil from emulsions using electrocoagulation, I. J. Environ.
Stud. 38 65–72.
[12] R.R. Renk, (1988) Electrocoagulation of tar sand and oil shale wastewater, Energy Prog. 8 205–208.
[13] S.H. Lin, C.F. Peng, (1994) Treatment of textile wastewater by electrochemical method, Water Res. 28
277–282.
[14] J.S. Do, M.L. Chen, (1994) Decolourization of dye-containing solutions by electrocoagulation, J. Appl.
Electrochem. 24785–790.
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�[15] E.A. Vik, D.A. Carlson, A.S. Eikum, E.T. Gjessing, (1984) Electrocoagulation of potable water, Water Res.
18 1355–1360.
[16] M.F. Pouet, A. Grasmick, (1995) Urban wastewater treatment by electrocoagulation and flotation, Water
Sci. Technol. 31 275–283.
[17] X. Chen, G. Chen, P.L. Yue, (2000) Separation of pollutants from restaurant wastewater by
electrocoagulation, Sep. Purif. Technol. 19 65–76.
[18] A.S. Koparal, U.B. Ogutveren, (2002) Removal of nitrate from water by electroreduction and
electrocoagulation, J. Hazard. Mater. B89 83–94.
[19] F. Shen, X. Chen, P. Gao, G. Chen, (2003) Electrochemical removal of fluoride ions from industrial
wastewaters, Chem. Eng. Sci. 58 987–993.
[20] J. Mrozowski, J. Zielinski, (1983) Studies of zinc and lead removal from industrial wastes by
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electrocoagulation, Chemosphere 55 (9) 1245–1252
[22] T. Picard, G. Cathalifaud-Feuillade, M. Mazet, C. Vandensteendam, (2000) Cathodic dissolution in the
electrocoagulation process using aluminium electrodes, J. Environ. Monit. 2 77–80.
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243–247.
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45–56 (in French).
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hydroxide precipitation by lime, Water Res. 31 973–980.
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in French).
524
�
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583
Title
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The Effect of Current Density and pH of Cadmium Removal by Electrochemical Processes
Author
Author
BAYAR, Serkan
YILMAZ, Alper Erdem
BONCUKCUOĞLU, Recep
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Removal of cadmium from synthetically prepared solution using electrochemical processes is studied in the present study. To determine the optimum operation conditions, the effect of several parameters such as current density and initial solution pH have been investigated. Iron electrode was used as electrode materials. Experiments were carried out with different current densities ranging from 0.25 to 1.25 A/m2. It was observed that the removal of cadmium increases with increasing current densities. The distance of between electrodes was chosen as 5 mm. Initial cadmium concentrations was kept constant at 100 mg/L while other parameters such as current density and initial solution pH were investigated. Cadmium concentration in the solution was determined using Atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The experimentally obtained results were shown that electrochemical processes were achieved to cadmium removal (e.g. 99.99%) from synthetically prepared solution.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d09c8f9c877e89cabe1219366bde08bc.pdf
7b8527bd0ea3d520975139fab8f5fe65
PDF Text
Text
The Effect of Different Soil Regulators on Quality Tomatoes
Rudil BAYYURT
Akdeniz University, Faculty Of Agriculture Department Of Horticulture, 07049 Antalya-Turkey
rudilbayyurt@gmail.com
Funda AYAR ŞENSOY
Akdeniz University, Faculty Of Agriculture Department Of Horticulture, 07049 Antalya-Turkey
ayar@akdeniz.edu.tr
Burçin ÇAKALOZ KOÇ
Akdeniz University, Faculty Of Agriculture Department Of Horticulture, 07049 Antalya-Turkey
burcinkc@hotmail.com
Nurgül ERCAN
Akdeniz University, Faculty Of Agriculture Department Of Horticulture, 07049 Antalya-Turkey
nercan@akdeniz.edu.tr
Abstract: Soil structure are very important factor at plant growing. Plants take water
and plant nutrients via their roots. If the factors such as water holding capacity and
porosity of soil is good enough, yield and quality of plant will be increased. Tomato is
valuable plant both for the fresh fruit market and the processed food industries. It is
grown in a wide range of climates in the field and under protection.The aim of this
research is to determine the effect of different soil regulators (zeolite, peat, Terra
Cottem, organik fertilizer) on tomato quality. They were mixed into the soil before
planting. At the end of the research, while organic fertilizer has the highest value in
terms of fruit weight and fruit diameter, control treatment has the highest value at fruit
lenght. According to the results, organic fertilizer is able to be mixed into soil for much
better fruit quality.
Introduction
After the importance of vegetables on human nutrition is understood, both the number of works on
vegetable growing, its rehabilitation and vegetable production-consumption increase quickly. Tomato is the
one of these vegetables which is mostly produced and consumed and it is the one of them which is mostly
worked on its quality and efficiency. In the world, tomato has 129.649.883 ton production on 5.227.883ha
field. (Anonymous, 2010a) On the other hand in our country, we have 10.985.400 ton tomato production on
300.000ha field. Therefore, following China, UK and America, we are on the fourth rank on tomato
production. (Anonymous, 2010b) Also, in spite of 247.996 hg/ha tomato profit in the world, in Turkey it is
366.180 hg/ha. Our efficiency is high because one part of the Works on tomato embraced by soil regulators
used in growing.
In terms of soil wish, tomato is not a kind of selective plant. It is grown in each rich soil that is full of
nutrition ingredients. There is an earlier crop development on the light origin soil, but the plant’s life is
short. According to this, the efficiency automatically fallen. On the other hand, although on heavy clay soil,
plant development is rather slowly at the beginning, the plant always develops and grows new
shoots,flowers and fruit. Thus, the efficiency is higher on these soils. The plant is stronger against to illness
and pests. Tomate fruit produced on these cray soils becomes nicer on colour and more enduring. The
highness water holding capacity of the soil also substantially affects the plant development and efficiency.
Tomato needs 5.5-7 soil ph. Sometimes the soil conditions that the plant need can not be supplied or the
plant can not get nutrition ingredients from the soil. This causes problems with the efficiency and quality.
23
�The aim of using organic and inorganic soil regulators is to make simpler to get plant nutrition ingredients
by doing soil’s physical and chemical origin better.
Besides, the cure of soil’s physical features is considerably important in terms of plant growing and soil
protection. With the solution of negative effects of acid in soil and the saving the endurance of aggregation
and aggragates, a plant can adequately grows. (Ozdemir et al, 2005) Generally our country’s organic
nutrient ingredients are not enough. By adding different organic materials, especially such as stable
fertilizer , it is tried to make soil features (especially physical ones) better and to heighten the organic
nutrient and the efficiency of the soil. Inadequacy of farm fertilizer and its expensiveness cause searches on
using of other materials as organic nutrient source and soil regulator. ( Kütük et al, 1995; Okur and
Delibacak, 2006)
In this study, in order to protect the origin of soil; get maximum profit from water in soil; simplify plant’s
getting nutrient elements from the soil; provide product rise, zeolite, terra cottem, peat and organic
fertilizers are used. The effects on tomato quality of these different soil regulators are searched.
