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The Case, Problems and Solution Suggestions of The Greenhousing In
Biga
Hasan Kocabiyik
Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Biga Vocational College
hkocabiyik@comu.edu.tr
Abstract : The greenhousing activity in Biga firstly started in an area of 500 m2 in
1985. In a review study, it was observed that total green housing area of 52.000 m2 and
42 greenhousing cooperations were reached. Greenhouses in Biga are in the structure of
bow roof, with plastic cover and high tunnel cold greenhouses. As the first investment
expenses are low and high productivity in a unit area, producers can make much money
at a short time. Due to all enterprises are small family cooperations, producers don’t pay
to workers. The distribution of productive power is regular in year and all enterprises
use dripping irrigation system. Lettuce is cultivated in greenhouses in winter. In spring,
summer and autumn cucumber, tomato and bean are cultivated. While some of the
produced yields are consumed in Biga and around villages, many parts of the yields are
marketed in Bandırma. The big problems in greenhousing cooperations; increasing of
entry prices, soil tiring, unconciously manurig and giving pesticides, structural
problems, insufficient of technique knowledge, packing and marketing. In this
presentation, the present case of greenhousing enterprises in Biga as alternative
incoming resource, its mainly problems and its possible solutions will be discussed.
Keywords: Biga, Greenhouse, family enterprise, plant production
Introduction
The first greenhouse in Biga was established in the village of Çeşmealtı in 1985 by a manufacturer.
Currenty in Biga 42 manufacturer is engaged in greenhouse and 52 decare greenhouse space and 155
greenhouses are present. These enterprises, 19 of them are in the center of the Biga and other
manufacturers are operating in the village. Biga plain, by the presence of 89.000 hectares watered, 640.000
hectares not watered, totally 729.000 hectares farmland is the most important district of Çanakkale from
the agricultural aspects (Çavuşgil and et al., 2005: 4).
According to the long years of climate data, average rainfall in the region is 765.7 mm and average
relative humidity is 74.5%. Annual average temperature is 14.2 0C, the highest temperature and lowest
temperature are 39.8 0C and -11.4 0C respectively. (Yavuz and et al., 2004:163)
The purpose of this research is the development of Biga on the greenhouse industry, to identify
the problems facing in the sector and to bring solutions to these problems. For this purpose, all owners of
greenhouse in Biga were discussed and all inventory owned by businesses were prepared.
Materials and Methods
In this study, all greenhouse enterprises in Biga and village were selected as the main material. A survey
comprising 18 questions were asked to business owners for the development of greenhouses and to identify
problems in greenhouses in Biga and villages. The data obtained from the sera owners were evaluated
through % rates and analyzed under the main heading.
174
�Results
In the inventory study, 42 greenhouse owners were interviewed in Biga and surrounding villages,
and the inventory information about greenhouse and greenhouse manufacturers were given.
Greenhouse Site Selection and Distribution of Greenhouse Enterprises
When all the ecological and economic factors that effect the greenhouse site selection taken into
consideration, definition of the location of the greenhouse can be made as follows: in autumn, winter and
spring months, it has high light intensity, with the winter is mild, good transport facilities, market demand
with cheap fuel, constant electricity, good-quality irrigation water and soil with heavy winds closed and
qualified workers can be found where appropriate are the places for greenhouse.(Sevgican et al., 1989 : 34).
19 of them in the greenhouse business (45.23%) are in the center of the Biga, 23 of them (54.76%) showed
activity in the village.
Observations Related to The Manufacturer
Experience of manufacturers in the industry ranged with 1 from 23. The average number of years
of dealing with greenhouse growers is 8. The educational level is often high school. For nine of them
(21.4%) the greenhouse business is a additional work. None of the greenhouse producer did not use credits,
incentives, support. New developments in the greenhouse can be examined in three groups: the greenhouse
structure improvements, new ways to reduce greenhouse labor and using the greenhouse except growing
plants (Yüksel et al., 2000: 233).
Although manufacturers are open to innovation of the manufacturers and to search of an
alternative open to innovation, they did not participate in activity about agricultural information
(conferences, symposia, etc.) in the area. Many manufacturers have no information on modern agricultural
practices such as using computer in greenhouses, soilless agriculture, organic agriculture, GAP,
EUREPGAP. Many manufacturers do not hold any record of fertilizers, drugs and yield. Hence the best
evaluation method for small fragmented land is greenhouse, farmers having small land turned to this sector.
Structural Features
Greenhouses are classified according to their size, organization forms, temperatures, roof shapes,
types of materials used in the skeleton and mask and also mobility status. According to their size
greenhouses are separated from big, medium and small greenhouses. If floor area greater than 1000 m2,
greenhouse is big greenhouse. If area between 100-1000 m2, greenhouse is medium greenhouse and if area
smaller than 100 m2, greenhouse is small greenhouse (Yüksel et al., 2000: 36).
Sizes of the greenhouse range in between 50 m2 to 3250 m2. The average size of the greenhouse
was found to be 344 m2. Total greenhouse area is 52 000 m2 and average greenhouse area per farm is 1238
m2. 6 greenhouse enterprises (14.28%) have block greenhouses and the other 36 enterprises (85.72%) have
individual greenhouses. Because of less snowfall, the block greenhouse was established in villages near the
sea.
Greenhouses in Biga are usually structured as a spring-roofed, plastic covered high-tunnel
shapping and cold. In individual greenhouses, base of greenhouse is thee oak piles and in block
greenhouses, base of greenhouse is a concrete pillar. In all skeletal material used in pipes but wooden
greenhouses profiles were not found. As greenhouse covering materials in all of the ultraviolet (UV) doped
with 3 to 3.5 years in life are using plastic sheeting. Because of lightweight, inexpensive, easily workable,
durable, good light transmission plastic was preferred.
Depending on the vegetable side elevation varies between 1.75 to 3.00 meters in vegetable
greenhouses. As the issue of width and length in the plastic greenhouses was relatively free movement,
usually width of 6-9 m and length of 30-60 m are used (Sevgican et al., 1989: 35). It was observed that the
width and length of greenhouse changing in a very large extent. The ridge height of greenhouse ranged 2 m
and 4 m. The side elevation in greenhouse cultivation is 2 m and also in seedling greenhouse is 1.5 m. In
cultivation greenhouse, width is 8.2 m in the 29 companies (69%) and height is 3.5 m in the 35 business
(83.3%) were observed. In individual greenhouses, width varies between 6 m and 12 m, and in block
greenhouse it varies between 20 m and 50 m.
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�Ventilation and Moisture Control
For propose of natural ventilation is adequate, total area of roof windows should be between 1620 % of the greenhouse floor area and the openings should be set according to environmental conditions
(Yüksel et al., 2000: 71).
In four greenhouses (2.58%) of examined 155 greenhouses, the roof is ventilated, but ventilation
of the roof is not in others. 36 (23.22%) greenhouses were included in the side ventilation, and the
remaining 119 greenhouses (76.77%) are not included in the side ventilation. In all of the greenhouse has
been equipped with front and back air conditioning, hot summer weather when fully open front and back
surfaces have tried to improve the ventilation efficiency. Generally poor ventilation was observed.
Mandatory ventilation (ventilator-Extractor) has not been found. Ventilation was not getting control CO2
and humidity but in order to reduce greenhouse temperature. As a result of this, mildiyö and root rot disease
was observed to be effective in the greenhouse.
Heating & Cooling
So the greenhouse effect of sunlight in the summer, especially growing greenhouse inside
temperature, outside air temperature may be higher than 50-10 0C. This reduction of assimilation in plants
and may lead to arrest. That is gained with assimilation of the plant material, may be less than that lost
through respiration (Yüksel et al., 2000: 128).
Heating is made in three greenhouses with a total area of 4470 m2 (8.6%). Heating is not to
ensure optimum temperature for the plant needed but only to ensure earliness in February and March.
Central heating system is used in the two companies, stove is used.one company.
Cooling system is not used in any business. Whereas the type of greenhouse warming is too important to be
cooled even in winter.
Irrigation and Drainage
Review of the greenhouse is used all the drip irrigation method. Taken from artesian well water is
filtered and purified by passing hidrosiklondan thus prevents clogging of drip breast. Chelate fertilizers are
added to the system with fertilizer tanks and soil pesticides are injected into the system.
Only one of the greenhouses used in the internal drainage system, both internal and external drainage was
not used in others.
Supply of Seed-Seedling
All greenhouses were used in the hybrid seeds. In recent years, the craftsmanship of local
producers as well as less healthy because they are directed to prepare the seedlings were observed. The
producers also were grafted on seedlings.
Production Pattern
784 m2 areas (1.5%) of review of the greenhouse were grown ornamental plants. In all of the other
greenhouse vegetables are grown. Type usually cucumbers in summer and lettuce(curly) -salad in winter
were grown. Moreover, purslane, eggplant, beans, peppers and tomatoes are grown by the manufacturer.
Fertilizing and Spraying
Soil pH values of Biga Plains ranged from 7.49 to 5.85. (Çavuşgil et al. 2005: 17).
The cucumber plants that are sensitive to acidity in the structure like the neutral or slightly alkaline soil
(Sevgican et al., 1989: 128).
Salad grows well in soils with pH = 6.0-7.0 , lettuce grows well in soils with pH = 5.5-7.0 (Aybak
et al. 2002: 46).
In review, 14 manufacturers (26.9%) analyzed their soil at least once. According to the results of
this greenhouse soil pH values were found to vary between 4.5 and 7, the average value was found to be
5.98.
176
�According to the analysis of the Biga Plains soil lime content is very low and many samples were found to
contain quantities of lime (Çavuşgil et al. 2005: 18).
Greenhouse manufacturers in the investigation they were often used on fertilizer: Before starting
the production of cucumber in soil , 10 ton/da of burnt.manure used were found. 15-15-15 compound
fertilizer as base fertilizer is used often. Drip irrigation system with ammonium nitrate, urea, potassium
nitrate, MAP and humic acids are used. In addition, some manufacturers are using magnesium nitrate and
ammonium sulfate fertilizers. Against micro-nutrient deficiency is the use of foliar fertilizers.
In greenhouses rest rotation is not applied. Usually removed product immediately the soil has been
processed with machines then the floor manure thrown and new products planted.
Examined business are to spray once the average 7-8 day. the production of cucumber is
commonly used systemic drugs in particular have been identified. Especially, cucumber production
commonly used systemic drugs were determined. Because of the hybrid seeds are used to fertilize itself,
hormones are not used. However, they are kind of some plant growth by the regulators were used. Some
producers are spraying gas engine, some spray back with a portion had been found.
Diseases and Pests
Cucumber and salads widely grown in greenhouses mostly determined diseases; cucumber angular leaf spot
disease (Pseudomonas syringae pv. Lachrymans), cucumber downy mildew (Pseudoperenospora cubensis),
the powdery mildew on cucumber and lettuce (Erysiphe cichoracearum), the gray mold disease on
cucumber and lettuce ( botrytis cinerea), white mold disease on cucumber and lettuce (Sclerotinia
sclerotiorum), mildiyö disease in lettuce (Bremia lactucae), such as bacterial and fungal diseases.
Most identified harmful pests are red spider (Tetranychus spp.), Leaf lice (Aphis gossypii), leaf gallery
beetle (Liriomyza spp.), Green worm (Heliothis armigera), thrips (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis Bouche).
In the examined greenhouse, soil solarization is not done, and most were not known.
Harvesting, packaging and marketing
Cucumbers harvested are put into bananas boxes so that the reduced sweating and moisture loss.
15-20 pieces of Salad and lettuce in a big plastic bag were shown to be introduced to the market.
The biggest problem in marketing the market could not be a regular supply of goods because the
supply / demand balance against the manufacturer of the disruption caused by the instability of the prices
that have been identified.
Solution Proposals
Although it is aimed to enhance the efficiency in production, today's product quality 'and' food
security 'phenomenon has gained importance. Due to consumer demand for safe food, production
technology has also affected (Tüzel et al., 2004: 17).
Biga's greenhouse producers should give up being the small family businesses to be more healthy
and more modern facilities for certified products. In the coming years it will become necessary. It will be
possible to getting consolidation and institutionalization for small businesses.
The most important deficiency in Biga’s greenhouses is ventilation. Therefore length of the
greenhouse should be short and planting should not be frequent. Otherwise, due to beig the excess moisture
inside, fungal and bacterial diseases are steadily increasing. For an effective ventilation of the greenhouses,
length is more than 30 m and the greenhouse should be in the prevailing wind direction.
Producers have little information about fertilizers and fertilization, disease, pests, pesticides. Fort
his reason, it is recommended to take advice.
One of the biggest problem is marketing. To overcome this problem, new markets should find or
production planning should be done well.
References
Aybak, H. Ç. 2002 Salata ve Marul Yetiştiriciliği. Đstanbul: Hasad Yayıncılık Ltd. Şti. (In Turkish)
http://www.biga.gov.tr/biga.php?sayfa_id=102&id=24&1=1, 16.07.2008 (In Turkish)
177
�Çavuşgil, V. S., Ekinci, H., Özcan, H., Kavdır, Y., Yiğini, Y., Çolakoğlu, H. 2005 Biga Ovası Tarım Arazilerinin Bitki
Besin Elementi Đçerikleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, Yayınlanmamış Bilimsel
Araştırma Projesi. (In Turkish)
Sevgican, A. 1989 Örtüaltı Sebzeciliği. Yalova: TAV Yayınları (In Turkish)
Tüzel, Y. 2004 “Türkiye’de seracılığın gelişimi.” V. Sebze Tarımı Sempozyumu Bildiriler, 21-24 Eylül 2004,
Çanakkale. F. C. Kuzucu, C. Öztokat Kuzucu (editör). Çanakkale: Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, 16-18. (In Turkish)
Yavuz, M. Y., Altay, H., Erken, O., Çamoğlu, G. 2004 “Organik madde içeriği düşük topraklarda analiz sonuçlarına
göre uygulanan gübre dozunun Biga yöresinde yetiştirilen sanayi tipi domateste verim ve kalite parametrelerine
etkisi.”V. Sebze Tarımı Sempozyumu Bildiriler, 21-24 Eylül 2004, Çanakkale. F. C. Kuzucu, C. Öztokat Kuzucu
(editör). Çanakkale: Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, 162-164. (In Turkish)
Yüksel, A.N. 2000 Sera Yapım Tekniği. Đstanbul: Hasad Yayıncılık Ltd. Şti. (In Turkish)
178
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Title
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The Case, Problems and Solution Suggestions of The Greenhousing In Biga
Author
Author
Kocabiyik, Hasan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The greenhousing activity in Biga firstly started in an area of 500 m2 in 1985. In a review study, it was observed that total green housing area of 52.000 m2 and 42 greenhousing cooperations were reached. Greenhouses in Biga are in the structure of bow roof, with plastic cover and high tunnel cold greenhouses. As the first investment expenses are low and high productivity in a unit area, producers can make much money at a short time. Due to all enterprises are small family cooperations, producers don’t pay to workers. The distribution of productive power is regular in year and all enterprises use dripping irrigation system. Lettuce is cultivated in greenhouses in winter. In spring, summer and autumn cucumber, tomato and bean are cultivated. While some of the produced yields are consumed in Biga and around villages, many parts of the yields are marketed in Bandırma. The big problems in greenhousing cooperations; increasing of entry prices, soil tiring, unconciously manurig and giving pesticides, structural problems, insufficient of technique knowledge, packing and marketing. In this presentation, the present case of greenhousing enterprises in Biga as alternative incoming resource, its mainly problems and its possible solutions will be discussed.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
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Table Grapes Transport Simulation Study by Bardas (Vitis vinifera L.)