Tomatoes Used in The Media
1.1.1.Zeolite
Chemical composition of zeolite is a hydrated silicic mineral of aluminium. Main characteristics of zeolite
are high cation exchange capacity, in balance water retention/release, nutrient available via ion exchange,
arrange of acidity and air porosity. In addition, zeolite like a slow release fertilizer(Ayan, 2001).
Trade
Name
Zeta
NATM 900
NMF 9000
Filter Clino
Application
Animal Coaster
Contribution feed
Contribution of
fertilizer
Filtration, waste water
Size
(microns)
2,5-3,5
0-0,7
1,5-7,0
Price ($ /
ton)
70
85
80
2,5-3,5
5,0-7,0
15,0-16,0
75
75
75
Table 1: Commercial Natural Zeolites Produced in Turkey (Anonymous, 2010d)
Chemical Structure
SiO 2
Al 2 O 3
Fe 2 O 3
K2O
H2O
CaO MgO
Na 2 O
Ti
%
71.29
13.55
1.15
3.50
5.90
1.96
0.60
0.02 0.04 No 30
0.70
Ag
N
B (ppm)
Table 2: Chemical Composition of Zeolites (Altan et al, 1998)
1.1.2.Peat
Peat is composed of water level decrease in lake’s beds and then plant’activities come to the fore, in winter
plant death by water level increasing. The natural phenomenon reproduce constantly. Peat is the type of
organic soil and is used for vegetables, seedlings, cultivated mushroom and potted ornamental crops. Đts ph
is range from 5.5 to 6.5. it is a poor organic soil except for nitrogen and semi- steril. In Turkey peat
deposites which are approximately 40- 50 thousand hectares, were found 15 units (Ulukan and Ece, 2006) .
Peat is very popular and commanly used for growing vegetables and seedlings in Turkey.
1.1.3.Organic Fertilizer
Nowadays a huge range of products can be obtained, which have been produced intensively using chemical
fertilizers; however, the extreme and careless usage of chemical fertilizers leads to structural damages and
deterioration of physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil, like salinization, withering,
24
�extreme pH-levels and the destruction of organic material which acts as nutrients for microorganisms,
which can only be recognized at long-terms. For reestablishing the physical, chemical and biological
balance of our farming grounds, organic fertilizing is essential. The organic substances which the soil gets
enriched with by organic fertilizing reestablish the air/water balance in the soil and thus maintain a healthy
soil structure. Due to increased activity of microorganisms in the soil as a result if adding organic
substances, the biological activity also increases and nutrients will be released, what either leads to a better
chemical structure of the soil. This way the physical, chemical and biological balance of the soil is being
reestablished. In order not to devastate this balance, we urgently have to stop the intensive usage of
chemical fertilizers and we need change to organic fertilizing (Anonymous, 2010c)
1.1.4. Terra Cottem
The terra cottem soıl conditıoner is a proprietary mixture of more than twenty components from six
different groups all assisting the plant growth processes in a synergetic way:The Growth Stimulators play a
very important role in the initial growth phase of the plant. They activate rootcell elongation and
differentiation, and biomass production. In addition, roots are encouraged to grow more rapidly to depths
where more water is present.
Terra cottem’s crosslinked hydroabsorbent copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid partially neutralized
by potassium and ammonia salts absorb and store water that is normally lost to evaporation and leaching,
reducing the volume and frequency of necessary irrigation up to 50%. This water is then kept at the
disposal of the plant that accesses the stored water on demand through its root hairs, keeping the water in
the root zone for a longer period of time. In dry form, polymers are white, crystalline granules swell
quickly, absorbing water and expanding into a gel- like substance. Each polymer is capable ofstoring many
times its own weight in water. The terra cottem polymers have a low sensitivity to electrolytes, yielding
numerous wet/dry cycles. The soluable mineral fertilizers absorbed by the hydrogels, feature a classic NPK
mixture used as a starter component for the first growth phase of plants. They contain a high amount of
trace elements. The slow release fertizlizers offer a constant flow of nutrients and play an important role in
soil fertilization for many months. The release of nutrients starts approximately 2- 3 weeks after application
and is temperature activated.
The organic fertilizers stimulate microbiological activity in the soil and contribute to overall soil
conditioning by releasing nitrogen and other growth stimulating elements. Terra cottem’s carrier material
consists of a particular kind of volcanic pyroclastic rock (lava). The material acts as a component binder, a
vehicle for the growth stimulators and allows homogeneous distribution of all components. Lava also
improves the soil’s aeration (Anonymous, 2010e).
Benefits
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Stronger and deeper root development
Healthier plants and increased yields
Higher resistance to diseases
Increased survival rate
Soil conditioning
Water savings
Better use of fertilizers
Good for the environment
Enable plant growth in degraded, saline or otherwise marginal soils
The Study
This study was conducted in Akdeniz Unıversity Faculty of Agrıculture’s research and application field’s
greenhouses. Each application were prepared separately. Soil regulators mixed in the soil for growing.
controls were composed of non-regulators soil. The usage area and the amonuts are the same with the line
lenght 12. 3 cm and the soil regulator weight of 623 kg/da was used. Tomato cv M19 was choosen as
25
�plantal material. Organic 1application was composed of %65 Clinoptilolite and %20 total organic materail.
Organic 2 application was composed of %45 Clinoptilolite,%20 total organic materail, %8 total nitrogen
and %1 organic nitrogen. Clinoptilolite is one of 40 different minerals of the group of zeolites and also the
most important one among them. Because of its superior physiochemical characteristics and its versatile
usability in a number of different industries it is used in geological, physical, chemical and agricultural,
animal breeding and medical processes. Due to its huge anion and cation exchange capacity and its
essential characteristics, like a balanced water management and its ability to bind and to release nutrients,
Clinoptilolite is used as soil regulator and re-activator.
Study was carried out as Randomized block design with 3 replications for each application. 15 fruits
observation was donefor each replications. Examined parameters are fruit width, length and weight. Fruit
width and length were measured by electronic calipers. Statistical analyses were performed by using SASsoftware package (SAS Institute, 1988), treatments means were separeted by Duncan’s test.
Findings
The highest value was supplied with organic 1- 2 and these applications weren’t significantly different
from each other but they were significantly different from others; zeolite application showed the lowest
value in terms of fruit width parameter. On fruit size parameter, the highest value was supplied with
organic 1 and this application had statistically differences from the others; zeolite application gave the
lowest value.when the total fruit weight parameter was taken into consideration, the highest value was
supplied with organic nutrient 1-2 and these applications weren’t significantly different from eac other but
they were significantly different from other applications; zeolite application showed the lowest value
[Table 3].
Applications (I.harvest)
Width
Size
Peat
71.6924b*
58.8913bc
Soil
70.9832b
59.9996ab
Zeolite
67.3582c
56.0720d
Organic 1
74.4369a
60.4882a
Organic 2
74.5020a
60.1896ab
Terra cottem
69.0800c
58.4371c
*Means with the same letter are not significantly different. There were significant
differences between applications(P<0.01).
Table 3: Fruit width, size and weigth results of I. harvest.
Weight
184.952b
185.981b
153.885d
202.085a
204.602a
168.517c
statistically
It was seen that the highest value was supplied with organic 1and this application was significantly different
from others; zeolite application showed the lowest value in terms the fruit width parameter. On fruit size
parameter, the highest value was supplied with organic 1 and soil. Those applications had statistically
differences from the others but these applications weren’t significantly different from eac other; zeolite
application gave the lowest value. When the total fruit weight parameter, the highest value was supplied with
organic 1 and this application is significantly different from other applications; zeolite application showed
the lowest value [Table 4].
Applications (II. harvest)
Width
Size
Weight
Peat
68 341 b *
57.1107 b
162.206b
Soil
69 712 ab
59.2798 a
173.842ab
Zeolite
67 453 b
56.6422 b
157.328b
Organic 1
71 890 a
59.7404 a
188.623a
Organic 2
68 078 b
56.6800 b
161.122b
Terra cottem
67 792 b
57.2582 b
160.508b
*Means with the same letter are not significantly different. There were significant statistically
differences between applications(P<0.01).
Table 4: Fruit width, size and weigth results of II. harvest.
26
�On fruit width parameter, the highest value was supplied with organic 2, zeolite and soil. These
applications weren’t significantly different from each other but they were significantly different from
others; the other applications showed the lowest value. When the fruit size parameter was the case, the
highest value was supplied by soil and this application had statistically differences from the others; peat and
organic 1 gave the lowest value. The highest value was supplied with zeolite, soil and these applications
aren’t significantly different from eac other but they are significantly different from other applications;
organic 1,Terra cottem and peat applications showed the lowest value in terms of the total fruit weight
parameter [Table 5].
Applications (III. harvest )
Width
Size
Weight
Peat
49 208 b *
43 827 c
72 874 c
Soil
54 166 a
48 610 a
91 720 a
Zeolite
53 379 a
47 292 ab
89 648 a
Organic 1
48 266 b
43 500 c
68 730 c
Organic 2
53 246 a
47 697 ab
88.321ab
Terra cottem
49 604 b
45 824 abc
71 854 c
*Means with the same letter are not significantly different. There were significant statistically
differences between applications(P<0.01).
Table 5: Fruit width, size and weigth results of III. harvest.
Conclusions
If soil doesn’t have enough nutrients for farming and has low water holding capacity, soil regulators can be
used for avoding these problem. Soil regulators provide; water savings, stronger and deeper root
development, better use of fertilizers and fruit quality. In this study, the soil of greenhouse is Terra rossa
soil which has rich in nutrient materails, enough holding water capacity. Therefore; difference among the
applications were not put the case clearly. The impacts of applications come into being clearly in the bad
soil condition. According to results of the study; on fruit quality, the highest value was supplied with
organic 1 - 2 in first two harvest; in latter harvest zeolit supplied the highest value on the fruit quality
because of initating heat stres, fruits didn’t reach peculiar to fruit cultivar size.
References
Altan, A., Altan, Ö., Alçiçek, A., Nalbant, M. ve Akbaş, Y. (1998). Tavukçulukta Doğal Zeolit Kullanımı I.,
Ege Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt. 35, No.1-2-3, S. 9-16, Issn 1018-6651, Đzmir
Anonymous, 2010a. http://www.fao .org.
Anonymous, 2010b. http://www.aib.gov.tr/proje/meyvesebzeulkeler.pdf
Anonymous, 2010c. http://www.eregligubre.de/tr/4,0,1,0.html
Anonymous, 2010d. http://www.mining-eng.org.tr/7.bykp/ ekutup96/o480/zeolit.htm
Anonymous, 2010e. http://www.terracottem.com/eng/index.php
Ayan, S. (2001). Utilization Of Zeolite As Plant Growing Media, Gazi University, Kastamon Faculty Of
Forestry Silviculture Department Journal Of Doa No : 7 Page: 97 – 111, , Kastamonu.
Delibacak, S., Eşiyok, D., Okur, B., Yağmur, B., Gevrek, M. N.( 2006). Farklı Azolla (Azolla meksicana)
Düzeylerinin Kimi Toprak Özellikleri ve Roka (Eruca sativa) Verimi Üzerine Etkileri Ege Üniv. Ziraat
Fak. Derg., , 43(2):97-108 ISSN 1018-8851.
27
�Kaptan, H. (1990).Türkiye’de Turba Yatakları Ve Kullanılma Alanlarının Saptanması, Atatürk Bahçe
Kültürleri Araştırma Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü, Yalova.
Kütük, A.C., Çayci, G., Baran, A. (1995). Çay Atıklarının Bitki Yetiştirme Ortamı Olarak Kullanılabilme
Olanakları. Ankara Üniv. Zir. Fakültesi Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi, Yıl 1, Sayı 1, Sayfa 35-40.
Özdemir, N., Gülser, C., Ekberli, Đ., Özkaptan, S. (2005). Toprak Düzenleyicilerinin Asit Toprakta
Strüktürel Dayanıklılığa Etkisi, Atatürk Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Derg. 36 (2), 151-156, 2005 Issn : 1300-9036
Sas Đnstitute.(1989). Sas/Stat User’s Guide. North Caroline: Sas Institute
Ulukan Đ., Ece A. (2006). Doğu Anadolu Bölgesinde Farklı Yerlerden Elde Edilen Değişik Torf
Materyallerinin Domates (Lycopersicon Lycopersicum L.) ‘Te Fide Kalitesi Üzerine Etkileri, Bahçe
Kültürleri Araştırma Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü –Erzincan , Gaziosmanpaşa Üni. Ziraat Fakültesi Bahçe Bitkileri
Bölümü –Tokat.