Cultivar Grown in Karaman Turkey
Fikret DEMĐR
Selcuk UniversityFaculty of Agriculture
Department of Agricultural Machinery 42003 Konya, Turkey
fdemir@selcuk.edu.tr
Zeki KARA
Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture
Department of Horticulture
42003 Konya, Turkey
zkara@selcuk.edu.tr
Kazım CARMAN
Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture
Department of Agricultural Machinery 42003 Konya, Turkey
kcarman@selcuk.edu.tr
Abstract: Table grapes is a second industry in viticulture in Turkey and have been grown in
primarily Mediterranean region a popular fruit for local consumption and export to many
European and Asian countries as a fresh dessert and for this reason this product has to be
transport so long distances for marketing. This simulated export transit experiment with
Bardas (Vitis vinifera L.) local table grape cultivar grown in Karaman province was conducted
in lab condition Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture. To produce main knowledge, and
to improve the application of resources used to produce, pack, transport, and merchandise
Turkish table grapes by increasing efficiency, controlling cost and managing risk throughout
the supply chain. In order to develop optimized methods of reducing table grape damage
transport stimulatory as vibration stimulator have been used to measure the shocks and
vibrations in market bins during 30 min and 60 min transport stimulation. During road
transport simulation at 25°C in wooden boxes damages of clusters and berries were measured
by laboratory trials to stimulate the events in a controlled and repeatable manner. 3 bins full
of fruits were placed onto a vibration table, and during the stimulation three-load profile
sensor were placed inside each of bins. While the number of separated berry was determined
as a 31.33 in 30 min, the number was 83.10 in vibration period of 60 min. Starting with the
beginning the numbers separate resistance of berry, resistance to cracking of berry and
elasticity modulus is continuously lowering in 30-60 min vibration periods. The berry
separate resistance from cluster were changing between 4.46 N to 1.73 N, and berry cracking
resistance were measured between 31.59 N to 26.01 N, and berry elasticity modulus were
obtained as between 1423 kPa to 1076.7 kPa. Natural frequency of berry was calculated as on
109.332 Hz that was obtained in of 1.42 m box height.
Introduction
Table grapes (Vitis vinifera L.) are physiologically speaking, a relatively durable fruit. They have a low
respiration rate and can therefore live a long time after harvest. However, they are extremely susceptible to
decay, can be injured easily, and lose water readily. If any of these deterioration factors is not well controlled,
the potentially long post harvest life will be drastically shortened (Nelson, 1985; Bollen et al., 1994; Burton et
al., 1989; Campbell et al., 1986; Maindonald & Finsh, 1986; Hinsch et al., 1993).
Many of horticultural products are in consumer hands within 2 day of harvest in another part of the
world. Transportation and packaging is the key to this success. Under the best circumstances the quality of table
grapes can only be maintained, not improved, during transportation. During transportation, storage and
marketing table grapes may be exposed to rough handling during loading and unloading, compression from the
overhead weight of other containers of products, impact and vibration during transportation.
Grapes are not ripening after harvest. Transits and storage life is 1-6 months. Packaging is by
fiberboard, polystyrene foam, or wood lugs, or perforated film liners and 100 – 110 N some with sulfur dioxide
456
�pads. Transportation is by highways, and piggyback trailers, van containers or break-bulk vessels. Loading is
unitized on pallets with corner. Proper packaging of table grapes is essential to maintaining product quality
during transportation and marketing (Olorunda & Tung, 1985; McGregor, 1989; Kaynaş et al., 1989).
In Turkey, current produce container standardization is not, but many of markets prefer to outside
dimension of a 420 x 310 x 150 mm wooden containers that have 60-80 N grapes for table grape transportation.
Pang et al. (1995) in their investigation observed solve natural handling conditions for transportation
and used his observation to replicate the same situation in laboratory simulations.
Mechanical damage on agricultural products changes depending on physical and biological structure of
the products and type of the force applied. First damage on the products appears during harvest and
transportation. This damage usually occurs as a result of colliding of products with the others or vibrations of the
transportation system, and causes severe deformation, such as breakage, separation and bruise. According to the
estimates, approximately 25% of the agricultural products harvested in Turkey is spoilt and wasted away
between the producer and consumer (Dokuzoğuz, 1997).
Transportation of vegetables and fruits should be rearranged to avoid any loss in quality and to provide
more economical and productive conditions. Transportation type is chosen depending on the biological decay
rate, rigidness and maturity of the product, on the carrier type, distance and purpose of the product usage. Other
factors influencing this are physical characteristics, basic dimensions (geometrical measures, weight, density,
pouring and shaking density), static- dynamic press resistance elasticity, vibration, behavior and also biological
characteristics and product’s content, carriage style and type of container (Moser 1984). Static-dynamic press
resistance and form changing characteristics of the product determine the allowable pouring and filling amount,
fall height and vibration limit during the transportation of the product.
Allowable static resistance (cell blowout biological resistance limit) is calculated by force deformation
diagrams and dynamic resistance by crashing experiments for applications, allowable press resistance limit is the
point of biological crashing. But some safety distance should be allocated. The resonance frequency, fR of the
product is closely related to the speed and shock absorber of the transportation vehicle and to the filling depth of
the container. In order to prevent the crushing, resonance frequency should not be the same with vehicles
generated from outside factory frequency. Resonance frequency is inversely proportional to the pouring dept and
the densityρ, λ of the container frequency acceleration affecting fruits carried in low depth containers is doubled
especially in upper and middle levels when compared to deep containers (Moser 1984; Pang et al., 1995).
The purpose of this study is to investigate factors on concerning the damage in table grape during
transportation period in a simulated transportation environment in terms of separation resistance of berry from
pedicel, number of separated berry, resistance to cracking of berry and elasticity modulus.
Materials and Methods
Materials
In this study, table grape cv Bardas (Vitis vinifera L.) were used since it is an important product in
Konya and Karaman, Province of Turkey. The description of cv. Bardas is as follow. This is a local variety. It
accounts for about 20 percent of the table grape production in Göksu Valley in Turkey. Sex of flower is
hermaphrodite. The cluster is large in size and compact in density. The very large and uniform berries are
somewhat ovoid and elongated in shape dark red to reddish black in color with advanced maturity, particular
flavor is none, and are seeded. Berry must yield is very high sugar and total acid content of must is medium.
Harvest season extends from mid September through October. Because the berry is thick skinned and crisp, and
stem attachment is hard clusters resist damage well during post harvest handling. The cluster of this variety is
shown Fig 1.
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�Fig 1. Table grape cv. Bardas (Vitis vinifera L.)
Methods
Chemical Properties
The titration acidity of the fruits was analysis established with titration method by using 2,6 dichlorophenal indophenol solution. Soluble solids of the fruits were determined by Atago hand refractometer
(Kara, 1992; Anonymous 1997). The initial moisture content of the berry was determined by using standard
method (USDA, 1970).
Technological Properties
To determine the sizes and projected areas of berry, 10% samples were randomly taken and their linear
dimensions were measured, i.e. length (L), width (W) and projected area (P). Projected area of a fruit was
determined using a digital camera (Kodak DC 240) and Sigma Scan Pro5 program (Trooien & Heermann, 1992).
Also, linear dimensions were established by using a digital vernier caliper with sensitivity of 0.01 mm. Several
investigators (Deshpande et al., 1993; Gubta & Das, 1997; Demir & Özcan, 2001) have measured these
dimensions for other grains and seeds in a similar manner to determine size and shape properties.
The geometric mean diameter Dg of the berry was calculated by using the following formula (Sreenarayanan et
al., 1985):
(W=T)
(1)
Dg = (LW2)1/3
The berry volume V was calculated by using the following formula and its berry or true density Pk, Pycnometer
and toluene displacement method. Toluene (C7H8) was used rather than water because it is absorbed by fruits to
a lesser extent. Also, its surface tension is low, so that it fills even shallow dips in a berry and its dissolution
power is low (Sahay & Singh, 1994).
(2)
V=πW2L2/6(2L-W)
According to Mohsenin (1986); Sreenarayanan et al., 1985), the degree of sphericity (Ø) can be expressed as
follows;
(3)
Ø = (LW2)1/3 / L = Dg/L
(4)
The surface area S of the fruit was calculated by using the following formula (McCabe et al., 1986);
(5)
S = (πWL2) / (2L-W) = π Dg2
The containers used in this study are of 420 x 310 x 150 mm size. These have four pieces horizontal
wooden bar and bottom four pieces leveled wooden bar and four pieces flat wooden vertically, fixed nails. This
is shown Fig. 2. Paperbound cartons were used as cushion materials, in order to reduce the damage on the bunch
in transit. Paperbound cartons were placed at the bottom and side at the containers. The grape bunches were
lined up in one layer in containers. Bunches contact with one another. According to the observation, 60-80 N
bunches were placed in the containers.
Fig. 2. Experiment device for simulates table grapes transport in laboratory
During the transportation in truck and trailer the frequency is between 7.5 and 11.5 Hz and the
acceleration g’ value is between 0.8 and 13 ms-2. It’s amplitude A is 0.6 and 6 mm (Aydin, 1993; Witney 1996).
458
�An important application of dynamic test is the determination of the vibration properties of table grape cultivars,
in order to assess, their sensitivity to damage during transit. The table grape cultivars are generally transporting
in containers on board motor vehicle. fR during transport the resonance frequency of the road or vehicle, then the
acceleration of the grape berries will increase considerably owing to resonance and it will be damaged by impact.
The natural frequency fn of table grapes in a container may be calculated approximately from the equation:
(6)
fn = [1/4λ]√Eg/ρ
Computation using Eqn. (6) were found to correspond well with those of table grapes in bins vibration
at resonance on a laboratory condition Fig. 3. Observation of berries were measured at average of 100 berries
taken from the 1/3 medium scope of bunches.
Fig. 3. Test equipment used in compression test
The vibration simulation container used in this study, like the vibration container was projected
California University (Öğüt et.al., 1999; O’Birien & Guillou, 1969). On this box, vibration was formed at every
cycle using unbalanced weights. Changing the number of weights enables setting of maximum acceleration and
expansion plate caused by natural frequency fn of the spiral system and the container. The vibration container is
activated by a 0,55 kW electrical engine with a 2800 min-1 rotation and cos ϕ=0,827 and rotation of the box is set
by an electronic vibrator. In treatments, the resonance frequency was adjusted as or 11.5 Hz. This frequency was
obtained in 690 min-1 of simulation platform. The movement flow diagram in the vibration simulation container
is given in Fig 2. Motor’s rotation is measured as min-1 using an electrical dynamo coupled directly with motor’
once and working linearly and measuring instrument’s monitor. Damage on the product was determined after 3060 minutes of vibrating the container at the set frequency.
The vibration box had worked for 30 min and 60 min, which are equal to transportation of track with
540 km and 1080 km respectively in Turkish highways. The value of vibration were measured and recorded on
magnetic tape. In order to determine the elasticity of berry, a plate test was used (Zohadie 1982). The test
equipment is shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Deformation of berry during compression
The calculation of elasticity modulus is based on the following assumptions: 1) The berries are long
elliptic in shaped very small expansion in the longitudinal plane occurred with compression in vertical plane,
and 2) Each side of the berry in contact with the flat plates has and equal deflection (O’Brien et al., 1965).
According to following expression, the modulus of elasticity was calculated following equation:
(7)
E= F/πδ2
In order to determine damage during transport, the modulus of elasticity before the berries (which were
harvested by hand) was placed on the vibration container and 30 and 60 min after than the modulus of elasticity
that is subject to vibration was determined.
459
�In this study, damage is described as a difference of elasticity modulus, separation resistance, number of
separated berry and resistance to cracking before and after the test. This study was carried out tree replication.
MINITAB was used for statistical analysis.
Vibration of the simulation container was measured using a HBM, SMM-31 type instrument which can
measure vibration’s expansion, speed and acceleration at different levels.
Results and Discussion
Physical and chemical characteristics of grape fruits are given in Table 1. Among chemical
characteristics; titration acidity content was 5.1 g/l and with 17.4 ⁰Brix soluble solids, and 83 ml/100 g fruit juice.
Berry volume
Berry weight
Berry length
Berry width
Number of seeds per berry
Cluster weight
Number of berry per cluster
Soluble solids
Titration acidity
Berry juice
Project area
Surface area
Sphericity
Geometric mean diameter
Moisture content
Natural frequency
Elasticity modulus
Density of berry in the container
Separating resistance of berry from pedicel
Berry density
Resistance to cracking of berry
5476.05
11.17 ± 2.36
34.59 ± 1.81
20.61 ± 1.28
1.92 ± 0.79
682.65 ± 33.19
62.06 ± 4.70
17.4
5.1
83
763.3
1594.19
0.708
24.49
82.48
109.322
1347
3072.196
3.846±0.095
2.137
31.743±0.479
mm3
g
mm
mm
number
g
number
⁰Brix
g/l
ml / 100 g
mm2
mm2
mm
%
Hz
kPa
N/m3
N
g/cm3
N
Table 1. Some characteristics of berry and cluster
Average berry moisture content was 82.48% (w.b.), berry length was 34.59 mm, berry width was 20.61
mm, berry weight was 11.79 g, berry volume was 5476.05 mm3, and berry sphericity was 0.708, the geometric
mean diameter was 24.49 mm, the project area 763.3 mm2 and the surface area is 1594.19 mm2 found ( by using
the method of Moser, 1984).
It’s found that there was a decrease in the separate resistance of the grape in the beginning. First related
to 30 min vibration period it was 44.40% and there was a decrease of 61.21% in the vibration period of 60 min.
This decrease is found significant (p<0.01) from statistical respect and the lowest separate resistance was found
at 60 min. period with 1.73 N average (Table 2). The increase in the period vibration lowered the separate
resistance. Moser (1984) reports similar results.
Containers position
Top
Middle
Bottom
Average (LSD: 0.58)
Beginning
(N)
4.33
4.46
4.60
4.46 a
30 min
(N)
2.26
2.60
2.60
2.48 b
60 min
(N)
1.33
1.61
2.24
1.73 c
Table 2. Separating resistance of berry from pedicel
Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 1% level of significance
460
�The container position and the vibration period is found statistically significant (p<0.01) on the number
of separated berry (Table 3). The number of the separated berry was determined 82.83 at average in the top
container and it decreased with 31.6% in the middle container. The number again reduced with 61.17% in the
bottom container. These numbers were found at 30-60 min. vibration period. This results from the effect of high
acceleration in the top container. Turczyn et al., (1986) found similar conclusions. The number of the separated
berry had an increase of 265.2% in 30 min. vibration period to the period of 60 min.
Containers
position
Top
Middle
Bottom
Average
30 min
(Number)
51.00
24.33
18.66
31.33 a
60 min
(Number)
114.66
89.00
45.66
83.10 b
Average
(LSD: 4.70)
82.83 a
56.66 b
32.16 c
Table 3. Number of separated berry
Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 1% level of significance
The numbers of the cracking resistance of the berry related to the position of the container and the
vibration period is given in Table 4. The effect of the containers position and vibration period on the cracking
resistance was found statistically significant (p<0.01). While the highest cracking resistance number was found
in the bottom container with 28.81 N, the numbers were 27.67 N and 28.0 N in the middle and top containers.
Statistically there was no difference between the middle and top container. While the cracking resistance number
was 31.59 N averages in the beginning, the numbers were 26.01 N and 26.87 N at 30-60 min vibration periods.
There has been no difference between the two vibrations periods found at statistical respect.
Containers position
Top
Middle
Bottom
Average (LSD: 0.94)
Beginning
(N)
31.74
31.59
31.47
31.59 a
30 min
(N)
24.79
24.72
28.53
26.01 b
60 min
(N)
27.48
26.70
26.43
26.87 b
Average
(LSD=0.94)
28.00 b
27.67 b
28.81 a
Table 4. Resistance to cracking of berry
Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 1% level of significance.
Although the effect of elasticity modulus on the container position was not significant, the vibration
period’s effect was found significant (p<0.01). While the elasticity modulus was 1423 kPa in the beginning the
number was 1203,7 kPa and 1076,7 kPa at 30-60 min vibration period, but there has no statistical difference
observed between the two vibration periods (Table 5). (O’Brien et al., 1965; Fridley et al., 1968; Zohadie, 1982)
These investigators found similar results.
Box acceleration at top, middle and bottom were 1.90 ms-2, 0.90 ms-2 and 0.7 ms-2 respectively.
Natural frequency of berry was calculated as on 109.332 Hz. This frequency was obtained in box height
of 1.42 m. Aydin (1993) reported that natural frequency for the peach is varied between 7-110 Hz according to
the box height.
Containers position
Top
Middle
Beginning
(kPa)
1464
1381
30 min
(kPa)
1228
1140
60 min
(kPa)
1098
1020
Bottom
Average ( LSD: 153.7)
1424
1423 a
1245
1203.7 b
1112
1076.7 b
Table 5. Elasticity modulus
Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the %1 level of significance
461
�Conclusions
1. Berry separating resistance from pedicel, number of separated berry, and berry resistance to cracking, and
elasticity modulus were affected significantly by the vibration time. The affection was less at the 30 min
vibration than 60 min vibration. The number of separated berry and resistance of the cracking of berry are
affected significantly by the position of the container.
2. The separate resistance which is 4.46 N in the beginning becomes 2.48 N in the periods of 30 min and 1.73 N
averages in the periods of 60 min.
3. The number of separated berry is 31.33 in the period of 30 min average and increased to 83.10 in the period
of 60 min. While this is 82.83 in the top box the number is 32.16 in the bottom box.
4. Resistance to cracking is determined 28.81 N in the bottom box as the highest number. The resistance of
cracking is 31.59 N in the beginning, and changes to 26.01 N and 26.87 N in the period of 30 and 60 min
vibration time respectively.
5. While the elasticity modulus is 1423 kPa in the beginning these are 1203.7 kPa and 1076.7 kPa in 30 min and
60 min periods respectively.
6. Natural frequency of berry was calculated as on 109.332 Hz. This frequency was obtained in box height of
1.42 m.
7. Table grape variety Bardas (Vitis vinifera L.) grown in Karaman Turkey have been found resistance to
transportation.
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�
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546
Title
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Table Grapes Transport Simulation Study by Bardas (Vitis vinifera L.) Cultivar Grown in Karaman Turkey
Author
Author
DEMİR, Fikret
KARA, Zeki
CARMAN, Kazım
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Table grapes is a second industry in viticulture in Turkey and have been grown in primarily Mediterranean region a popular fruit for local consumption and export to many European and Asian countries as a fresh dessert and for this reason this product has to be transport so long distances for marketing. This simulated export transit experiment with Bardas (Vitis vinifera L.) local table grape cultivar grown in Karaman province was conducted in lab condition Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture. To produce main knowledge, and to improve the application of resources used to produce, pack, transport, and merchandise Turkish table grapes by increasing efficiency, controlling cost and managing risk throughout the supply chain. In order to develop optimized methods of reducing table grape damage transport stimulatory as vibration stimulator have been used to measure the shocks and vibrations in market bins during 30 min and 60 min transport stimulation. During road transport simulation at 25°C in wooden boxes damages of clusters and berries were measured by laboratory trials to stimulate the events in a controlled and repeatable manner. 3 bins full of fruits were placed onto a vibration table, and during the stimulation three-load profile sensor were placed inside each of bins. While the number of separated berry was determined as a 31.33 in 30 min, the number was 83.10 in vibration period of 60 min. Starting with the beginning the numbers separate resistance of berry, resistance to cracking of berry and elasticity modulus is continuously lowering in 30-60 min vibration periods. The berry separate resistance from cluster were changing between 4.46 N to 1.73 N, and berry cracking resistance were measured between 31.59 N to 26.01 N, and berry elasticity modulus were obtained as between 1423 kPa to 1076.7 kPa. Natural frequency of berry was calculated as on 109.332 Hz that was obtained in of 1.42 m box height.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/09c7901b588d1cb9a10bd7847ec28ae6.pdf
e8e4890977c0a631c7fda47f28e0b3b0
PDF Text
Text
Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite Coatings on Ti6Al4V Substrate by Biomimetic
Method
Mustafa Toparli
Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering,
Turkey
mustafa.toparli@deu.edu.tr
Ahmet Pasinli
Ege University, Technical Vocational School of Higher Education, Turkey
ahmet.pasinli@ege.edu.tr
Hasan Yıldız
Ege University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Turkey
hasan.yildiz@ege.edu.tr
Erdal Celik
Dokuz Eylul University,Faculty of Engineering, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering,
Turkey
erdal.celik@deu.edu.tr
Rıfat Sami Aksoy
Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Turkey,
sami.aksoy@deu.edu.tr
Abstract: In this study, synthesis of hydroxyapatite (HA) coatings on Ti6Al4V substrates by
biomimetic technique was investigated. In this context, thin and continuous HA coatings were
first deposited onto Ti6Al4V implant plates by immersion in 1, 1.5 and 3 times concentrated
simulated body fluid (SBF) at 37 °C for different times at pH=7.4. The HA layers were
formed in the range of 6 and 19 µm thick. The obtained coatings were characterized by XRD,
optical microscope, SEM, surface roughness and microhardness machines. The experimental
results clearly show that the biomimetic approach has coated them with HA globular crystals
having various diameters. It was found that the coating structure was affected by solution
concentration.
Introduction
Biomaterials have been used to replace or support the human organs or tissues in many years. These materials
are classified into four groups as metals, ceramics, polymers and composites (Gumusderelioglu, 2002).
Biocompatibility is considered as the most important feature in biomaterials, allowing the surrounding tissue to
differentiate normally and preventing undesired reactions such as infection and blood clot (Wintermantel et al.,
1996; Bajpai et al., in Yamamuro et al., 1980). Titanium (Ti) and its alloys are the materials of choice for most
dental and orthopaedic applications. The many advantages of these materials include high compatibility with the
surrounding tissue, good resistance to corrosion, and excellent mechanical properties. However, bone response
and implant success depend on the chemical and physical properties of the surface. The integration with bone
tissue can be improved and accelerated by the presence of a calcium phosphate (HA) coating onto the metal
implant surface (Van Noort, 1987; Bigi et al., 2005).
Hydroxyapatite (HA: Ca5(PO4)3(OH)) is a calcium phosphate based bioceramic material and widely applied to
the biomaterials for bone tissue implantation due to its good biocompatibility, osteoconductivity and bioactivity
as well as the similarity to the inorganic component of the hard tissues in natural bones, and the HA coatings
have been extensively applied with the aim of improving fixation between hard tissue and metal implants
(Browne & Gregson, 1994; Bayraktar & Tas, 1999; Bigi et al., 2005). In addition, synthetic HA is a
biocompatible prosthetic material, bonding strongly to the bone and promoting the formation of bone tissue on
275
�its surface. The HA is mostly used in clinics for making artificial bone due to its biocompatibility (to be used in
various prostheses), treating cracks and fractures in the bone and coating of metallic biomaterials (Abe et al.,
1990; Tas, 2000; Miao et al., 2005).
For these applications, different methods such as plasma spray (Tong et al., 1995), high velocity oxy fuel spray
(Li et al., 2002), sol-gel (Milella et al., 2001; Hsieh et al., 2002), electrochemical (Ban & Maruno, 1993), laser
ablation (Katto et al., 2002), electrophoretic (Zhitomirsky, 1998), dip coating (Mavis & Tas, 200) and
biomimetic are used to coat implant materials with HA. Nonetheless, there have been some problems in the
application. The major problem is the gradual weakening of the bond between coating and metal surface. This
problem occurs due to the low bonding strength of the coating material (Ishikawa et al., 1997; Nishio et al., 200;
Yang & Chang, 2001). Of these methods, one of the most promising techniques for producing HA coatings is the
biomimetic approach, which mimics the mineralisation process of bone. The biomimetic route utilises
supersaturated aqueous solutions with ionic composition similar to that of human plasma, it allows to coat
complex-shaped materials, and to co-precipitate biologically active molecules with apatite crystals onto metal
implants (Abe et al., 1990;Browne & Gregson, 1994; Bayraktar & Tas, 1999; Bigi et al., 2005).
This situation sometimes necessitates a second operation on patients with implant, which is not desired because
of health and financial concerns (Demircioglu et al., 2004). Strengthening and stabilizing the bond between
metal surface and HA coating could prevent this from occurring. In addition to the one above, there are some
inherent problems associated with these methods. These problems are (a) complex preparation procedures, (b)
application of high temperatures which cause structural damages either on host (Ti6Al4V) or coating material,
(c) getting unwanted phases in coatings, (d) employing complex equipment, (e) high cost, and (f) bonding
strength that depends upon coating thickness (Weng & Baptista, 1999). Because of the difficulties listed above,
biomimetic method is chosen. In this method, HA coating is realized in a simple biocompatible environment
(under the conditions of human body temperature of 37 ºC and pH=7.4) with chemical in-situ sedimentation
method, where no high temperature is applied (Kokubo, 1998).
The aim of the present study was to deposit the HA coatings on Ti6Al4V implant substrates by biomimetic
technique. The obtained coatings were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), optical microscope, scanning
electron microscope (SEM) and microhardness tester.
Experimental procedure
Commercial Ti6Al4V alloy substrates (sample size Ø 19.05×1 mm and 3×5×15 mm) were used in the study. The
samples were abraded by SiC sandpaper numbers such as 400, 800 and 1200, then washed with acetone and
distilled water in an ultrasonic cleaner.
The HA coatings were prepared by subjecting the metal to a chemical surface treatment to provide a surface
layer conducive to apatite formation in a body environment. The HA layers were formed by soaking in a
simulated body fluid (SBF) with pH and ion concentrations (pH 7.40, Na+ 142.0, K+ 5.0, Ca2+ 2.5, Mg2+ 1.5, Cl−
125.0, HCO3− 27.0, HPO42− 1.0, SO42− 0.5 mM) nearly equal to those of human blood plasma. Chemical
compositions of SBF solutions were listed in Table 1. Commercially available Ti6Al4V alloy was subjected to
5.0 M NaOH treatment at 60°C for 24 h and subsequently to thermal treatment at 600°C for 1 h, and then soaked
in SBF, see [Figure 1].
Chemical precursors
g/l
1 SBF mg / 250
1.5 SBF mg/ 250
3 SBF mg / 250
ml
ml
ml
NaCl
6.547
1.6368
2.455
4.910
NaHCO3
2.268
0.5670
0.851
1.701
KCl
0.378
0.0933
0.140
0.280
Na2HPO4.2H2O
0.178
0.0445
0.067
0.134
MgCl2.6H2O
0.305
0.0763
0.114
0.229
CaCl2.2H2O
0.368
0.0920
0.138
0.276
276
�Na2SO4
0.071
0.0178
0.027
0.053
(CH2OH)3CNH2
6.057
1.5143
2.271
4.543
Table 1: Chemical compositions of SBF
Figure 1: Coating stages for the HA formation
The film structures were analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD; Philips X’pert pro) with CuKα radiation 40 kV
200 mA at a scanning speed of 4.00°/min with a scanning range (2θ) from 25° to 45°. The microstructure of
sample surface was observed under scanning electron microscopes (SEM-Philips XL 30S FEG), Cross-sections
of the films were observed and thickness was measured by optical microscopy (Nickon Eclipse ME600) with
image analyzer Lucia 4.1 programme. The surface roughness of the coating was measured using a standard
surface roughness machine. The microhardness of the coatings was measured by using a standard microhardness
tester with Vickers indenter. The load applied on the samples was 0.98 N and the indentation was applied for
15 s. Five readings were taken for each sample.
Results and Discussion
Figure 2 shows XRD patterns of HA coatings on Ti6Al4V alloy substrate by using biomimetic method. Small
and broad HA peaks were obtained at 2θ of 25.70, 29.32, 32.14 and 40.34 corresponding to (002), (210), (211),
277
�(310) and (113) orientations for the samples that were immersed for 30 days in the 1.5 and 3 SBF solutions.
These peak locations were validated and appeared much sharper when the SBF solution was changed from 1.5
SBF to 3 SBF. Similar results can be found in Reference (Baker et al., 2006). It is also clear from Fig. 2 that Ti
peaks were obtained at 2θ of 40.26, 35.25, 38.47 and 53.20 corresponding to (001), (010), (002) and (012)
orientations respectively. After chemical and heat treatment processes, Na-titanate and TiO2 peaks having rutile
and anatase phases were determined from XRD patterns. Rutile TiO2 peaks were determined at 2θ of 27.40,
35.98 and 48.10. It is believed that the TiO2 phases were formed between HA coating and the substrate after heat
treatment process as reported (Kukobo, 1998; Li et al., 2002; Baker et al., 2006). In as much as NaOH was
chemically treated with HA coatings on Ti6Al4V substrate and the SBF solutions had Na+ ions, NaTiO2,
Na2Ti5O11 and Na2TiO3 phases were formed in the coatings. We have a good agreement with research of
Takadama’s team. Takadama et al. (2001) commented that the peak values of 2θ=23.31° and 48° in addition to
Ti peaks occurred as a result of sodium titanate (Na2Ti5O11) and rutile (TiO2) crystals during their XRD
investigation of biomimetic study. In addition to these, Kim at al. (1997) investigated the effects of heat
treatment performed at different temperatures (400-800oC) on the apatite formation on chemically treated metal
surfaces. Because peak point around 23°, 29° and 48° after the heat treatment at 600 oC were found to be related
to sodium titanate hydrogel layer, gel layer was started to turn into Na2Ti5O11 and rutile TiO2 at 600 °C. After 7
days of soaking, the apatite phase was formed at all temperatures. As a result, the apatite coating of titanium
implants after chemical and heat treatments increased the bone-implant interface bonding strength, and thus this
method was found to be advantageous for load bearing implants.
Figure 2: XRD pattern of the HA coatings prepared on Ti6Al4V alloy substrate from (a) 1.5 (top pattern) and
(b) 3 SBF (bottom pattern) solutions by using biomimetic method. Characteristic peaks are found at
approximately 25.70, 29.32, 32.14, and 40.34 2θ. The most intense peaks correspond to titanium
Figure 3 demonstrates cross-sectional optical micrograph of the HA coating on the Ti6Al4V substrate. Thickness
of the coatings was measured by using optical microscope for different SBF concentrations. As listed in Table 2,
the thicknesses of coatings were in the range of 6.50 µm and 18 µm. It is obvious from Fig. 3 that the structure
with sodium titanate was formed on the substrate and the HA started to nucleate and grow in SBF solutions after
periods of 4, 12 and 19 days. After obtaining homogeneous HA coatings, the thicknesses of coatings prepared
from 1, 1.5 and 3 SBF solutions were found to be as 6.78, 8.93 and 18.25 µm respectively. From these results, it
can be concluded that coating thickness increased with increasing the solution concentration. When Ti alloy
substrate which had been polished to remove its surface oxide layer was soaked in 3 SBF solutions with ion
concentrations 3 times those of SBF, a dense layer of apatite was formed on its surface. The apatite nuclei grew
spontaneously by consuming the calcium and phosphate ions from SBF solution.
278
�Figure 3: The cross-sectional optical micrograph of HA coating on the Ti6Al4V substrate
The resultant apatite layer was tightly bonded to Ti-based substrate, since it is integrated to the Ti alloy substrate
through the hydrated titita and titanium oxide which are gradually changed in their concentration (Kokubo,
1998). Furthermore, surface roughness values of the coatings prepared from 1, 1.5 and 3 SBF solutions were
found to be 1.9, 2.2 and 2.6 respectively. In this context, it is said that surface roughness of the HA coatings
increased as solution concentration and coating thickness increased as shown in Table 2.
Solution concentration
Coating thickness (µ
µm)
Surface roughness (µ
µm)
1 SBF
6.50
1.8-2.0
1.5 SBF
10.50
2.0-2.4
3 SBF
18.25
2.0-2.8
Table 2: Thicknesses and surface roughness of the HA coatings
Figure 4 depicts surface morphologies of the HA coatings with different concentrations such as 1, 1.5 and 3 SBF
concentrations. When the coating thickness increased, cracks were observed from SEM studies. The layers were
dense and uniform in thickness, showing some cracks of several tens of microns in length as shown in Fig. 3.
The homogeneous HA coatings were formed from diluted SBF solutions. Spherical particles having diameters
between 1-5 µm and porous structure of HA crystals are shown in coating with 1.5 SBF at different
magnifications in Figure 4.a. However, the structures having cracks were coated from viscous SBF solutions, see
[Figure 4.b]. The cracks were formed as a function of solution concentration and coating thickness as explained
elsewhere (Barrere et al., 2002; Tas & Bhaduri, 2004).
279
�(a)
(b)
Figure 4: Surface morphologies of the HA coatings with different concentrations such as (a) 1.5 and (b) 3.0 SBF
concentrations.
The cracks in SEM micrographs were formed during heat-treatment owing to thermal expansion and thick
coating. It is also obvious from SEM observations that the HA coatings have some spherical grain and porosity.
Since the coating on the surface is thin, the metal surface is visible through the coating and the apatite nuclei
were started to deposit at the peak points of the rough surface. The coating was uniform and contained small
particles having diameters about 1-2 µm. It is concluded that the small particles on the surface were found to be
important for adhesion and bigger particles affected coating homogeneity.
Microhardness values of surface of coating, HA coating and substrate amounted about 343, 445 and 230 HV,
respectively (Table 3). The surface microhardness of HA coating is lower than that of coating layer because
some inhomogeneities such as open porosity, cracks and so on.
In the future, in in-vivo studies, minimum coating thickness can be determined for metal implant surface thus the
SBF concentration and soaking time can be optimized. Also, coating adhesion strength can be modeled
numerically; effects of coating thickness, coating surface area on the adhesion can be investigated.
Conclusion
The HA coatings were deposited on Ti6Al4V implant substrates from SBF solutions by biomimetic technique.
HA, Ti, TiO2, NaTiO2, Na2Ti5O11 and Na2TiO3 phases were found from XRD study. The thickness of coatings
was ranged from 6.50 µm to 18 µm. As the solution concentration is increased the coating thickness increased.
The homogeneous HA coating was formed in diluted SBF solutions. The cracks were formed as a function of
solution concentration and coating thickness. The HA coatings have some spherical grain and porosity.
Microhardness values of surface of coating, HA coating and substrate were measured about 343, 445 and 230
HV, respectively.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Prof. Dr. Mustafa Demircioglu at Ege University, Izmir for the technical help and Dr. I. Cevdet
Alptekin at HIPOKRAT Company, Izmir for some chemical precursors and Ti6Al4V substrates. Also, we specially would
like to thank Dr. A. Cuneyt Tas at University of Clemson for his experiences and bright ideas.