28
�
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Title
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The Effect of Different Soil Regulators on Quality Tomatoes
Author
Author
BAYYURT, Rudil
AYAR SENSOY, Funda
ÇAKALOZ KOÇ, Burçin
ERCAN, Nurgül
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Soil structure are very important factor at plant growing. Plants take water and plant nutrients via their roots. If the factors such as water holding capacity and porosity of soil is good enough, yield and quality of plant will be increased. Tomato is valuable plant both for the fresh fruit market and the processed food industries. It is grown in a wide range of climates in the field and under protection.The aim of this research is to determine the effect of different soil regulators (zeolite, peat, Terra Cottem, organik fertilizer) on tomato quality. They were mixed into the soil before planting. At the end of the research, while organic fertilizer has the highest value in terms of fruit weight and fruit diameter, control treatment has the highest value at fruit lenght. According to the results, organic fertilizer is able to be mixed into soil for much better fruit quality.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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Determining The Morphological and Yield Characteristics of Melon
(Cucumis melo L.) Landrace From Canakkale-Turkey
Seyit Ahmet BECAN
Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Rectorate, Health, Sport and Culture Department
ahmetbecan@hotmail.com
Mürsel GÜVEN
Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Agriculture Faculty, Soil Department mursel@comu.edu.tr
Abstract : This research has been carried out in order to determine some
morphological and yield characteristics of melon landrace (Hirsiz kaciran) grown in
Canakkale. Research was laid out in randomized block design with four replications
and 20 plants in each replication. Cucumis melo L. cv. Kırkagac-637 was also used
as control cultivar. In addition to fruit and yield charactreristics seed germination
tests were also performed. According to data; fruit weight, fruit diameter, total
soluble solids of Hırsız Kaciran landrace was found as 1186,15 g, 126,5 mm and
8,4% respectively.
Keywords : Melon, landrace, yield
Introduction
Melon takes part in Cucurbitaceae family is evaluated as cold fruit rather than main foodstuff. Little fruits of
melons take an important place in pickle industry. Anotolia, Iran, Afganistan, Middle Asia and Soutwest Asia is
admitted as origin centers of melon. Wild types of melons are seen in this region. Melon was taken to the
European countries taking from Van region by the Roman missioners (Vural et.al. 2000). Melons are classified
up to their fruit shapes, skin colours, flesh colur, fleshe firmness, their aromas and cavity of seeds. Production of
melon is approximately 20 millions tonnes in the world and China achieves 6.6 millions tonnes and Turkey takes
part in the second line with the 1.8 millions tonnes production in 103.000 hectares area. Melon is produce
relatively with local populations and open polinated cultivars while hybrids use in greenhouse and irrigated
lands. In Turkey, melon cultivars consists of raund Kırkağaç (60%), elipse Kırkağaç (%30-35) and YuvaHasanbey (%5-10). Production of seeds are recieved 37.150 kg in local open polinated and 2.302 kg in hybrids
in Turkey in 2007. On the other hand importation of seeds was made 5400 kg in open polinated types and 3288
kg in hybrid types in 2007 (Ünlü et. al., 2007). While mature fruits of melon is consumed freshly, there are also
some other source of consuming. They are consuming as ice-cream, consuming as drink mixing with milk, using
as essence, consuming in salads as immature, consuming in soups and as brines vegetables, using in diets
because of consisting protein and vegetable oils (Anonymous, 2010).
Kaynaş et. al.(2003) carried a study out in order to determine the adaptation characteristics of melon and
watermelon cultivars in Canakkale conditions. Types of watermelon used in experiment is 117 F1 and Crimson
sweet and 2 melons are Topaz and Altınbaş. They reported that Topaz and 117 F1 cultivars can be suggested to
region producers.
Abak (1991), made studies on devoloping melon agriculture in GAP under the circumstance of Şanlıurfa
Harran plain. It is painted out the suitable types for locals establishing types, fertility and adaptation in melon.
Sarı et.al.(1994), made studies on effects on production grafted watermelon and melon in Çukurova university.
She emphasis on fusarium is seen much more in ungrafted rather than grafted plots and can be seen dramatic
increase in growth of fruits with using grafted seedlings .
Küçük et.al.(2002) collected samples from Kırkağaç, Hasanbey and Çinikız cultivars produced in three
population in Agean region for melon selection improvement. Firstly Hasanbey population was held and the
population which shows different two characters was divided into two groups and two types was asserted as
533
�Hasanbey-1,Hasanbey-2 .Candidates of melons were determined as Kırkağaç-589 and Kırkağaç-637 up to
constitutions of fruits in the lines get from Kırkağaç population. Also Çinikız-808 a new type come out from
Çinikız population. Hasanbey-1, Kırkağaç-589 and Kırkağaç-637 was register as new types in 1991.
Village populations named as local types or landraces, these wild relatives, old types are not used anymore.
Genetics of vegetable sources include genetics knowledge types of one plant in DNA pod and they have the
quality of being source for genetic variety. These valuable source is face to be in danger with the pressures of
local and the others. Protection of these is a must by the way of taking guarantee to protection of vegetables of
future, future of human beings.
10000 years ago, variety of genetics which was seen in the local types carries importance of being protected
these types and being used in improvement since it reflects harmony to different local condition at the same time.
Types of vegetables must have genetics in order to adapt changing ambient condition.
Genetics of vegetable source are loading because of overusing of the source, genetics introductions, pollution,
climate cahanges, loss, decrease, cutting to pieces of the land, development pressure and genetics erosion.
Protection of genetics of vegetable source is vegetable source in their countries protects or saves genetics of
vegetable source in their countries applying internetional protection strategies. Types of plants are taken under
protection either in their nature or out of it in genebanks. Today and the next natural experiments has to be ready
for improvements. Using wealth of biology of a country in its own progress and moving it into action needs to be
determıned by its wealth. Not paying attention to this and not doing anything for short investments means the
same with the destruction of economic potential which can be left the next generations.
Local populations becoming with the effects of natural selection have to be protected in order to provide
maintaining agriculture. They have great importent in ecological agriculture. They are quite rich as they contain
genetics and cultural specialities. They have many characteristics by the way of quality, resistance to pest and
diseases and fertility.
Material and Method
The seeds of Hırsız Kacıran melon population which is produced in small areas by the local producters
and consumed by families and being in local bazars in Çanakkale has been used as plant material and Kırkağaç637 melon cultivar is as a control. Hırsız Kaçıran population was collected by the producers in Kepez county of
Çanakkale.
Method
Both seeds were planted directly with randomized block design with 4 replication and 20 plants im each
replication. Seeds were sown at 21st of May and each parcel is lay out in 530 m2. In each replication of 5 plants
were left for seed harvest and experiments were on 15 plants .
Before the planting, field have fertilized with manure (4tonne/da) and also 15 kg/daN (NH4NO3), 20kg/da P2O5
(TSP) and 15 kg/da K2O (K2SO4) applied. At time of flowering and 8 kg/da N added to each parcel. Drip
irrigated plants hoed two times before plants have 6-7 leaves.
For plant protection; all plants spreyed with fungucide against fungal diseases. Totaly four harvests done for both
cultivars in experiment.