280
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SBF. Journal of the European Ceramic Society 19, 2573-2579.
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Demircioglu, M., Pasinli, A., Arda, N. et al. (2004). Fabrication and Mechanical Behavior of Calcium-Phosphate in situ
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Hsieh, M.F, Perng, L.H, Chin, T.S. (2002). Hydroxyapatite Coating on Ti6Al4V Alloy using a Sol–Gel Derived Precursor.
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282
�
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Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite Coatings on Ti6Al4V Substrate by Biomimetic Method
Author
Author
Toparli, Mustafa
Pasinli, Ahmet
Yıldız, Hasan
Celik, Erdal
Aksoy, Rıfat Sami
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In this study, synthesis of hydroxyapatite (HA) coatings on Ti6Al4V substrates by biomimetic technique was investigated. In this context, thin and continuous HA coatings were first deposited onto Ti6Al4V implant plates by immersion in 1, 1.5 and 3 times concentrated simulated body fluid (SBF) at 37 °C for different times at pH=7.4. The HA layers were formed in the range of 6 and 19 μm thick. The obtained coatings were characterized by XRD, optical microscope, SEM, surface roughness and microhardness machines. The experimental results clearly show that the biomimetic approach has coated them with HA globular crystals having various diameters. It was found that the coating structure was affected by solution concentration.
Date
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2010-06
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Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
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1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
Sustainable Redevelopment of Sanitary
Landfills as Future Golf Courses
Yasin Çağatay Seçkin
Department of Landscape Architecture
Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
cseckin@itu.edu.tr
Abstract: Redevelopment of sanitary landfills plays a major role in sustainable development,
providing economical, social and environmental benefits. A combination of rising land
values, a growing urban population, their needs for recreation activities and mitigation of
ecological impacts have encouraged the conversion of completed sanitary landfills into
functional golf courses. This study examines the reclamation problems of completed landfill
to golf course developments and the possibility of designing a sanitary landfill based on its
final use as a golf course. For this aim, a sustainable planning approach for landfill-to-golf
course adaptive use projects are discussed, which combines sanitary landfill and golf course
design processes and modifies them in a sustainable way.
Introduction
Landfill disposal of waste has been practiced for centuries, but the concept of sanitary land filling has
been used for less than 100 years (Graves, 1998, Bagchi, 1994). Basically, sanitary land filling is a method of
controlled disposal of refuse on land where wasteisisolated from the environment untilitissafe. First practices
began in Great Britain in the 1910’s under the name controlled tipping. The refuse was being dumped between
houses and the piles were being covered with street sweepings,ratherthan taking the refuse to a speciallocation
and alternately layering the waste and dirt as in modern sanitary landfills. The Fresno Municipal Sanitary
Landfill, opened in Fresno, California in 1937, is considered to have been the first modern sanitary landfill.In
Fresno, layers of refuse were deposited in tidelands to produce additional land. Itis the firstlandfillto employ
the trench method of disposaland firstto utilize compaction (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009, Melosi, 2000).
There are two types of landfills: Conventional and Bioreactor landfills. Conventionally,they consist of a
clay and/or synthetic flexible membrane liner at the base of the landfillto prevent liquid seeping into ground
water. Pipes are laid above the bottom liner to capture contaminated water and leachate which is the liquid
produced by decomposing organic waste. This liquid is then transported to a wastewater treatment plant for
treatment. The gas generated by the breakdown of wasteiscollected and burned eitherin flares orin enginesthat
recover useable energy. Bioreactor landfills also work in the same way as conventional landfills but with one
major difference. Some of the leachate in bioreactorlandfillsisrecycled through the waste to acceleratethe rate
of decomposition. This provides more rapid stabilization of waste, controllable and increased short-term gas
yields and betterleachate controlthan conventionallandfills.
However, bothtypes oflandfills pose environmentalrisksfrom gas emissions and leachate. Bacteria break
down organic matter and methane releases. Leachate sinks into ground and pollutes water. These effects could
only be reduced with more recycling, carefully design, betterlandfill management and awareness of com munity
(WSN Environmental Solutions, 2006). Because of their environmental and visual negativities, the existing
image of sanitary landfill by the com munity is predictably not very good and if simply closed afterthey filled,
they continue to be environmental problems and eyesores, and this situation increases the anticipation of
community growth (Thompson, 2008).
On the other hand, communities will need to rely on sanitary landfills because they are still the most
logical and economical choice for disposal needs. According to U.S. EPA, in the United States, municipal solid
waste generation in 2007 was 765 kg per person per year. While 45 percent of this total discards was either
recycled or sent for combustion with energy recovery, the remaining refuse continue to be sent to landfills. In
other words, sanitary landfillshost 55 percent ofthe municipal solid waste (EPA, 2008).
Actually no matter how much a community recycles or sends the waste for combustion, a sanitary landfill
will always be needed for residue that cannot be handled in any other way.
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Redevelopment of Sanitary Landfills
W hen landfills reach their capacity and are closed,they offer remarkable open-space opportunities. With
careful planning, completed landfills could be ultimately utilized for a variety of purposes.
Converting closed landfillsinto park and recreation areas has been used during the past 50 years. Golf is
one of these converted recreation areas and the research showed that first sanitary landfill used for golf courses
was builtinthe early 60sin Carson, CA (Goldsberry, 1996). The importance and acceptance ofthis phenomenon
is growing withthe continued expansion ofthe game and the need to clean up and rehabilitate contaminated sites
(EPA, 2003). As the demand for golf continues to grow throughout the world, there is an increasing need to
design and construct more golf courses. However,itis difficultto find suitable land for course construction and
landfills, with their low value, may be one of the few properties large enough for golf development. So, a
combination of rising land values, growing urban population, their need for recreation activities and mitigation
of ecological impacts have encouraged people to convert completed sanitary landfills into functional golf
courses.
From environmental, economic and social standpoint,landfills and golf courses are a good match. Land
improvement and adaptive reuse can be one of the most beneficial aspects of a golf course (Love, 2008).
Environmental benefits of this match include many ecological enhancements like remediation of soil or
treatment of ground water impacts from waste disposal. A landfill golf course can have positive economic and
socialimpacts,too, by increasing land values in the vicinity and creating jobs.In addition to these benefits, golf
courses are one ofthe few legalland uses forlandfillsites.(Kavazanjian, 2007, Gross, 1994).
Although numerous benefits, they are not perfect and have several problems. Four main problems with
landfill developments are toxic gases, uneven settling,leachate and drainage (Hazelrigg, 2005). These problems
have both environmental and economical disadvantages. Another problem is directly related with designing and
construction of golf course. The landfills are not suitable to cut and shape, because of their type of structure
(Schmidt, 1991). According to all these problems, golf course development may not be economically feasible
and construction costs may be higherthan the normal golf course.
In this instance, brief descriptions of two different case studies can help for better understanding the issues
associated with redevelopment of sanitary landfills as future golf courses.
Harborside International Golf Center
The site was originally used for disposal ofthe City of Chicago's municipal solid waste. Laterit was used
to dispose of incinerator ash and wastewater sludge. In 1991, this 180 hectares solid waste landfill was closed.
About 80 hectares ofthe site was a partially-closed sanitary landfilland a 100 hectares parcel was being used as
a construction debris landfill. After its closure, itis decided to convert itinto a golf center. The site was near
important motorways which carry approximately 300.000 cars per day. The planners anticipated that the
combination of good access and a good facility would attract sufficient business to make the golf facility
economically viable (EPA, 2003).
Firstly, the old sanitary landfill was capped with a 50 cm-thick layer of impermeable clay - or about
400.000 m³ - dredged from the adjacent Lake Calumet. Capping the landfillto keep the ground from cracking
and methane gas from migrating to the surface was an absolute necessity under currentregulations (EPA, 2003).
Course architect Dick Nugent didn't want tree roots piercing the fill's clay sealant, so he designed an open,
sweeping links-style facility with trees that have shallow roots, which are non destructive to the underlying clay
cap (Klein, 1998).
Drainage and irrigation systems were also carefully designed to protectthe integrity of the clay cap. The
golf course architect and the engineer collaborated in the design of an elaborate drainage and collection system
that collects all site drainage and stores it at seven dry retention locations within the site, untilit releases to a
sewage treatment plant for processing (EPA, 2003).
Protecting the existing wetland areas was important,too. A buffer was created at some points between the
course and the shoreline, and some portions ofthe fairway were raised up to 3 metersto allow the incorporation
of drainage basins to prevent storm water from flowing into the lake (EPA, 2003).
Another problem was to grow turfgrass on site. Every year 200.000 m³ of sludge had been transported to
the site, during the operation period oflandfills. Sludge was very organicin nature. However, because ofits high
rates of fats and salts,it was not by itself, providing a good growing medium. It was drawing water out of plants
and was not readily saturating. To solve this problem, a 15-20 cm layer of sand was placed over the fairway.
Eventually, with the combination of materials on site and creative design,the grass flourished with virtually no
additional fertilizer (EPA, 2003).
At the end,the Golf Center consist a matched pair of 6.500 m, 18-hole championship golf courses and a
24 hectares practice facility,including a Golf Academy. Itwas built between 1992 and 1995 and the final cost of
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golf course approached $30 million (EPA, 2003).
Granite Links Golf Club
This site was originally used for disposal of both Milton Town and Quincy City. Most of the land was for
the famous granite quarrying industry dating back to the mid 1800’s. After abandoning quarries,it was used to
dispose of municipal solid waste, construction debris and some industrial and hazardous debris (Hazelrigg,
2005). In 1989, Developers started to think about the reuse of old landfill and they decided to create a
recreational complex which includes a championship golf course (Love, 2008). Total area of this complex was
220 hectares, which includes several former landfills and quarries. The golf course incorporated two largest
landfills and covered 100 hectares oftotal(Hazelrigg, 2005).
In the same time, another project was being prepared close to this area: Big Dig, an extensive tunnel
projectforthe relocation of a major highway through the city of Boston. Developers proposed using the material
excavated from the tunnel for the closure of the landfill and enhancement of degraded areas of the site (Love,
2008).
Firstly, the landfill had to be closed by being capped with specific layers and depths of material. Fill
material from the excavation of the highway tunnel was perhaps the most important item that made the project
possible. Both Big Dig Projectand Granite Links Landfill Redevelopment Project assisted each otherin reaching
their own targets. Big Dig saved $40 million by trucking excavate to landfill area rather than to sites farther
away and Granite Links Projectsaved atleastthe same amount of money by closing the landfill with Big Dig fill
(Hazelrigg, 2005).
After the excavated fill was placed and graded to the contours designed for the golf course,it had to be
sealed with 25 – 40 cm of clay, placed in 15 cm layers, de-stoned by hand and compacted to eliminate water
infiltration into the landfill or allow leachate to escape. Next, a layer of 50 – 100 cm of clean fill material was
placed on top ofthe clay and graded tothe design contours. Thislayer of material was designed to accommodate
the sub-surface drainage system, the irrigation and gas recovery system. On top ofthe clean material,another 15
– 30 cm layer of sandy loam was placed to provide a planting medium forthe grasses (Love, 2008).
The recovery system for methane gas from the landfillinvolved the installation of some 150 wells and a
system of blowers and flares for control. Ultimately, this gas will be channeled to drive an engine to generate
electricity and is expected to produce for some 20 to 25 years (Love, 2008).
Settlement of the landfill was another concern and required close attention during design of the facilities.
Most of the play areas were surcharged with huge stockpiles of excavated fill, whenever possible, as
construction progressed (Love,2008).
After thirteen years, 900,000 truckloads of fill material and a cost more than $110 million, the 27-hole
Granite Links Golf Course, athletic fields, rock climbing sites, hiking trails and other amenities provide a
successfulrecreationalfacilityforthe visitors(Hazelrigg, 2005).If considered the EPA’s assumption aboutfinal
costs of landfill golf courses, which is between $25-30 million, this cost looks a little bit costly for these kind
operations (Walsh, 2003). Butit must be considered thatthe final costincludesthe cost of filling and capping the
landfill as part ofthe construction cost where others use previously filled landfills.
A Sustainable Planning Approach for Landfill to Golf Course Development
As is seen, problems encountered in landfill golf courses differfrom case to case and solutions depend on
how creative the designer is.Just one common problem is about the planning approach. Like above mentioned
examples,in most cases, golfcourses designed on landfillsare afterthought projects and they did not plan before
the landfill was designed. However, the best strategy must be to plan for the final use before the landfill is
designed (O’Leary, 1992). This will be extremely beneficialfrom both environmental and economical aspects.
To plan for the final use from the beginning of landfill design and planning,typical sanitary landfill and
golf course processes must be combined and both must be modified in a sustainable way.
Inventory and Analysis
First of all, a detailed inventory and analysis should be conducted, as in every project. The desirable
design features forthe landfilland future golf course should be reflected in the program and siteinventory. The
program and siteinventory provides a means of gathering information about client’s needs and site properties. A
typicalinventory data could be formed with the facts below:
- The wastesto be received
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
(Total volume, sources and types of wastes, daily quantity estimation, etc)
- The landfill method and materialsto be used
(Type of method,landfill operation time, degree of compaction, filling materials, etc)
- The landfill design
(Proposed landfill elements, cover thickness,slope, additive cover/waste ratio, etc)
- The golf course design
(Type of golf course, proposed golf course facilities, etc)
- The specific siteinformation
(Geology, soiltype,topography, existing vegetation, sensitive fields, etc)
- The client’s needs and purposes
- Social, political and economic considerations.
After collecting program and site inventory data, they must be analyzed to determine site potential and
restrictions for golf course conversion.
The goal of this analysis is to integrate the golf course design elements with the landfillones, in unison
withthe site. This analysisrequires ateam of consultants whoseinitial goalisto produce a restrictions map and a
report of development challenges and opportunities (Hurdzan, 2006).
Design Development
Considering the landfill and golf course projects simultaneously makes the design development process
complicated. In the proposed process, the landfill and golf course projects are separated, to create as many
alternatives as possible. However,the alternatives should be based on the concepts and site specific conditions
noted in the results of analysis report. Because of the special case of sanitary landfills, a design completed
without care to the results of analysis report,the course can quickly become a disaster area (Graves, 1998).
The next step isto overlay those alternative designs and to adjustthem to develop the best master plan for
the landfill-to-golf course project.
During design development process, the course architect must study in cooperation with the consulting
engineer of the landfill. The process of coming to the final design solution required patience, much error, a bit
more trial and severalfeedback processes.
Evaluation Process
First step for this process is feasibility study. Normally, feasibility studies are prepared by a team of
consultants and this is usually undertaken in cooperation with the golf course architect and other members of
analysis and design development processes. In this stage, client’s needs and purposes are the most important
parameter (Hurdzan, 2006).
Ideally, feasibility studies should include estimation and evaluation of net benefits with alternatives for
achieving the defined public goals and, both quantitative and socialimpact analysis, which is hard to estimate,
must be taken into account (Yang, 1993).
After finishing the feasibility study, economic, environmental and social benefits of project will become
definite. If the total benefit is less than the total cost, the proposed design will not acceptable and the whole
design process should be repeated to change until the benefit is greater than the cost. Here, both the
environmental and economic costs have an equal importance. For example, an ideal result in terms of
profitability may not be ideal for environment. On the other hand, because of environmental issues and legal
restrictions,the total cost of a landfill golf course can be more expensive than a comparable course created on a
natural site. Sure, not all golf courses should be low-cost, but cost – benefit balance must be achieved.
Otherwise, a loss-making golf course will never be sustainable in terms of both environmental and social
responsibility.
Except allthese, feasibility study validates the prospective timeline of golf course development. Before
moving into construction phase, the data generated by the study could be used to help set milestones and
deadlines for golf course development.
Following the feasibility study process,alllegalrequirementsfor operating, closing, and then maintaining
a landfill must be studied. These requirements are usually strict and they include location restrictions, facility
design criteria, closure care requirements, cap zone design criteria, gas and groundwater monitoring
requirements (Graves, 1998,Rogoff, 1992).
Afterthe feasibility and alllegalrequirements are studied,all planning processis complete and itisready
to be realized.
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Conclusion
The approach inthis paperisbased on the beliefthatifthe community needs alandfill,landfilldesign and
its future land use should be considered at the beginning of the development process. With this belief, a
sustainable planning approach was developed to pave the way of sustainable redevelopment of sanitary landfills
as future golf courses.
This approach consists ofthree steps:
- Inventory and analysis process
- Design development process
- Evaluation process
After completing every process, a feedback process is also needed. In this way, the planning approach
works like a flow chart with a series of accepted or not accepted answers. When all processes are completed
with accepted answer, then, our sanitary landfill will be ready to contribute to sustainability by achieving
beneficial and profitable future use ofthe site, as a golf course.