Criteria below was determined during and at the end of experiment.
- The time passing from sowing to harvest (day):
- The time passing from flowering to harvest (day)
- The time between sowing and flowering (day
- Fruit weight (g): weighing by randomly selected 5 plants in each harvest for each replication with
digital balance (0,01 sensibility).
- Fruit length (mm): measuring the fruit length by randomly selected 5 plants in each harvest for each
replication with strip and digital compass.
- Fruit diameter (mm): measuring the fruit diameter by randomly selected 5 plants in each harvest for
each replication with strip and digital compass.
- Total Soluble Solids (%): measuring the TSS by randomly selected 5 plants in each harvest for each
replication with hand refractometer.
534
�-
Flesh thickness (cm): measuring the fruit flesh thickness by randomly selected 5 plants in each harvest
for each replication with digital compass.
Seed weight (g): weighing the total fresh seed weights of randomly selected 5 plants in each harvest for
each replication with digital balance (0,01 sensibility).
Skin colur: by observation
Skin (outher layer of pericarp) thickness (mm): measuring the fruit pericap thickness by randomly
selected 5 plants in each harvest for each replication with strip and digital compass.
Yield per plant (g/plant): weighing and added the perivious weight of randomly selected 5 plants in
each harvest for each replication with digital balance (0,01 sensibility).
Yield per decare (kg/da)
Data were subjected to ANOVA test for statistical analysis and “Minitab 13” statistical software was used for
statistical analysis. Differences among the averages were tested at P=0.05 significance levels.
For germination test; Germination of seeds were carried out in petri dishes (9 cm diameter) containing two
Whatman (No:1) filter paper imbibed with 8 ml of distilled water. Three replicates of 50 seeds were germinated
in each seed lot. Seeds were allowed to germinate at 25 oC in the dark for 14 days. 2 mm radicle protrusion was
accepted for as germination.
Cold test was carried out on each cultivars with three replications of 50 seeds were sown 4 cm deep in compost
in sandwich boxes and wetted with 50 ml water. Sandwich boxes with lid on were kept at 10 oC for 7 days in the
dark. They were then transferred to 25 oC and normal seedlings that appeared at the surface were counted after
10 days. High temperature germination test in each cultivar was conducted on three replicates of 50 seeds at 35
o
C by the same way.
Findings And Discussion
Data for yield and some quality parameters can be seen in Table 1.All parameters on yield and yield
parameters are found to be significant al 0.05 level. According to analysis; average fruit weight is found as 1186
g in Hırsız Kaçıran and 2336 g in Kırkağaç-637. Yield per plant is occured as 2901,34g and in 6126,60g
Hırsız Kaçıran and Kırkağaç-637. Similarly yield on decare are found higher in Kırkağaç (1997kg/da) than in
Hırsız Kaçıran (916,5kg/da). As relatively to fruit weight, fruit length and fruit dimeter are also found to be
higher in Kırkağaç-637 (216,9 mm and 184,8mm) than Hırsız Kaçıran ( 134,6mm and 126,5 mm). For
consumer demand generally larger melon and watermelon cultivars are less in atrraction. Markets for especially
local and domestic bazars public concern is from the moderate sizes. From this point of view local genotype
Hırsız Kaçıran landrace has an advantage although it’s yield occurs less than the control plant. Total soluble
solids ocur as 8,4% and 12,5% in Hırsız Kaçıran and Kırkağaç-637. Hırsız Kaçıran has low total soluble solids
that means less sweet than Kırkağaç-637. Normally melon cultivars has total soluble solids between 8-15%.
From this point of view it has an alternative choice for the consumers who does not like more sweets even fort he
diabetics. Neverthless, flavour of Hırsız Kaçıran is very significant as compare with Kırkağaç-637. Skin
thickness is measured as 2,33 mm and 7,28 mm in Hırsız Kaçıran and Kırkağaç-637 respectively. Very low skin
thickness is an advantage for the consumers but vice versa a disadvantage for postharvest and transportation.
Further studies must be lay out for solving this problem. Flesh thickness is obtained as 2,42and 4,29 cm for
Hırsız Kaçıran and Kırkağaç-637.
Cultivar
Fruit
weight
(g)
Fruit
length
(mm)
Fruit
diameter
(mm)
TSS (%)
Seed
weight
(g)
Skin
thickness
(mm)
Flesh
thickness
(cm)
Yield per
plant
(kg/da)
Hırsız
Kacıran
1186 B
134,6 B
126,5 B
8,4 B
41,98
B
2,33 B
2,42 B
2901,34
B
Kırkağaç637
2336 A
216,9 A
184,8 A
12,5 A
54,51
A
7,28 A
4,29 A
6126,60
A
LSD
215
5,466
2,465
0,3182
3,866
0,3182
0,5032
150,5
Table 1. Statistical analysis results for yield and quality parameters
535
�Days harvest from sowing is counted as 81,25 and 73 for Hırsız Kaçıran and Kırkağaç respectively. Although
Kırkağaç reaches maturity approximately 9 days earlier than Hırsız Kaçıran, 81 day can be consider as a medium
vegetation for vegetables. Besides this melon is planting as a second crop after wheat in the region. Hırsız
Kaçıran can be evaluated from this point also.
Cultivar
Days to harvest from sowing
(day)
Days to harvest from floweing
(day)
Days to flowering from
sowing (day)
Hırsız
Kacıran
Kırkağaç637
LSD
81,25 A
39,50 A
41,75
73,00 B
31,00 B
42,00
3,528
2,054
Ö.D.
Table2. Statistical analysis results for days to flowering and harvest
Skin colour, flesh colour and seed colours of observed fruits from each replacation has been lay out in Table3.
Skin colour of Hırsız Kaçıran is mainly white. Skin has slices on the outher layer with green-yellow strips on the
slices. Flesh colour at maturity is mainly white but around the seeds colour becomes yellow-orange. Seed colour
occurs as light yellow.
Kırk Ağaç- Hırsız
637
Kaçıran
Cultivars
Skin colour at maturity
Flesh colour at
maturity
Seed colour
Main colur is white Slices
have Green-Yellow colour
Main colour is white,
seed cavity around
is; yellow –orange
Light yellow
Main colour is yellow,
have randomly black
spots on it
Light green- white,
seed cavity around is;
orange
Yellow
Table 3. Skin colour, flesh colour and seed colour of Hırsız Kaçıran and Kırkağaç-637
Seed width, seed length, hypocotyl radicula ratio adn 1000 seed weight of tested plants can be seen in Table 4.