References
Bagchi, A. (1994). Design, Construction and Monitoring of Landfills. 2nd ed., New York, NJ: Wiley-Interscience.
Encyclopædia Britannica (2009). Sanitary Landfill. Retrieved April 24, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
EPA Office of Solid Waste (2008). Municipal Solid Waste in The United States. Washington, DC: EPA.
EPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (2003). Reusing Cleaned Up Superfund Sites: Golf Facilities Where
Waste is Left on Site. Washington, DC: EPA
Goldsberry, C., (1996) Golf Links Old Landfills to New Uses, Waste & Recycling News. February 26, 1996.
Graves, R.M. & Cornish, G.S. (1998). Golf Course Design. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Gross, P.J. (1994). What Can You Do If Your Golf Course Has Gas. USGA Green Section Record. July/August 1994, 1-4.
Hazelrigg, G. (2005). Garbage In, Golf Out. Landscape Architecture Magazine. January 2005, 54-62.
Hurdzan, M.J. (2006). Golf Course Architecture: Evoluations in Design, Construction and Restoration Technology. 2nd ed.,
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Kavazanjian, E. (2007). Sustainable Redevelopment of Former and Abandoned Landfills: Lessons From Practice. 11th
International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium. Cagliari, Italy: CISA, Environmental Sanitary Engineering
Center.
Klein, B.S., (1998). Reclamation Projects: The Greening of A Landfill. The New York Times. May, 28, 1998.
Love, B. (2008). An Environmental Approach to Golf Course Development. Brookfield,WI: American Society of Golf
Course Architects.
Melosi, M.V. (2000). Fresno Sanitary Landfill. National Historic Landmark Nomination (NPS Form 10-900), Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Interior, National Parks Service.
O’Leary, P & Walsh, P. (1992). Landfill Closure and Long Term Care. West Age. March 1992, 87-94.
Rogoff, M. (1992) New Landfill Regulations. American City & County, January 1992, 20-22.
Schmidt, E.Jr. (1991). Garbage to Golf. Golf Journal. January/February 1991, 35-38.
Thompson, W. & Sorvig, K. (2008). Sustainable Landscape Construction: A Guide to Green Building Outdoors. 2nd ed.,
Washington, DC: Island Press.
Walsh, J.J., DiPuccio, A.J. & Simon, R.A. (2003). Golf Courses to Greenhouses – And Beyond Redevelopment of Closed
Landfills. Cincinnati, OH: SCS Engineers.
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
WSN Environmental Solutions (2006). Landfills What You Need to Know: Responsible Management of Our Landfills.
Chatswood DC, New South Wales: WSN Environmental Solutions.
Yang, C.C. (1993) A Study of Designing/Reclaiming A Sanitary Landfill As A Future Golf Course. Master Thesis, Baton
Rouge, LA: LSU.
291
�
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485
Title
A name given to the resource
Sustainable Redevelopment of Sanitary Landfills as Future Golf Courses
Author
Author
Seçkin, Yasin Çağatay
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Redevelopment of sanitary landfills plays a major role in sustainable development, providing economical, social and environmental benefits. A combination of rising land values, a growing urban population, their needs for recreation activities and mitigation of ecological impacts have encouraged the conversion of completed sanitary landfills into functional golf courses. This study examines the reclamation problems of completed landfill to golf course developments and the possibility of designing a sanitary landfill based on its final use as a golf course. For this aim, a sustainable planning approach for landfill-to-golf course adaptive use projects are discussed, which combines sanitary landfill and golf course design processes and modifies them in a sustainable way.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/566242db3d2b1a7ebf34e1abc4bf63a4.pdf
b720b5256936eb9eb33b782793ff579b
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1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
Sustainable Development of Aquaculture in Turkey and Its Constraints
Meh met Ali Canyurt
m.ali.canyurt@ege.edu.tr
Yusuf Guner
Erol Toksen
Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries,
Department of Aquaculture,
Izmir, Turkey
Abstract: Aquaculture means the farming of aquatic animals and plants. Turkey has rich
inland water sources, about 200 natural lakes, about 750 artificial lakes or ponds, about 193
reservoirs, 33 rivers and streams of 177.714 km length and 8.333 km of coastal strips
Aquaculture sector in Turkey is new when compared with European countries. The first fish
farm was established as a rainbow trout farm in 1970s. The following years, new fish farms
have been established year by year. The main fish species cultured in Turkey are Carp
(Cyprinus carpio), Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar),
Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), Bluefin tuna
(Thunnus thynnus), Black sea turbot (Psetta maxima), Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus
galloprovincialis) and Shrimp (Penaeidae spp). Aquaculture production of Turkey has grown
steadily over the years from 5782 tonnes in 1990 to 63 000 tonnes in 1999 and to 136 000
tonnes in 2007.
Keywords: Sustainable Development, Aquaculture, Fish Farming, Turkey
Introduction
The historic of aquaculture is very old. The first records of aquaculture activities in 2500 BC can be
found inthetomb of Aktihep during the ancient Egyptian civilisation.Inthe Etruscan Culturein Italythe earliest
marine farms date back to 6th century BC. The China is the first country in Asia where aquaculture has been
started during the dynasty of W hen Fang (1135-1122 BC). Fan Li wrote Classic of Fish Farming atthe years of
460 BC in China (Canyurt 2005).
Marine and inland waterresources provide an important source of protein for human nutrition. Because
ofthisreason fish farming inthe worldis a growing industry in recent years. According to the FAO statisticsthe
world aquaculture production by inland and marine waters grows from 24.456.561 tonnes in 1993 to 51.385.912
tonnesin 2002. The total world fisheries production (capture and aquaculture)is 143.647.650 tonnes and aquatic
plant production is 15.075.612.tonnes in 2006.
The aquaculture sector in Turkey is facing some constraints, such as: the complexity of licensing
procedures, site selection problems,the complexity of project preparation and application, problems with some
other sectors,like tourism, protected areas and navigations, high prices of inputs and difficulties in supplying,
disease risk with imported eggs and fry, marketing and quality control problems, organization and governance
(Canyurt at al. 2003; Canyurt2005).
Development of Aquaculture in Turkey
Numerous rivers drain Turkey’s plateaus and mountains. The rivers are usually swift flowing and
relatively short. A number of rivers do not flow during the dry summer. Some rivers are, however, important
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
sources of hydroelectric power and water forirrigation.
The Kızılırmak (1,150 km/715 mi long), is the longest river flowing entirely within Turkey. The
Sakarya River and the Kızılırmak flow into the Black Sea. Gediz and Büyükmenderes (ancient Meanderes) in
Aegean rigion, the Ceyhan and Seyhan rivers in south flow from the Taurus Mountains to the Mediterranean.
The Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which flow southeastthrough Syria and Iraq to the Persian Gulf are important
riversin Turkey.
Production fields
Number
Surface Area (Ha)
Length (Km)
Natural Lakes
200
906.118
-
Dam Lakes
193
342.377
-
Ponds (Artificial Lakes)
750
15.500
-
Rivers and streams
33
-
177.714
Seas (Coastal Strips)
-
24.607.200
8.333
TOTAL
25.871.195
Table 1: Water Capacity of Turkey for Aquaculture (TUIK 2007)
Years
Product.
(Ton)
Export
(Tons)
Đmport
(Tons)
Domestic
consump.
(Tons)
Processed
(fish meal
and oil
factories)
(Tons)
Not
processed or
consumed
(Tons)
Consump.
per capita
(kg/year)
1997
500 260
18 402
39 829
490 339
21 000
10 348
7.663
1998
513 900
11 558
31 417
528 935
30 000
4.824
8.119
1999
636 824
15 955
39 552
503 249
150 000
7.172
7.590
2000
582 376
14 533
44 230
538 764
71 000
2.309
7.985
2001
594 977
18 978
12 971
517 832
62 755
8.383
7.547
2002
627 847
26 860
22 532
466 289
156 000
1.230
6.697
2003
587 715
29 937
45 606
470 131
120 000
13.253
6.649
2004
644 492
32 804
57 694
555 859
105 000
8.523
7.812
2005
544 773
37 655
47 676
520 985
30 000
3.809
7.229
2006
661 991
41 973
53 563
597 738
60 000
15.843
8.191
2007
772 323
47 214
58 022
604 695
170 000
8.436
8.567
Table 2: Production, export,import and consumption of fishery products (TUIK 2007)
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
The largestlake in Turkey isVan Gölü (Lake Van),located in eastern Anatolia. The water of Van Gölü
is saline and contains soda. A member of the Cyprinidae family,the Chalcalburnus tarichiis a fish species that
only inhabitsthe Lake Van Basin. The Lake Van isthe biggest soda lake in the world, Lake Tuz islocated near
the center of the Anatolian Plateau. Freshwater lakes include Beyşehir, Eğridir and Burdur in the southwest
(Arabacı &Sarı 2004).
Turkey has rich inland water sources, about 200 naturallakes, about 750 artificiallakes or ponds, about
193 reservoirs, 33 rivers and streams of 177.714 km length and 8.333 km of coastal strips (Tab. 1). Some
lagoons covering of 70.000 hectaresin Aegean and Mediterranean coastalstrips are very suitable for aquaculture
Another aquaculture potential will be obtained with the South East Anatolia Project (GAP) in the lower
Euphrates River and Tigris River basins. This projectisthe largestregional development projectin Turkey, and
one of the largest in the world, integrating development of irrigated agriculture and agro-industry, supporting
services,including communications, health and education (Canyurt 2006).
The project area covers 74.000 km2 that correspond to 9.2 % of the total surface area of Turkey. About
224.000 ha of water surface will be obtained atthe end of this project;this will be a big aquaculture production
potentialforthe country.
Situation of Aquaculture in Turkey
Aquaculture production, exportation,importation and consumption:
According to TUIK data (2007), Turkey produces 772.323 tonnes, exports 47.214 tonnes and imports
58.022 tonnes of fish and fisheries products. The amount of non-food usage is 170.000 tonnes that is used for
feed and oil industry. The population of the country is 68.279.000 tonnes and consumption per capita is 8.6
kg/year (TUIK 2007).
All activities in fisheries and aquaculture in Turkey are based on the Water Products Law No. 1380,
enacted in 1971 (Canyurt 1996, Canyurt and Gökoğlu 1997). The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs is
responsible for all kind of aquaculture activities and fisheries in the country (Deniz 2007). The Ministry
undertakes its duties in aquaculture and fisheries management through four General Directorates and as well as
81 Provincial Directorates. During 1980’s significant effort was devoted to preparing laws which are related to
the management of coastal and inland water sources.
Aquaculture has been included in the encouragement decree published by governments and the
Agriculture Bank of Turkey applied interest rates to support and to encourage investments in aquaculture. In
addition to encouragement measures and financial support of the Governments, the Universities attach great
importance to the research activities and education of engineers and technicians in 17 Faculties of Fish Products
and 6 Professional Colleges and Fisheries Department expanded all ofthe country..
The main fish species cultured in Turkey are Carp (Cyprinus carpio), Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), European sea bass (Dicentrarchus
labrax), Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Black sea turbot (Psetta maxima), Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus
galloprovincialis) and Shrimp (Penaeidae spp) (Tab. 3) (Canyurt, 2005). Aquaculture production of Turkey has
grown steadily overthe years from 5.782 tonnesin 1990 to 63.000 tonnesin 1999 and to 139.873 tonnes in 2007
(Tab. 3). The aquaculture production in inland water is 59 033 tonnes, but it reaches 80 840 tonnes in marine
watersin 2007.
Aquaculture production
(Tons)
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
39 674
543
43 432
683
48 033
571
56 026
668
58 433
600
Inland water
Trout
Carp
Marine water
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
Trout
Sea bream
Sea bass
Mussel
Other
1 194
1 650
1 249
1 633
16 735
20 435
27 634
28 463
20 982
26 297
37 290
38 408
815
1 513
1 500
1 545
2 000
2 200
Table 3: Aquaculture Production in Turkey (2003-2007),(TUIK
2 740
33 500
41 900
1 100
1 600
2007)
The numbers of aquatic farms are shown in Table 4. There are 1.261 farms in inland water producing
approximately 55 425 tonnes of fresh water fish species and 120 farms producing 160 000 000 fish eggs, 324
farms at sea producing 91.815 tonnes of sea fish species, mainly Gilthead sea bream and European sea bass and
348 000 000 fish eggs (Deniz 2007).
Fish Species
Trout
Com mon carp
Trout Hatchery
Sea bass and Sea bream
Troutin sea cages
Trout and sea bass
BluefinTuna
Sea bass,sea bream and other
species hatchery
Mediterranean mussel
Number of Farms
1 112
29
120
286
6
6
6
17
Capacity (t/year)
53 020
2 405
160 000 000 egs
80 509
2 250
1 160
6 300
348 000 000
3
1 596
TOTAL
Table 4: Number of Licensed Aquaculture Farms and Capacities (Deniz 2007)
Constraints of Sustainable Aquaculture in Turkey
The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA) is the main organization responsible for
fisheries including aquaculture administration, regulation, protection, promotion and technical assistance. The
Directorate General for Agriculture Production and Development of MARA is the responsable authority for
development and management of aquaculture Deniz 2007). There are also a number of other ministries and
institutions with a role in fisheries and aquaculture development in Turkey. The Undersecretariat of Treasure
and Foreign Trade of the Prime Ministry, which regulates fish import and export, State Planning Organization
which formulate policy and determines the development targets for the fisheries and aquaculture sector, and the
Agriculture Bank through which fisheries and aquaculture credits are channelled (Canyurt & Gökoğlu 1997 and
FAO 2008).
According to Fisheries Law numbered 1380 the procedures and principles related to aquaculture are determined
by the Aquaculture Regulation. This regulation sets out the methods for site selection for farms, application of
the projects, giving technical supports and surveying environmentalimpacts (Deniz2007).
Especially marine aquaculture systems are criticised for their environmental and ecological impacts.
The extensive and semi intensive farming methods have less environmental impacts than intensive aquaculture
(Basurco & Lovatelli2004; Canyurt 1996).Itis necessaryto supportthe development of sustainable aquaculture.
For this purpose European Com mission (2002)designed a strategy document forthe sustainable development of
aquaculture in Europe. As a candidate country to the European Com munity, Turkey takes all the measures to
respect and to adopt the rules designed by the European Com mission. Fisheries and Aquaculture file is one of
the 31 files have been discussed with Com mission in 2005. The importance of aquaculture has been recognized
by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs and by the private sectorin collaboration with the Universities.
The development of aquacultureis very importantin Turkey because it provides jobs.
The aquaculture sectorin Turkey isfacing some constraints,such as:
-The complexity oflicensing procedures,
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
-Site selection problems,
-The complexity of project preparation and application,
-Problems with some other sectors,like tourism, protected areas and navigations,
-High prices ofinputs and difficultiesin supplying,
-Disease risk with imported eggs and fry,
-Marketing and quality control problems,
-Lack of organization ofthe sector can be cited as major constraints of aquaculture in Turkey to be solved.
For this purpose a research project has been conducted by M A R A and TUBITAK (The Scientific and
Technological Research Council of Turkey) to evaluate the impacts of fish farms on the aquatic environment,
This research program has been leaded in Izmir, Mugla, Aydın and Ordu.
In conclusion of this study we can say that the sustainable development of aquaculture is very important
economically and environmentally. We can consider that the impact of fish farms depends on the biological
activities ofthe species produced and managementtechniques used. The oxygen consumption,the metabolism of
nitrogen and phosphorous and chemicals used for different deseases are some factors determining thisimpact on
the environment. The constraints faced in sustainable aquaculture in Turkey have to be examined and discussed.
References
Arabaci M, & Sari M (2004). Induction of ovulation in endemic pearl mullet (Chalcalburnus tarichi), living in the highly
alkaline Lake Van, using GnRHa([D-Ser(tBu)6, Pro9-Net]-GnRH) combined with haloperidol. Aquaculture 238:529–535.
Basurco, B.,& Lovatellı, A., (2004). The Aquaculture Situation in the Mediterranean Sea. Prediction for
The Future. The International Conference on the Sustainable Development of the Mediterranean and Black Sea
Environment. Available at: http://www.iasonnet.gr,
Canyurt, M.A., (1996). Interaction Between Aquaculture and Environment. Symposium on Agriculture and Environment
Interactions, Sustainable Use of Natural Resources, 13-15 May 1996, Mersin. (in tr)
Canyurt, M.A.,& Gökoğlu, M., (1997). Aquaculture in Turkey. International Workshop in Intensive Aquaculture Farming.
March-1997, Cinadco, Shefayim, Israel.
Canyurt, M. A., Akhan, S., Takma, Ç.,( 2003). A Study on Short Term Storage of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss
Walbaum,1792) Milt. E.U. Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences , 20 (3-4):537-542 ( in tr).