Cultivar
Seed width (mm)
Seed length (mm)
1000 seed weight
(g)
Hypocotyl/Radicula
ratio (H/R)
Hırsız Kaçıran
Kırkağaç-637
10,405
11,825
4,55
4,82
37,3
41,63
5,18
6,72
Table 4. Seed width, length hypocotyl/radicula and 1000 seed weight of tested plants
From the harvested fruits means of a thousand seed weight is calculated as 37,3 g while the seed width and
length is 10,404 and 4,55 mm respectively. At germinated seedlings hypocotyl radicula ratio is calculated as
5,118.
Selected fruits before seed harvest, harvested and seeds seperated by hand. Seperated seeds washed under tap
water and then dired at incubator until the seed humidity levels reaches to 10%. Standart germination, cold and
heat tests performed on the harvested seeds. Results can be seen in Figure 1 and 2.
According to results; standart germination means are 92,5% and 96,5% for Hırsız Kaçıran and Kırkağaç-637.
Cold test results are 48,5% and 57% while heat test are 63,5% and 71,5% for Hırsız Kaçıran and Kırkağaç-637
respectively. Hırsız Kaçıran has also moderate tolerance to low and high soil temperatures and it can be grown in
a long period during the months (May-October).
536
�Hırsız kaçıran is a local landrace for Canakkale and its province. So it has a well adaptation especially for the
region ecological situations. Wheras open pollinated and hybrid cultivars claimed to be more resistant to pest and
diseases and also more productive. Landraces are found in areas where crop species first arose through
domestification, Turkey also lies within the board region of domestification of several crops. Therefore, there are
highly variable domesticated crops as well as landraces with unique characteristics in Turkey. Introducing the
new crops, nitrogen fertlizers and increase in commercial trades in agriculture reduce the ratios of landrace
productions. Sustainable development requires human beings to raise and improve their quality of life in
harmony with and by conserving the balance of ecosystems, they are part of and which supply the fundamental
support to sustain their lives. The development of new and innovative policies fort he sustainable use of
biodiversity necessitates, foremost, a fundamental revision of national land-use policies and an earnest change in
national policies concerning agriculture, animal husbandry, employment and health. In this regard endangered
species, endemic species, their ecosystems and natural habitats must be protected. The relationship between
species conservation and sustainable development is important for biodiversity. The market prices of endangered
species, especially those which are of economic value, are high because of scarcity (Tüzün and Sezer, 2002;
Tan,1996). Most of landraces maintain a high level of genetic heterogenity. This will be a key role for the
further studies.
Figure 1. Mean values of germination, cold and heat tests of Hırsız Kaçıran
Figure 2. Mean values of germination, cold and heat tests of Kırkağaç-637
537
�References
Abak, K., 1991. Köy Hizmetleri Araştırma Enstitüsü. Şanlıurfa.
Anonymous, 2005. www.die.gov.tr/istatistikler
Anonymous, 2010. www.fao.org
Coşkun, R., Ünlü, M., Eren, A., Köksal, Y., Ünlü, A.2008. Bazı Kavun Saf Hatlarının Morfolojik Karakterizasyonu ile
Fusarium oxsyporum F. Sp. Melonis’e <reaksiyonlarının Tespiti ve Hibrit Çeşit Islahı Amacıyla Kullanımına Yönelik
Çalışmalar. VII. Sebze Tarımı Sempozyumu 26-28 Ağustos 2008 Yalova
Kaynaş, K.,Kuzucu C., Kaya S., Tatlıç, N. 2003. Bazı kavun ve karpuz çeşitlerinin kalite ve verim özelliklerinin belirlenmesi.
V.Sebze Sempozyumu Bildirileri. 21-24 Eylül 2004 Çanakkale.
Küçük, A., Abak, K. ve Sarı, N., 2002. Cucurbit genetic resources collections in Turkey. First AD HOC Meeting on Cucurbit
Genetic Resource. 19 January2002 Adana, Turkey. 46-51
Sarı, N., Pıtrat, M, H., Abak, K., Yücel, S. 1994. Türkiye’de yaygın olarak yetiştirilen karpuz ve kavun çeşitlerinin bazı
fungal hastalıklara ve virüslere karşı reaksiyonları. Çukurova Üniv. Ziraat Fakültesi 25. Kuruluş Yılı Özel Sayısı, Yayın
No:105, 37-50.
Tüzün, G., and Sezer, S. 2002. National Report on Sustainable Development. World submit on Sustainable Development,
Johannesburg. Ankara, The National Programme on Environment and Development.
Tan, A. 1996. Turkey Country Report. Fao International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources, 17-23 June,
Leipzig. Germany.
Vural, H., Eşiyok, D., 2000. Kültür Sebzeleri ( Sebze Yetiştirme) Ege Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Bornova, Đzmir.
538
�
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597
Title
A name given to the resource
Determining The Morphological and Yield Characteristics of Melon (Cucumis melo L.) Landrace From Canakkale-Turkey
Author
Author
BECAN, Seyit Ahmet
GÜVEN, Mürsel
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This research has been carried out in order to determine some morphological and yield characteristics of melon landrace (Hirsiz kaciran) grown in Canakkale. Research was laid out in randomized block design with four replications and 20 plants in each replication. Cucumis melo L. cv. Kırkagac-637 was also used as control cultivar. In addition to fruit and yield charactreristics seed germination tests were also performed. According to data; fruit weight, fruit diameter, total soluble solids of Hırsız Kaciran landrace was found as 1186,15 g, 126,5 mm and 8,4% respectively.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2c1d2dfed5b06b53daec24813880b780.pdf
9e6e2cf757c2c682520734981c7b0c61
PDF Text
Text
Hot-Weather Concreting
Hakan Basaran
Golmarmara Vocational High School,
Celal Bayar University, Turkey
haba1969@mynet.com
Oktay Demirdag
Civil Engineering Department,
Pamukkale University, Turkey
oktaydemirdag@pau.edu.tr
Absract: In practice, concrete is mixed at a wide range of temperatures and also remains in
service at different temperatures. There are some special problems involved in concreting in
hot weather, arising both from a higher temperature of the concrete and, in many cases, from
an increased rate of evaporation from the fresh mix. These problems concern the mixing,
placing and curing of the concrete. Hot-weather concreting is not so much an unusual or a
specialized process; rather, it requires taking certain recognized measures to minimize or
control the effect of high ambient temperature, high temperature of the concrete, low relative
humidity, high wind velocity, and high solar radiation. What is required on each construction
project where any one or more of the above conditions exist is to develop appropriate
techniques and procedures and to follow them rigorously.
Introduction
Laboratory testing of concrete is usually performed at a controlled temperature, normally constant. In practice,
however, concrete is mixed at a wide range of temperatures and also remains in service at different temperatures.
Indeed, the actual range of temperatures has widened considerably with much modern construction taking place
in countries which have a hot climate.