Canyurt M.A., (2005). The Development of Aquaculture in Turkey. Research for Rural Development 2005. 11 International
Scientific Conference Proceedings, Latvia University of Agriculture, 260p: 19-22., Jelgava, Latvia
Canyurt, M. A., 2006. The Importance of Aquaculture in The Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) in Turkey. 12.
International Scientific Conference- Research For Rural Development 2006. Latvia University of Agriculture, 324p: 12-16,
Jelgava, Latvia.
Commission of the European Communities, (2002). Communication from the Commission to the Council and European
Parliament. A Strategy for the Sustainable Development of European Aquaculture. COM-2002-511, Bruxelles.
Deniz, H. (2007) Aquaculture development in Turkey, Aquaculture and Fisheries Infoday and Networking Event, 14-15
November 2007, Brussels. Available at:
http://www.fp7.org.tr/tubitak_content_files/268/r_d_news/Profiles_Ministry_of_Agriculture_and_Rural_Affairs_Hayri_Deni
z.pdf. 12.03.2009.
FAO, (2008). Profile de la Peche. Organisation des Nations Unies pour l’alimentation et l’agriculture. The Republic of
Turkey. FID/CP/TUR. Available at www.fao.org (12.05.2009).
Ministry of Agriculture, Country Note on National Fisheries Management Systems–Turkey. Available at
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/9/29/34431494.pdf.
TUIK (2007). Fisheries statistics 2007, Aquaculture production. Turkish Statistics Instuition: Available at
http://www.tuik.gov.tr/balikcilikdagitimapp/balikcilik.zul, 26.02.2009.
49
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Sustainable Development of Aquaculture in Turkey and Its Constraints
Author
Author
Canyurt, Mehmet Ali
Guner, Yusuf
Toksen, Erol
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Aquaculture means the farming of aquatic animals and plants. Turkey has rich inland water sources, about 200 natural lakes, about 750 artificial lakes or ponds, about 193 reservoirs, 33 rivers and streams of 177.714 km length and 8.333 km of coastal strips Aquaculture sector in Turkey is new when compared with European countries. The first fish farm was established as a rainbow trout farm in 1970s. The following years, new fish farms have been established year by year. The main fish species cultured in Turkey are Carp (Cyprinus carpio), Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Black sea turbot (Psetta maxima), Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Shrimp (Penaeidae spp). Aquaculture production of Turkey has grown steadily over the years from 5782 tonnes in 1990 to 63 000 tonnes in 1999 and to 136 000 tonnes in 2007.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
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Sustainable Aquaculture and Environmental Interactions
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Ali CANYURT
Ege University Faculty of Fisheries
35100- Bornova- Đzmir- Turkey
m.ali.canyurt@ege.edu.tr
Abstract : Aquaculture is the fastest growing sector in all of the world in recent years. It is
necessary to support the development of sustainable aquaculture in the world. For this purpose
The Commission of the European Communities prepared a communication on the strategy for
the sustainable development of european aquaculture. Salmon, trout, sea bass and sea bream
farming have been developed in european countires. Differents farming methodes and technics
are used in aquaculture. But especially marine fish farming has been criticised for its
environmental and ecological impacts. The extensive and semi intensive farming methods
have less environmental impacts than intensive aquaculture. In this paper we try to review
differents fish culture methods and their impacts on the aquatic environment. It is also
discussed the necessary measures to be taken to minimize the effects of fish farms on the
environments
Key words: Sustainable aquaculture, environmental impacts, aquaculture methods,
Introduction
Fish is an important dietary source of animal protein. Humans consume most of the world’s fish
production, and by 2030 the average person is expected to eat as much as 20 kilograms of fish each year.
Aquaculture may be a recent addition to our vocabulary, but the farming of fish and the cultivation of
shellfish dates back millennia, from old Chinese civilisations to the Roman Empire. What is new is the level of
production now demanded by a growing world population and the challenge this presents to farmers who want to
conduct their activity in a sustainable way.
Modern aquaculture represents a major innovation in the production of fish and aquatic food and has
been the fastest growing food production sector with an average worldwide growth rate of 6-8% a year. With a
global production of nearly 52 million tonnes in 2006, world aquaculture has increased. Aquaculture is an
important economic activity in certain coastal and continental areas
Elvevoll (2010) asks how much seafood should we eat, in themselves, omega-3 fatty acids are not
enough, we need to eat fish. Seafood is rich in antioxidants, fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins, easily
digestible proteins with special amino acid composition, minerals, trace elements and fat of the healthy,
polyunsaturated type. He has carried out a clinical study that shows the uptake of omega-3 is three to four times
greater from salmon fillet than from fish oil.
Different values exist in the scientific literature for what is the ideal daily or weekly intake of EPA and
DHA for human health. Government advice varies considerably between countries. However, as a general rule, a
healthy diet is generally assumed to include 1-2 fish per week, especially fatty fish.
Environmental Interactions
Most of the information given below about environmental interactions is taken from Consensus portal
available at Euraquaculture organisation. The CONSENSUS initiative was funded by the European Union as part
of its key action "Food Quality and Safety". 21 European Organisations are Consensus partners. With its
stakeholder representation of consumers, aquaculture producers, environmental and other nongovernmental
organisations, Consensus is building sustainable aquaculture protocols based on low environmental impact, high
competitiveness and ethical responsibility with regard to biodiversity and animal welfare.
The development of aquaculture has raised some associated environmental concerns. Like any farming
operation on land, fish farm cages produce waste materials. These fall into three categories - uneaten feed, fish
faeces and dead fish. Most of the environmental impacts of coastal aquaculture can be managed and minimised
678
�through understanding of the processes involved, responsible management and the effective siting of farms
(FAO 1966).
•
Uneaten Feed
o
o
•
If uneaten feed reach the bottom of a cage, processes that break it down can reduce the amount of
oxygen in the sediment. In severe cases, oxygen levels in the water above may also decrease,
creating "anoxic" conditions in which only a few animal species can survive. Should the feed
contain antibiotics used to treat the farmed fish above, bacteria in the sediment and the natural
breakdown of waste material might be affected.
In practice, fish farmers do everything they can to prevent such a situation, since the cost of fish
feed amounts up to 40 percent of the total production cost. Feed reaching the sediment is lost, and
it is in the farmer's interest to minimise such waste. On well-managed farms, feeding is carefully
regulated to ensure that the maximum amount of food is taken up directly by the fish and farmers
aim to ensure that less than 5 percent of the feed is wasted. To improve uptake by fish, feed pellets
are manufactured to either float or to sink slowly through the water.
Fish Faeces
Unlike land animals, fish do not generally produce compact solid faecal material and more often excrete
a loose cloud of faecal material that is easily dispersed by water currents. In still conditions, however, faecal
material can build up beneath fish cages. It is, however, not in the farmer's interest to let this happen, since the
buildup of faecal material can lead to anoxic conditions which affect the fish above. Fish farmers wanting to
ensure the health of their fish will frequently check the bottom below their fish cages to ensure that faecal
material is not building up. In addition, in many EU Member States, the government employs diving teams to
carry out inspections. If faecal build-up is observed, farmers will be advised to move their cages, allowing the
bottom to recuperate for a short period, however full recovery typically takes between three to ten years. In
recent years, improved feed formulations have also been introduced that fish digest more efficiently, producing
less waste. Fish farmers generally avoid overly sheltered and stagnant sites, preferring areas that contain a
healthy flow of water through the cages. Such flows disperse fish faeces so it can enter the natural food chain.
Dead Fish
Dead fish are a loss to the farmer and a potential health hazard to the stock as well as a source of
pollution. Fish farmers will, at all times, endeavour to minimise the number of dead fish on their farms and to
remove such mortalities where they occur. Fish farms are required to report significant fish deaths when they
occur and are inspected by state agencies at least twice a year.
Pond Fish Farming
Fish pond systems represent the oldest fish farming activity in Europe, at least dating back to medieval
times. Ponds were built in areas where water supply was available and the soil was not suitable for agriculture.
The wetlands of Central and Eastern Europe are good examples of this. The total European production from
pond farming is approximately 475,000 tonnes. About half of this production is cyprinid fish, such as common
carp, silver carp and bighead carp. The main producer countries are the Russian Federation, Poland, Czech
Republic, Germany, Ukraine and Hungary.
In order to reach higher yields, farmers today introduce nutrients into the pond such as organic manure.
This is accompanied by stocking of fingerlings and by water being flushed through the pond. Fish pond
production, however, remains ‘extensive' or ‘semi-intensive' (with supplementary feeding) in most countries,
where semi-static freshwater systems play an important role in aquaculture. Chemicals and therapeutics are not
usually used in such ponds. Hence the main environmental issue is the use of organic fertilisers, which may
cause eutrophication in the surrounding natural waters. The use of organic fertilisers is regulated at national
levels.
Extensive fish ponds are usually surrounded by reed belts and natural vegetation, thus providing
important habitats for flora and fauna. They play a growing role in rural tourism. Many pond fish farms have
been turned into multifunctional fish farms, where various other services are provided for recreation,
maintenance of biodiversity and improvement of water management. In areas where water is scarce, some farm
systems recirculate, treat and re-use their water.
679
�Such systems are generally self-contained and therefore pose little threat to the environment. Solid
waste material produced in such systems is rich in organic compounds and often used as a fertilizer elsewhere.
Alternatively, new hydroponic systems have been developed to grow vegetables and other food crops in the
nutrient-enriched water. There is much interest in these systems, but their economic viability remains
challenging.
Recirculation Aquaculture Systems
Recirculation Aquaculture Systems (RAS) are land-based systems in which water is re-used after
mechanical and biological treatment so as to reduce the needs for water and energy and the emission of nutrients
to the environment. These systems present several advantages such as: water and energy saving, a rigorous
control of water quality, low environmental impacts, high biosecurity levels and an easier control of waste
production as compared to other production systems.
The main disadvantages are high capital costs, high operational costs, requirements for very careful
management, high land prices and difficulties in treating disease. RAS is still a small fraction of Europe's
aquaculture production and has its main relevance in some European countries. The main species produced in
RAS are catfish and eel but other species are already being produced using this type of technology such as turbot,
sea bass, pikeperch, tilapia and sole.
The Case Of Escaped Fish
It is inevitable that fish farmed in net pens in either fresh or salt water will sometimes escape into the
wild. In some cases, there will be a small but steady release of fish. Sometimes, large numbers will escape due to
severe damage to the net pen by way of storms, predator attacks or vandalism. Therefore, a limited escape of
farmed fish would be unlikely to have a serious effect on wild fish populations. Only if very large numbers of
fish escape into a small area, would interbreeding occur and the fitness of the local population potentially be
reduced.
In its Aquaculture Europe 2005 conference, the European Aquaculture Society invited the North
Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organisation (NASCO) to hold a special workshop on the interactions between
wild and farmed salmon. The summary report of this event "Wild and Farmed Salmon - Working Together"
drew the following main conclusions: Through the use of single bay management, single generation sites and
synchronised fallowing, real progress is being made in relation to minimising impacts of diseases and parasites,
which are key issues for wild fish interests.
The development of third-party audited containment management systems may represent a significant
step forward. The liaison group should look more at the possibilities of rearing all-female triploid salmon, which
could eliminate genetic interaction with the wild stocks, but which need to be balanced by the production cost of
these fish, as well as consumer resistance to what could be seen as genetic manipulation.
Sustainable Feed Resources
Fish farming is very efficient in terms of the conversion of protein, which means an important
ecological advantage in light of the sustainability of fish feed resources.
One of the most-frequently cited issues with the sustainable development of aquaculture is the capture
of other fish as raw material to be used as fish feed in the form of fish meal and fish oil. It is seen as an issue
because a food production sector is in part relying on a capture fishery for the supply of raw materials for the
production of aquaculture feed.
Typically, these other fish species are small, oil-rich, bony pelagic fish that are not normally used for
direct human consumption. Two decades ago, the majority of fish meal and oil was used to make feeds for land
animal production. At present, over 50 percent of fishmeal and over 80 percent of fish oil is used for aquaculture.
If aquaculture is to fill the gap in demand for seafood, this raises important sustainability issues as to the
availability of sufficient feed supply. This is particularly relevant given the fact that fishmeal and fish oil
production has been, and is likely to remain, relatively constant at around 6 million and 0.9 million tonnes per
year, respectively.
However, as the demand for fishmeal and fish oil in aquaculture has increased, so the price has risen.
This has driven both terrestrial agriculture and aquaculture to seek nutritional alternatives to fishmeal and fish oil.
This is an on-going process and estimates made by the International Fishmeal & Fish oil Organisation
show that the growth of aquaculture and the substitution of fishmeal and fish oil can continue together.
680
�Replacement of Marine Protein Sources by Terrestrial Plant Protein
For various reasons, fish meal and fish oil are gradually being replaced by plant proteins in feed that is
used in fish farms. Plant proteins can be less costly and they are free of potential contaminants like dioxin, PCB
or mercury.
However, fishmeal is an important ingredient in fish feed and can only to a limited extent be replaced
by vegetable proteins without reducing feed efficiency and growth. After all, carnivorous or ‘piscivorous' fish
naturally feed on other fish. The fatty acid composition in the flesh from farmed fish will also reflect the feed
composition and inclusion of vegetable oil will reduce the level of omega-3 fatty acids.
Although the introduction of plant protein into the feed can be seen as a way of reducing the sector's
dependence on fish meal and fish oil, some have questioned the trend because:
• carnivorous fish do not naturally feed on plants;
• plant proteins may have anti-nutritional effects on fish;
• there is a maximum level of replacement, after which the texture and eating quality of the fish is
compromised;
• some plant proteins could be derived from GMOs .
Constraints of Aquaculture in Turkey
Especially marine aquaculture systems are criticised for their environmental and ecological impacts.
The extensive and semi intensive farming methods have less environmental impacts than intensive aquaculture.
It is necessary to support the development of sustainable aquaculture.
For this reason European Commission designed in 2002 a strategy document for the sustainable
development of aquaculture in Europe (CCE 2002). As a candidate country to the European Community, Turkey
takes all the measures to respect and to adopt the rules designed by the European Commission. Fisheries and
Aquaculture file is one of the 31 files to be discussed with European Commission. The importance of
aquaculture has been recognized by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA) and by the private
sector in collaboration with the Universities. The development of aquaculture is very important in Turkey
because it provides jobs.
The General Directorate for Agriculture Production and Development of MARA is the responsible
authority for development and management of aquaculture. The aquaculture sector in Turkey is facing some
constraints (Canyurt 2005) such as:
• The complexity of licensing procedures,
• Site selection problems,
• The complexity of project preparation and application,
• Problems with some other sectors, such as tourism, protected areas and navigations,
• High prices of inputs and difficulties in supplying,
• Disease risk with imported eggs and fry,
• Marketing and quality control problems,
• Non organization of the sector,
can be cited as major constraints of aquaculture in Turkey to be solved.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Turkey has rich inland water sources, about 200 natural lakes, about 750 artificial lakes or ponds, about
193 reservoirs, 33 rivers and streams of 177.714 km length and 8.333 km of coastal strips. Some lagoons
covering of 70.000 hectares in Aegean and Mediterranean coastal strips are very suitable for aquaculture.
Aquaculture development, especially trout farming in inland waters and sea bass and sea bream in
marine waters in Turkey is growing rapidly (Canyurt 1996 &1997, Canyurt&Akhan 2009). Turkey has the third
fastest growing aquaculture sector in the world (Deniz 2007, MARA 2006, TSI 2007). Marine and inland water
resources provide an important source of protein for human nutrition. In addition to this appreciation,
aquaculture has some advantages over capture fisheries in term of marketing the products. One of these
advantages is that aquaculture creates jobs. More than 25 000 persons are working in the sector of aquaculture in
Turkey (Deniz 2007). Some ecological and socio-economical interactions should be discussed for a sustainable
681
�aquaculture (Canyurt 2005, Deniz 2007), that is why it is necessary to support the development of sustainable
aquaculture.
References:
Canyurt, M. A. (1996). Akuakültür ve Çevre Đlişkisi. Tarım – Çevre Đlişkileri Sempozyumu. Doğal Kaynakların
Sürdürülebilir Kullanımı. 13-15 Mayıs 1996. Mersin Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi. Mersin.
Canyurt, M. A. (1997). Denizde kurulan akuakültür işletmelerinin çevre üzerine etkileri ve bu etkileri minimuma indirmek
için alınabilecek önlemler. 2. Kıyı Sorunları ve Çevre Sempozyumu, Kuşadası.
Canyurt, M. A. (2005). The Development of Aquaculture in Turkey. 11. International Scientific Conference- Research For
Rural Development 2005. Research for rural development: International scientific conference proceedings, . Latvia
University of Agriculture, 18-21 May 2005, Jelgava, Latvia, pp.19-22.
Canyurt, M. A. & Akhan, S. (2009). Development And Situation Of Trout Culture In Turkey. 15. International Scientific
Conference- Research For Rural Development 2009. Latvia University of Agriculture, 19-21 May 2009, 90-94 Jelgava,
Latvia.
CCE (2002). Une strategie pour le developpement durable de l’aquaculture europenne. Communication de la Commission au
Conseil et au Parlement Europeen. 27 p., Bruxelles.
COM (2009). Building a sustainable future for aquaculture. A new impetus for the Strategy for the Sustainable Development
of European Aquaculture. Available at
http://eur- lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52009DC0162:EN:NOT, 05.05.2010.
Consensus, (2010). Towards Sustainable Aquaculture in Europe. Available at www.euraquaculture.info,
25.04.2010.
Communautes Europeennes, (2004). Code Europeen de bonnes pratiques pour une peche durable et responsable. Office des
publications officielles des Communaute europennes, 15 p, Luxembourg.
Deniz, H. (2007). Aquaculture development in Turkey. Aquaculture and Fisheries Infoday and Networking Event, 14-15
November 2007, Brussels. Available at
http://www.fp7.org.tr/tubitak_content_files/268/r_d_news/Profiles_Ministry_of_Agriculture_and_Rural_Affairs_Hayri_Deni
z.pdf. 12.03.2009.
Elvevoll, E. (2010). Farming replacing hunting. Available at http://www.euraquaculture.info/, 05.05.2010.
FAO, (1966). Monitoring the ecological effects of coastal aquaculture wastes. Gesamp Reports and Studies, no: 57, 38 p.,
Rome.
Journal Officiel de l’Union Europeenne, (2003). Avis du Comite economique et social europeen sur la Communication de la
Commission au Conseil et au Parlement europeen, Strategie pour le developpement durable de l’aquaculture europeenne, c
208/89, Bruxelles.
Turkish Statistical Institute, (2007). Fisheries statistics 2007,
http://www.tuik.gov.tr/balikcilikdagitimapp/balikcilik.zul, 26.02.2009.
Aquaculture
production.:
Available
at
Turkish Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, (2006). Fisheries and Aquaculture Statistics, available at:
www.tarim.gov.tr,http://www.euraquaculture.info/index.php?option=com_bookmarks&Itemid=55, 05.05.2010.
682
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Title
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Sustainable Aquaculture and Environmental Interactions
Author
Author
CANYURT, Prof. Dr. Mehmet Ali
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Aquaculture is the fastest growing sector in all of the world in recent years. It is necessary to support the development of sustainable aquaculture in the world. For this purpose The Commission of the European Communities prepared a communication on the strategy for the sustainable development of european aquaculture. Salmon, trout, sea bass and sea bream farming have been developed in european countires. Differents farming methodes and technics are used in aquaculture. But especially marine fish farming has been criticised for its environmental and ecological impacts. The extensive and semi intensive farming methods have less environmental impacts than intensive aquaculture. In this paper we try to review differents fish culture methods and their impacts on the aquatic environment. It is also discussed the necessary measures to be taken to minimize the effects of fish farms on the environments
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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PDF Text
Text
1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
Sustainability of Iron and Steel Factory Wastes in Cement
Ö mer Özkan
Department of Construction
Sakarya University
Sakarya, Turkey
omerozkan@sakarya.edu.tr
Muharrem Aktaş
Department of Civil Enginnering
Sakarya University
Sakarya, Turkey
muharrema @sakarya.edu.tr
Meh met Sarıbıyık
Department of Construction
Sakarya University
Sakarya, Turkey
mehmets@sakarya.edu.tr
Abstract: This study reports the results of an experimental study conducted to determine
sustainability development of composite cements manufactured with Basic Oxygen Furnace
(BOF) Slag and Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) combination. The overall objective of this work is
to determine whether a combination of BOF slag and BFS might be processed into a
sufficiently cementitious material to produce Composite Portland Cement (CPC). Three group
of cement are produced. First group is BOF slag, second group is BFS and the last group is the
mixture of BOF slag and BFS. Physical properties and Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) of those
groups are evaluated. Result of BOF slag CPC showed the maximum ASR expansion.
However; results of BFS composite portland cements showed minimum ASR expansion value.
Introduction
Industrial wastes sustainability is generally considered as a major source of environmental problems
in the world. Reuse of some industrial waste materials has become very important during the past decade. The
environmental regulations, requiring waste disposal minimization, force the reuse of waste materials. Land
disposal that is a partial solution for this problem causes secondary pollution problems and extra costs.
Therefore, more efficient solutions such as alternative recovery options need to be investigated. Solid wastes of
iron and steelfactories can be used as raw materialin cement and concrete sectors. European Com munity (EU)
has declared targetsto protectthe environment and to guarantee a cautious and efficient use of naturalresources.
Solid wastes should be reused in order to use natural resources efficiently and for sustainable development.
Portland cement clinker production is expensive and ecologically harmful. For this reason, various studies have
investigated about usage of wastes in cement production (Özkan and Yüksel, 2008). Fly ash, blastfurnace slag,
silica fume and steel slag are currently used in cement and concreteindustry.
The BOF slag is a by-productthat produced during the alteration of iron and steel. The BOF slag is
comprise of calcium silicates and ferrite with oxides of aluminum, manganese, calcium and magnesium (Sahay
et. all, 2000). The mineralogical composition of BOF slag changes with its chemical composition. Olivine,
merwinite, calcium silicates (C2 S, C3 S), C4 AF, C2 F, CaO–FeO– MnO– MgO in solid solution and free CaO are
common minerals in steel slag (Shih et. all, 2004). The attendance of C3 S, C2 S, C4 AF and C2 F confirms BOF
slag cementitious properties. The free CaO content increased the basicity of the BOF slag that increased the
reactivity ofthe BOF slag (Shiand Qian, 2000). However, high free CaO contentin BOF slag has been shown to
produce volume expansion problems (Ozkan, 2006). Many investigations were performed for using BOF slag as
industrial raw material (Maotz and Geiseler, 2001). BOF slag was mainly used as a bulk material, asphalt
aggregate, filling material, cement raw feed, railroad ballast, and in agriculture in the world. Nearly 12 million
tons of BOF slag is produced in Europe per year. Today about 65 % of the produced BOF slag is used on
qualified fields of application. The remaining 35 % of this slag was still dumped. It willneed further intensive
research work to decrease this rate as far as possible.
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
The BFS, a kind of industrialby-product,is also currently used in cement and concreteindustry. The
BFS is known to possess a latent hydraulic property. Ground BFS is used as an admixture in concrete or as an
additiveinthe manufacture of Portland slag cementsin countries wherelarge amounts of BFS is available as byproduct. When BFS is added to cement,itcombines withthe Portland (CH) released by cement hydration to give
calcium silicate hydrate (CSH). Alkali silica activates this step, which increases the reaction rate. Some
properties of the concrete containing BFS, such as creep, shrinkage, strength to freeze-thaw resistant are still
under discussion, but the use of the BFS in cement and concrete has been proven to have many advantages
(Sakai et. all, 1993).
Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) can cause serious expansion and cracking in concrete,resulting in major
structural problems and sometimes necessitating demolition. ASR is the most common form of alkali-aggregate
reaction (AAR) in concrete; the other, much less common, form is alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR). ASR and
ACR are therefore both subsets of AAR. ASR is caused by a reaction between the hydroxylions in the alkaline
cement pore solution in the concrete and reactive forms of silica in the aggregate (Ichikawa and Miura, 2007).
This work investigated ASR of mortars made with cements incorporating BOF slag and BFS as
partialreplacement of Portland cement clinkerin differentratios ofreplacement. Specificweight,initialand final
setting times, and expansion values of composite cements were investigated.
Materials and Procedure
M aterials
Clinker and gypsum used in this study were provided from Lafarge-Ereğli (Karadeniz, Ereğli,
Turkey) Cement Factory. BOF slag and BFS were provided from Ereğli Iron and Steel Works Company in
Turkey. The chemical compositions of these materials are presented in [Table 1], which are acquired from the
X-ray lab. The photographs of granule BOF Slag with a size of 90 µm both (a) under-griddle and (b) abovegriddle showed in [Figure 1]. CEN standard sand was used to manufacture mortar specimens. Chemical
composition and particle size distribution ofthe sand were presented in [Table 2] (TS-EN 196-1, 2009).
M A TERIALS
CaO
SiO2
Fe2 O3
Al2 O3
Mg O
SO3
BFS
37.80
35.10
0.70
17.54
5.50
0.70
BOF slag
58.53
10.72
15.30
1.71
4.27
0.04
Clinker
66.11
21.57
3.17
5.09
1.74
1.35
Gypsum
32.57
0.67
0.24
0.21
2.20 46.56
Table 1: Chemical compositions of BFS and BOF slag, clinker and gypsum (wt. %)
(a)
(b)
Figure 1: SE M photograps ofBOF slags
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
Chemical
Griddle pore
compositions
size
%
(mm)
SiO2
93.05
0.08
Al2 O3
3.11
0.16
Fe2 O3
0.37
0.5
CaO
0.17
1
Mg O
0.03
1.6
SO3
0.07
2
K2 O
1.5
Humidity
Na2 O
1.1
LOI
0.57
Table 2: Sand gradient
Remaining
%
99.12
86.21
65.74
33.02
5.23
0.11
Procedure
BOF Slag and BFS are substituted together with the mixture of clinker-gypsum and then four main
groups of cement are established on the base ofthese substitutions. The materials are supplied in granule size as
arethe outputs offactory. BFS, BOF Slag and Clikner-Gypsum were grounded in a ballmillto a specific surface
area of about 2500 cm2/g. The materials are mixed with each otherinthe amounts specified previously, and then
grinded again to achieve specific surface value of 3100–3300 cm2/gr,thus yielding the cements used in the tests.
The first group is coded as the reference group and named as C, in the second group, coded as C1, Clinkergypsum mixtureissubstituted with BOF slag, on the other hand Clinker-gypsum mixtureisreplaced with BFS in
the third group C2, and the last group (C3) Clinker-gypsum mixture is substituted with the BFS-BOF slag
composition thatis arranged at a rate of 50% of BFS and 50% of BOF slag. Composition ratios of the mixtures
used in the study is shown in the [Table 3]. All the main groups, except for the reference group C, are further
divided into sub-groups and symbolized by suffixes (a, b, c, d) with respect to their changing ratios in
compositions; for instance code C3c symbolize a materialthat is composed of 40% clinker-Gypsum, 30% BFS
and 30% BOF slag.
Code
C
Materials
100% Clinker-Gypsum
Slag
Slag
Slag
Slag
Clinker
%
95
Gyps.
%
5
BFS
%
0
BOF Slag
%
0
76
57
38
19
4
3
2
1
0
0
0
0
20
40
60
80
C1a
C1b
C1c
C1d
80%
60%
40%
20%
Clinker-Gypsum
Clinker-Gypsum
Clinker-Gypsum
Clinker-Gypsum
+ 20%
+ 40%
+ 60%
+ 80%
BOF
BOF
BOF
BOF
C2a
C2b
C2c
C2d
80%
60%
40%
20%
Clinker-Gypsum
Clinker-Gypsum
Clinker-Gypsum
Clinker-Gypsum
+ 20%
+ 40%
+ 60%
+ 80%
BFS
BFS
BFS
BFS
76
57
38
19
4
3
2
1
20
40
60
80
0
0
0
0
C3a
C3b
C3c
C3d
80%
60%
40%
60%
Clinker-Gypsum
Clinker-Gypsum
Clinker-Gypsum
Clinker-Gypsum
+ 10% BFS + 10% BOF Slag
76
+ 20% BFS + 20% BOF Slag
57
+ 30% BFS + 30% BOF Slag
38
+ 40% BFS + 40% BOF Slag
57
Table 3: Composition of cement mixtures
4
3
2
3
12
24
36
24
8
16
24
16
The physical properties ofthe produced cements are first examined afterthe tests conducted and then
the weight percentages, specific surface values and specific gravities of cements remaining on the surface of
sieves with 32 and 90µn pore sizes, according to the Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-6, 2000). Moreover, the
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
beginning and ending times of cement setting and expansion values of cements are also determined according to
Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-3, 2002).
The AST M C1260 test is based on the assumption that a very high pH value of the pore solution
initiates the reaction with potentially reactive aggregate. The intention was to create the most severe alkaline
conditions as could be expected in the pore solution of mortar bars after hydrolysis, which is the interaction of
alkalis and water. Therefore, test specimens are submerged in a hot and highly alkaline sodium-hydroxide
solution (1 N). Originally, the test was not designed to consider influences of other components of the mortar
mix such as admixtures but solelyto determine the reactivity of a given aggregatetype (AST M C-1260). Mortar
bars used in this study are of 25x25x290 mm dimension. Cement, standard rilem combreau sand and tap water
with the proportions of 1, 2.25 and 0.47 respectively.
Specimens are first cured in a fog room in molds at 20° C for 24 hours,remove the specimens from
the molds, make an initialcomparatorreading and then demoulded and one day cured in water at 80± 3 °C. After
remove from in water,takethe zero reading and then immersion into a 1 M NaOH solution with atemperature of
80 ° C during 14 days. A subsequent comparator reading of the specimens reads periodically, with atleastthree
readings.
Result and Discussion
Physical Properties of Cements
The physical properties of produced cements are shown in [Table 4]. Fineness, specific surface and
specific gravity are listed.
Cements
Fineness (wt.%)
Specific
surface
Specific
gravity
>32 µm >90 µm
cm2/g
g/cm3
C
21.00
0.90
3330
3.12
C1a
21.15
1.18
3214
3.06
C1b
22.10
1.00
3213
3.02
C1c
22.15
1.25
3152
2.97
C1d
22.10
1.20
3150
2.96
C2a
21.20
1.10
3115
3.05
C2b
21.90
1.15
3108
3.01
C2c
21.80
1.15
3090
2.95
C2d
21.90
1.10
3070
2.94
C3a
19.20
0.90
3450
3.12
C3b
18.60
0.90
3550
3.15
C3c
19.10
1.00
3650
3.12
C3c
18.20
0.80
3700
3.11
Table 4: Physical properties of cements
Itis found that BFS has harder structure than BOF slag and hardly grinded slag. BFS of 2400-2500
cm2/g reachesthe required fineness after 4 hours of grinding when BOF slag takes only 3 hoursforthis degree of
fineness. The reference cement(C) produced as Portland cement has a softerstructurethan the rest of specimens.
Thus, it can easily be said that BFS and BOF slag, ground separately, can attain the same granule size on the
condition thatthey are grinded finely. When cement’sspecific gravity results are examined,itisfound that waste
materials(BFS and BOF slag) substituted with clinker have lower specific gravity values.
Volume expansion values of cements are found to be within the limits set by Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-3,
2002). In the light of examining results one can observe that expansion of cements with BOF slag additive is
higher than that of other cements.In BOF slag, when the volume is stable,the rate of free CaO and MgO is of
greatimportance since the reaction between both oxides and water has an effect on volume stability (Altun and
Yılmaz, 2002).
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
Alkali Silica Reaction
Mortar specimens are exposed to 1 N NaOH solution with a temperature of 80 ° C during 14 days.
The expansions ofthe mortarspecimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Table 5].
ASR Expansion (%)
2
6
10
14
C0
0,096
0,146
0,176
0,184
C1a
0,094
0,137
0,169
0,186
C1b
0,096
0,149
0,187
0,208
C1c
0,110
0,163
0,182
0,222
C1d
0,114
0,169
0,192
0,212
C2a
0,040
0,066
0,086
0,107
C2b
0,034
0,056
0,080
0,104
C2c
0,032
0,052
0,080
0,097
C2d
0,032
0,061
0,075
0,100
C3a
0,083
0,123
0,154
0,170
C3b
0,089
0,112
0,143
0,160
C3c
0,098
0,125
0,136
0,160
C3d
0,109
0,134
0,156
0,170
Table 5: Alkali Silica Reaction Expansions of Cements
The outcomes showed thtthe ASR expansion values are lower than 0.2%, which is defined as a limit
value on AST M C-1260. ASR expansion value is increased by the increase of BOF slag percentage in the
cement as shown C1 series sample (Table 5). However,the increase of BFS percentage in the cement resulted a
decrease in ASR expansion value. The expansions ofthe BOF slag mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution
are given in [Figure 2].