There are some special problems involved in concreting in hot weather, arising both from a higher temperature
of the concrete and, in many cases, from an increased rate of evaporation from the fresh mix. These problems
concern the mixing, placing and curing of the concrete.
Hot-weather concreting is not so much an unusual or a specialized process; rather, it requires taking certain
recognized measures to minimize or control the effect of high ambient temperature, high temperature of the
concrete, low relative humidity, high wind velocity, and high solar radiation. What is required on each
construction project where any one or more of the above conditions exist is to develop appropriate techniques
and procedures and to follow them rigorously (Neville, 1997).
Effects of Hot Weather Conditions
Because high temperatures increase the speed of hydration of cement and setting of concrete, a good planning is
needed for placing the concrete at high temperatures.
The most unsuitable conditions for pouring of concrete are hot, sunny, windy and dry (having low relative
humidity) weather. The increase in temperature of weather increases the rate of evaporation, e.g. an increase of
10 oC in temperature increases the evaporation about 2 times. If the concrete has a higher temperature than the
weather the evaporation becomes more rapidly. When the humidity in the air decreases the evaporation becomes
easy and fast. As the relative humidity decreases from 90 % to 5 %, it is seen that evaporation increases about 5
times. In the sunny days, when the wind velocity increases from 0 to 20 km/h the evaporation increases about 4
times (Baradan, 1998).
345
�A high ambient temperature causes a higher water demand of the concrete and increases the temperature of the
fresh concrete. This results in an increased rate of loss of slump and in a more rapid hydration, which leads to
accelerated setting and to a lower long-term strength of concrete. Furthermore, rapid evaporation may cause
plastic shrinkage cracking and crazing, and subsequent cooling of the hardened concrete can introduce tensile
stresses. It is generally believed that plastic shrinkage cracking is likely to occur when the rate of evaporation
exceeds the rate at which the bleeding water rises to the surface, but it has been observed that cracks also form
under a layer of water and merely become apparent on drying.
Plastic shrinkage cracks can be very deep, ranging in width between 0,1 and 3 mm, and can be short as long as 1
m. (Neville, 1997).
Influence of Early Temperature on Strength of Concrete
A rise in the curing temperature speeds up the chemical reactions of hydration and thus affects beneficially the
early strength of concrete without any ill-effects on the later strength. Higher temperature during and following
the initial contact between cement and water reduces the length of the dormant period so that the overall
structure of the hydrated cement paste becomes established very early.
Although a higher temperature during placing and setting increases the very early strength, it may adversely
affect the strength from about 7 days onwards. The explanation is that a rapid initial hydration appears to form
products of a poor physical structure, probably more porous, so that a proportion of the pores will always remain
unfilled. It follows from the gel/space ratio rule, that this will lead to a lower strength compared with a less
porous, though slowly hydrating, cement paste in which a high gel/space ratio will eventually be reached.
The rapid initial rate of hydration at higher temperatures retards the subsequent hydration and produces a nonuniform distribution of the products of hydration within the paste. The reason for this is that, at the high initial
rate of hydration, there is insufficient time available for the diffusion of the products of hydration away from the
cement particle and for a uniform precipitation in the interstitial space.
In connection with the influence of temperature during the early life of concrete on the overall structure of the
hydrated cement paste, it is useful to recall that a low early gain of strength has a beneficial effect on strength
also when the hydration is slowed down by the use of retarders. Water-reducing and set-retarding admixtures
were found to be beneficial in compensating for the reduction in the long-term strength of admixture-free
concrete placed at a high temperature. However their effect arises from water reduction and therefore a lower
water/cement ratio. Moreover, the rate of loss of slump is higher when these admixtures are used (Neville, 1997).
Evaporation from Fresh Concrete
The combined effects of air temperature, humidity, concrete temperature and wind velocity as they influence rate
of evaporation of water from freshly placed and unprotected concrete is presented in Figure 1. This information
is based on data taken from a free water surface. As an example, with air temperature at 26°C, a relative
humidity at 50%, a concrete temperature of 30°C and a wind velocity of 20 km/hr, the rate of evaporation would
be 1.2 kg/m2 hr.
Importantly, plastic shrinkage cracking more commonly occurs when the rate of evaporation exceeds 0.5 kg/m2
hr. When the evaporation rate exceeds 1.0 kg/m2hr, precautionary measures to prevent plastic shrinkage are
mandatory.
The hydration is greatly reduced when the relative humidity within the capillary pores drops below 80 per cent.
Hydration at a maximum rate can proceed only under conditions of saturation. For hydration to continue, the
relative humidity inside the concrete has to be maintained at a minimum of 80 per cent. If the relative humidity
of the ambient air is at least that high, there will be little movement of water between the concrete and the
ambient air, and no active curing is needed to ensure continuing hydration. The preceding statement is valid only
if no other factors intervene, e.g. there is no wind, there is no difference in temperature between the concrete and
the air, and if the concrete is not exposed to solar radiation. In practice, therefore, active curing is unnecessary
only in a very humid climate with a steady temperature.
346
�Figure 1: Influence of air temperature, relative humadity, concrete temperature and wind velocity on rate of
evaporation
Prevention of the loss of water from the concrete is of importance not only because the loss adversely affects the
development of strength, but also because it leads to plastic shrinkage, increased permeability, and reduced
resistance to abrasion.
For hydration of cement to continue, it is sufficient to prevent the loss of moisture from the concrete. This is true
only if the water/cement ratio of the concrete is sufficiently high for the quantity of the mix water to be adequate
for hydration to continue.
The minimum periods of curing for external exposure are given in Table 1.
Rate of gain of strength of concrete
Temperature of concrete, oC
Ambient conditions
during curing
[rh = relative
humidity in per cent]
2)
R 3)
apid
M 4)
edium
S
low
5 10 15 5 10 15 5 10 15
No sun, rh≥80
2
2
1
3
3
2
3
3
2
Medium sun or medium wind or rh≥50
4
3
2
6
4
3
8
5
4
Strong sun or high wind or rh<50
4
3
2
8
6
5
10 8
5
Table 1: Minimum curing times (in days) due to rate of gain of strength of concrete, temperature of concrete and
ambient conditions during curing (Neville, 1997).
347
�Curing Concrete Systems
In order to obtain good concrete, the placing of an appropriate mix must be followed by curing in a suitable
environment during the early stages of hardening. Curing is the name given to procedures used for promoting the
hydration of cement, and consists of a control of temperature and of the moisture movement from and into the
concrete (Neville, 1997). Curing is the protection of fresh concrete from evaporation and temperature extremes
which might adversely affect cement hydration.
To provide these conditions on site, the concrete must be protected from the harmful influences of wind, sun,
low humidity and variable weather whilst hardening. A temperature of about 23°C is considered ideal for
hydration to achieve strength and durability characteristics, however, it is known that such conditions will rarely
be consistently achieved on site. Curing techniques for concrete fall into two groups:- those designed to prevent
loss of water (such as the application of impermeable membranes), and those that supply moisture throughout the
early stages of the hydration process (such as pounding or the application of wet sand ).(3)
The influence of curing on concrete compressive strength development is demonstrated in Figure 2. Lack of
curing can significantly reduce concrete strengths when compared with designed values.(3)
Figure 2: Influence of curing on concrete compressive strength development
Curing Concrete at High Ambient Temperatures
The dangers of placing and curing concrete at temperatures in excess of 30°C are to be noted as such conditions
lead to high evaporation rates. The maximum temperature for field hardening allowed under AS1012 Part 18 for
concrete specimens taken in the Standard Temperature Zone is 33°C. In the Standard Tropical Zone, the
maximum allowable temperature is 35°C. (3)
Water Retaining Materials
Chemical or liquid membranes are commonly used for curing on site largely because of convenience (Figure 3).
They can be applied by hand or power sprays. Membrane compounds form a vapor seal on the surface of the
concrete when dry. Water in concrete is therefore sealed in and good curing conditions can be established.
Figure 3: Using chemical or liquid membranes
348
�Mechanical Barriers
The use of waterproof building papers or plastic film (polyethylene sheeting) will prevent the evaporation of
moisture from concrete (Figure 4). Pigmented polyethylene sheeting provides a good curing medium as it is
impervious to moisture, light in weight, and can be re-used. Plastic sheeting also has the advantage of flexibility.
It is easy to drape over complex shapes, and the progress of curing and condition of the concrete can be checked
easily at any time. Any material used as a mechanical barrier to evaporation should cover the concrete as soon as
the placing of it does not cause surface damage.
Figure 4: Using mechanical barriers
Water Addition Curing
Theoretically, flooding, pounding or mist spraying (Figure 5) is better than the retention methods for achieving
curing described above. However, such methods are not always practical under field conditions. On roads,
pavements or floors, the method of flooding or pounding is simple. A small dam of earth or other water retaining
material can be placed around the perimeter of the surface and the enclosed area is kept flooded with water. Care
should be exercised to prevent large temperature differentials between the concrete mass and curing environment
so as to avoid potential cracking due to temperature gradients within the concrete. This can result in thermal
shock cracking.(3)
Figure 5: Using water addition curing
Absorptive Covers
An absorptive medium such as sand, or canvas will hold water on the concrete surface during curing (Figure 6).
Any such media must be kept damp constantly during the curing period, for if drying is permitted, the media
itself will absorb moisture from the concrete. Alternate drying out and wetting of the cover may also cause
cracking. The use of sawdust as a cover is not advisable for it has, on occasion, retarded the hardening of
concrete through the action of sugars in the sap present in the sawdust.(3)
349
�Figure 6: Using absorptive covers
Summary
To sum up the advantages of careful control of moisture and temperature in curing:
1. The strength of concrete increases with age if curing conditions are favorable. Compressive strength
of properly cured concrete is 80 to 100 per cent greater than the strength of concrete which has not been
cured at all.
2. Properly cured concrete surfaces wear well.
3. Drying shrinkage cracking is reduced.
4. Greater watertightness in constructions is assured.
Points to keep in mind when curing :
1. Start curing operations as soon as possible after concrete has been placed.
2. For proper curing concrete needs moisture.
3. Continuity in curing is a must. Alternate wetting and drying promotes the development of cracks.
4. If during curing concrete is allowed to dry out (as may happen in hot weather) the hydration reaction
rate significantly reduces at the stage when the concrete loses its moisture.
5. The ideal curing temperature is about 23°C.
6. Cure concrete for at least 7 days.
The problems of inadequate curing need to be highlighted. If enough water evaporates
from the concrete before it has attained sufficient strength, there will not be sufficient water remaining in the
concrete to fully hydrate the binder and so achieve design performance. This will lead to design performance
requirements not being achieved on site.
Precautions Recommended for Concreting in Hot Weather
•
Placing the concrete in the coolest part of the day : preferably at a time such that the ambient temperature
will rise following the setting of the concrete, that is, after midnight or in the early hours of the morning.
•
Pre-cooling one or more of the ingredients of the mix :
�
Cooling mixing water. The mixing water should be get from a cooler source. The water reservoirs and
the pipelines should be white, and should be placed away from sun radiation and under the ground if
possible. Mix water can be chilled partially by crushed or flaked ice. All the ice must melt prior to the
end of the mixing operation.
�
Cooling aggregates: The aggregate masses should be kept in the shade. Coarse aggregate can be cooled
by spraying with chilled water or by inundation. Another method is to use evaporative cooling by
blowing preferably chilled air through moist aggregate. Fine aggregate can also be cooled by air.
�
If possible, cement can also be used cool.
350
�•
Using low heat cement types.
•
Keeping the cement content as low as possible: so that the heat of hydration does not unduly aggravate the
effects of high ambient temperature.
•
Keeping all equipment used in concreting in the shade and painting them white if possible.
•
Cooling the places of contact of concrete: the formwork, the steel reinforcement, and the ground can be
cooled by spraying cold water just prior to the placing of concrete.
•
Making the placing of concrete as soon as possible: placing of concrete should be previously planned.
Delays in concreting lower the workability and increase the temperature of the concrete.
•
Using set-retarders: in general, they prolong the time during which concrete can be transported, placed, and
compacted (workability time). Since they have water-reducing effect, they reduce the cement content
without changing the w/c ratio, and prevent shrinkage cracks.
•
Sufficient and successful curing: the fresh concrete should be kept wet for preventing the fast evaporation.
The concrete should be protected from the effects of direct sunlight and wind.
References
Neville, A.M. (1997). Properties of concrete, Fourth and Final Edition
Baradan, B. (1998). Structural Materials II (in Turkish). Izmir, Dokuz Eylul University Engineering Faculty Editions No:207
http://www.csr.com.au/product_homeswork/construct/concrete
http://www.miconcrete.org
351
�
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451
Title
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Hot-Weather Concreting
Author
Author
Basaran, Hakan
Demirdag, Oktay
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In practice, concrete is mixed at a wide range of temperatures and also remains in service at different temperatures. There are some special problems involved in concreting in hot weather, arising both from a higher temperature of the concrete and, in many cases, from an increased rate of evaporation from the fresh mix. These problems concern the mixing, placing and curing of the concrete. Hot-weather concreting is not so much an unusual or a specialized process; rather, it requires taking certain recognized measures to minimize or control the effect of high ambient temperature, high temperature of the concrete, low relative humidity, high wind velocity, and high solar radiation. What is required on each construction project where any one or more of the above conditions exist is to develop appropriate techniques and procedures and to follow them rigorously.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)