0,250
0,192
0,200
0,187
0,182
0,176
Epansion
0,169
0,163
0,149
0,146
0,150
0,114
0,222
0,212
0,208
0,186
0,184
0,169
0,137
0,110
0,100
0,096
0,096
0,094
0,050
0,000
3
6
9
14
Days
C0
C1a
C1b
C1c
C1d
Figure 2: ASR Expansion of BOS slag
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
W hen C1 series ASR expansion value is investigated, the ASR expansion values found to be over
than reference series. The reason forthe high ASR expansion value isthoughtto be the ratio of CaO an MgO in
BOF. BOF slag volumetric stability and leaching behavior caused the most concerns. The most important
criterion is the volume stability,in which free CaO and MgO contents of the slag play an important role. The
expansions ofthe BFS mortarspecimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Figure 3].
0,200
0,180
0,176
0,184
0,160
0,146
Epansion
0,140
0,107
0,120
0,104
0,100
0,080
0,040
0,020
0,100
0,097
0,066
0,056
0,086
0,061
0,060
0,080
0,080
0,096
0,075
0,040
0,052
0,034
0,032
0,032
0,000
3
6
9
14
Days
C0
C2a
C2b
C2c
C2d
Figure 3: ASR Expansion of BFS
The value of ASR expansion is also below the limit value given by AST M-C 1260. Itis known that
the existence of BFS reduced the ASR expansion value. Since puzzolans arelessreactive and the reaction results
include less amount of alkali than the Portland cement, they are addressed as solvent. Puzzolan cements have
more effective W/C percentage than portland cement. Thus,the amount of alkali become more less, moreover
puzzolans, decreasesthe amount of Ca(OH)2 which also decrease the PH value. The expansions ofthe BOF slag
and BFS mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Figure 4].
0,200
0,180
0,160
0,146
0,136
Epansion
0,156
0,170
0,160
0,143
0,160
0,123
0,125
0,100
0,170
0,134
0,140
0,120
0,184
0,176
0,154
0,109
0,096
0,089
0,112
0,098
0,080
0,083
0,060
0,040
0,020
0,000
3
6
9
14
Days
C0
C3a
C3b
C3c
C3d
Figure 4: ASR Expansion of BOF slag and BFS
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
C3 Seriesresultedthat existence of BFS eliminatesthe resultof harmful effects of BOF slag. Also the
ASR expansion values of C3 series are below the limit value of AST M C-1260.Inthe literaturethere are studies
which points outthe harmfulleffects offree CaO and MgO on expansion. Thisresultalso observed inthis study.
On the contrary,the existence of BOF slag has positive effects on durability properties of cement. Researchers
especially emphasize that BOF slag effect are resistant to sulfates (Özkan, 2006; Özkan, 2008; Altun and
Yılmaz, 2002). When cement-based materials are exposed to sodium sulphate attack, gypsum and ettringite are
produced which can cause expansion in concrete. Formation of gypsum plays an important roleinthe damage of
the material. Gypsum results in softening of the material. There is a close relationship between the Ca(OH)2
content and gypsum formation (Torıı and Kawamura, 1994). Ettringite formation results in cracking and
expansion ofthe material. Expansion isrelated tothe water absorption of crystalline ettringite. The presence of a
BOF slag results in an increase in the resistance to sodium sulphate attack (Özkan, 2008; Özkan and Yuksel,
2008).
Conclusion
BOF slag, which is environmentally dangerous materialand has storage difficulties, has 65% usage in
Europe, but in Turkey none. That it is really very important step to use environmental damaged BOF slag in
otherindustriesfor sustainability point of view. Cement production can a new production line for BOF slag. This
study shows that using BOF slag increase ASR expansion value of cement, which is harmful. Butit has also has
positive effects on the other durability properties of cement. In order to eliminate the harmful effects of BOF
slag, other materials such as BFS can also be used in cement production. This study shows that durability
properties of cement are atthe required level when BOF slag and BFS are used together.
Using environmentally damaged BOF slag along with the other waste material, BFS, in production of cement
materialis very importantin sustainability of waste management.
References
Altun I.A. & Yılmaz I. (2002). Study on steel furnace slag with high MgO as additive in portland cement. Cement and
Concrete Research. 32, 1247–1249.
ASTM C-1260. Standard test method for potential alkali reactivity of aggregate, mortar-bar method.
Ichikawa T. and Miura M. (2007). Modified model of alkali-silica reaction. Cement and Concrete Research, 37, 1291–1297.
Sakai, K. Watanabe, H. Suzuki, M. Hamazaki, K. (1993). Properties of granulated last-furnace slag cement concrete, ACI
Spec Publ SP, 132, 1367-1383.
Motz, H., Geiseler, J. (2001). Products of steel slags an opportunity to save natural resources. Waste Management, 21 (3), pp.
285-293.
Özkan, Ö. (2006). Heat effects on cements producing with GBFS and SS as additives. Journal of Materials Science, 41 (21),
7130-7140.
Özkan, Ö. (2008). Sulfate resistance of mortars produced with granulated blast furnace and steel slag additive
cements. Gazi Üniversitesi Mühendislik Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi, 23(1), 1-8.
Özkan, Ö. & Yüksel, Đ.(2008). Sulfate Resistance of Composite Potland Cements Containing Steel Slag and Granulated Blast
Furnace Slag. 3rd International Symposium Sustainability in Cement and Concrete, 8-10 July, Dundee, Scotland.
Sahay, J., Nagpal, O. P. & Prasad, S. (2000). Waste management of steel slag, Steel Times International, 24 (2), 38-40.
Shi, C. & Qian, J. High (2000). Performance cementing materials from industrial slags- a review. Resources, Conservation
and Recycling 29 (3), 195-207.
Shih, P.H., Wu, Z. Z. & Chiang, H.L. (2004). Characteristics of bricks made from waste steel slag. Waste Management. 24,
1043-1047.
Torii, K. & Kawamura, M. (1994). Effects of fly ash and silica fume on the resistance of mortar to sulfuric acid and sulfate
attack. Cement and Concrete Research, 24, 361-370.
170
�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
TS-EN 196-1. (2009). Methods of testing cement - Part 1: Determination of strength. Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara
TS-EN 196-3, (2002). Methods of testing cement-part 3: determination of setting time and soundness Turkish Standards
Institute, Ankara.
TS-EN 196-6. (2000). Methods of testing cement;Part 6: determination of fineness. Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara.
171
�
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501
Title
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Sustainability of Iron and Steel Factory Wastes in Cement
Author
Author
Özkan, Ömer
Aktas, Muharrem
Sarıbıyık, Mehmet
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This study reports the results of an experimental study conducted to determine sustainability development of composite cements manufactured with Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Slag and Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) combination. The overall objective of this work is to determine whether a combination of BOF slag and BFS might be processed into a sufficiently cementitious material to produce Composite Portland Cement (CPC). Three group of cement are produced. First group is BOF slag, second group is BFS and the last group is the mixture of BOF slag and BFS. Physical properties and Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) of those groups are evaluated. Result of BOF slag CPC showed the maximum ASR expansion. However; results of BFS composite portland cements showed minimum ASR expansion value.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9157fbbada0c78689cbe87420f751e1e.pdf
985a5f38763abe0d7dab6eaefefd024b
PDF Text
Text
Sustainability of Iron and Steel Factory Wastes in Cement
Ömer Özkan
Department of Construction
Sakarya University
Sakarya, Turkey
omerozkan@sakarya.edu.tr
Muharrem Aktaş
Department of Civil Enginnering
Sakarya University
Sakarya, Turkey
muharrema@sakarya.edu.tr
Mehmet Sarıbıyık
Department of Construction
Sakarya University
Sakarya, Turkey
mehmets@sakarya.edu.tr
Abstract: This study reports the results of an experimental study conducted to determine
sustainability development of composite cements manufactured with Basic Oxygen Furnace
(BOF) Slag and Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) combination. The overall objective of this work is
to determine whether a combination of BOF slag and BFS might be processed into a
sufficiently cementitious material to produce Composite Portland Cement (CPC). Three group
of cement are produced. First group is BOF slag, second group is BFS and the last group is the
mixture of BOF slag and BFS. Physical properties and Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) of those
groups are evaluated. Result of BOF slag CPC showed the maximum ASR expansion.
However; results of BFS composite portland cements showed minimum ASR expansion value.
Introduction
Industrial wastes sustainability is generally considered as a major source of environmental problems in the
world. Reuse of some industrial waste materials has become very important during the past decade. The
environmental regulations, requiring waste disposal minimization, force the reuse of waste materials. Land
disposal that is a partial solution for this problem causes secondary pollution problems and extra costs.
Therefore, more efficient solutions such as alternative recovery options need to be investigated. Solid wastes of
iron and steel factories can be used as raw material in cement and concrete sectors. European Community (EU)
has declared targets to protect the environment and to guarantee a cautious and efficient use of natural resources.
Solid wastes should be reused in order to use natural resources efficiently and for sustainable development.
Portland cement clinker production is expensive and ecologically harmful. For this reason, various studies have
investigated about usage of wastes in cement production (Özkan and Yüksel, 2008). Fly ash, blast furnace slag,
silica fume and steel slag are currently used in cement and concrete industry.
The BOF slag is a by-product that produced during the alteration of iron and steel. The BOF slag is
comprise of calcium silicates and ferrite with oxides of aluminum, manganese, calcium and magnesium (Sahay
et al, 2000). The mineralogical composition of BOF slag changes with its chemical composition. Olivine,
merwinite, calcium silicates (C2S, C3S), C4AF, C2F, CaO–FeO–MnO–MgO in solid solution and free CaO are
common minerals in steel slag (Shih et al, 2004). The attendance of C3S, C2S, C4AF and C2F confirms BOF slag
cementitious properties. The free CaO content increased the basicity of the BOF slag that increased the reactivity
of the BOF slag (Shi and Qian, 2000). However, high free CaO content in BOF slag has been shown to produce
volume expansion problems (Ozkan, 2006). Many investigations were performed for using BOF slag as
industrial raw material (Maotz and Geiseler, 2001). BOF slag was mainly used as a bulk material, asphalt
aggregate, filling material, cement raw feed, railroad ballast, and in agriculture in the world. Nearly 12 million
tons of BOF slag is produced in Europe per year. Today about 65 % of the produced BOF slag is used on
qualified fields of application. The remaining 35 % of this slag was still dumped. It will need further intensive
research work to decrease this rate as far as possible.
The BFS, a kind of industrial by-product, is also currently used in cement and concrete industry. The
BFS is known to possess a latent hydraulic property. Ground BFS is used as an admixture in concrete or as an
additive in the manufacture of Portland slag cements in countries where large amounts of BFS is available as by-
50
�product. When BFS is added to cement, it combines with the Portland (CH) released by cement hydration to give
calcium silicate hydrate (CSH). Alkali silica activates this step, which increases the reaction rate. Some
properties of the concrete containing BFS, such as creep, shrinkage, strength to freeze-thaw resistant are still
under discussion, but the use of the BFS in cement and concrete has been proven to have many advantages
(Sakai et al, 1993).
Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) can cause serious expansion and cracking in concrete, resulting in major
structural problems and sometimes necessitating demolition. ASR is the most common form of alkali-aggregate
reaction (AAR) in concrete; the other, much less common, form is alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR). ASR and
ACR are therefore both subsets of AAR. ASR is caused by a reaction between the hydroxyl ions in the alkaline
cement pore solution in the concrete and reactive forms of silica in the aggregate (Ichikawa and Miura, 2007).
This work investigated ASR of mortars made with cements incorporating BOF slag and BFS as
partial replacement of Portland cement clinker in different ratios of replacement. Specific weight, initial and final
setting times, and expansion values of composite cements were investigated.
Materials and Procedure
Materials
Clinker and gypsum used in this study were provided from Lafarge-Ereğli (Karadeniz, Ereğli,
Turkey) Cement Factory. BOF slag and BFS were provided from Ereğli Iron and Steel Works Company in
Turkey. The chemical compositions of these materials are presented in [Table 1], which are acquired from the
X-ray lab. The photographs of granule BOF Slag with a size of 90 µm both (a) under-griddle and (b) abovegriddle showed in [Figure 1]. CEN standard sand was used to manufacture mortar specimens. Chemical
composition and particle size distribution of the sand were presented in [Table 2] (TS-EN 196-1, 2009).
Table 1: Chemical compositions of BFS and BOF slag, clinker and gypsum (wt. %)
Fe2O3
Al2O3
MgO
SO3
MATERIALS
CaO
SiO2
BFS
37.80
35.10
0.70
17.54
5.50
0.70
BOF slag
58.53
10.72
15.30
1.71
4.27
0.04
Clinker
66.11
21.57
3.17
5.09
1.74
1.35
Gypsum
32.57
0.67
0.24
0.21
2.20
46.56
(a)
(b)
Figure 1: SEM photograps of BOF slags
51
�Table 2: Sand gradient
Chemical
compositions
%
SiO2
93.05
Al2O3
3.11
Fe2O3
0.37
CaO
0.17
MgO
0.03
SO3
0.07
K 2O
1.5
Na2O
1.1
LOI
0.57
Griddle pore
size
(mm)
0.08
0.16
0.5
1
1.6
2
Humidity
Remaining
%
99.12
86.21
65.74
33.02
5.23
0.11
Procedure
BOF Slag and BFS are substituted together with the mixture of clinker-gypsum and then four main
groups of cement are established on the base of these substitutions. The materials are supplied in granule size as
are the outputs of factory. BFS, BOF Slag and Clikner-Gypsum were grounded in a ball mill to a specific surface
area of about 2500 cm2/g. The materials are mixed with each other in the amounts specified previously, and then
grinded again to achieve specific surface value of 3100–3300 cm2/gr, thus yielding the cements used in the tests.
The first group is coded as the reference group and named as C, in the second group, coded as C1, Clinkergypsum mixture is substituted with BOF slag, on the other hand Clinker-gypsum mixture is replaced with BFS in
the third group C2, and the last group (C3) Clinker-gypsum mixture is substituted with the BFS-BOF slag
composition that is arranged at a rate of 50% of BFS and 50% of BOF slag. Composition ratios of the mixtures
used in the study is shown in the [Table 3]. All the main groups, except for the reference group C, are further
divided into sub-groups and symbolized by suffixes (a, b, c, d) with respect to their changing ratios in
compositions; for instance code C3c symbolize a material that is composed of 40% clinker-Gypsum, 30% BFS
and 30% BOF slag.
Code
C
Table 3: Composition of cement mixtures
Clinker
Materials
%
100% Clinker-Gypsum
95
Gyps.
%
5
BFS
%
0
BOF Slag
%
0
C1a
C1b
C1c
C1d
80% Clinker-Gypsum + 20% BOF Slag
60% Clinker-Gypsum + 40% BOF Slag
40% Clinker-Gypsum + 60% BOF Slag
20% Clinker-Gypsum + 80% BOF Slag
76
57
38
19
4
3
2
1
0
0
0
0
20
40
60
80
C2a
C2b
C2c
C2d
80% Clinker-Gypsum + 20% BFS
60% Clinker-Gypsum + 40% BFS
40% Clinker-Gypsum + 60% BFS
20% Clinker-Gypsum + 80% BFS
76
57
38
19
4
3
2
1
20
40
60
80
0
0
0
0
C3a
C3b
C3c
C3d
80% Clinker-Gypsum + 10% BFS + 10% BOF Slag
60% Clinker-Gypsum + 20% BFS + 20% BOF Slag
40% Clinker-Gypsum + 30% BFS + 30% BOF Slag
60% Clinker-Gypsum + 40% BFS + 40% BOF Slag
76
57
38
57
4
3
2
3
12
24
36
24
8
16
24
16
The physical properties of the produced cements are first examined after the tests conducted and then
the weight percentages, specific surface values and specific gravities of cements remaining on the surface of
sieves with 32 and 90µn pore sizes, according to the Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-6, 2000). Moreover, the
beginning and ending times of cement setting and expansion values of cements are also determined according to
Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-3, 2002).
52
�The ASTM C1260 test is based on the assumption that a very high pH value of the pore solution
initiates the reaction with potentially reactive aggregate. The intention was to create the most severe alkaline
conditions as could be expected in the pore solution of mortar bars after hydrolysis, which is the interaction of
alkalis and water. Therefore, test specimens are submerged in a hot and highly alkaline sodium-hydroxide
solution (1 N). Originally, the test was not designed to consider influences of other components of the mortar
mix such as admixtures but solely to determine the reactivity of a given aggregate type (ASTM C-1260). Mortar
bars used in this study are of 25x25x290 mm dimension. Cement, standard rilem combreau sand and tap water
with the proportions of 1, 2.25 and 0.47 respectively.
Specimens are first cured in a fog room in molds at 20° C for 24 hours, remove the specimens from
the molds, make an initial comparator reading and then demoulded and one day cured in water at 80± 3 °C. After
remove from in water, take the zero reading and then immersion into a 1 M NaOH solution with a temperature of
80 °C during 14 days. A subsequent comparator reading of the specimens reads periodically, with at least three
readings.
Result and Discussion
Physical Properties of Cements
The physical properties of produced cements are shown in [Table 4]. Fineness, specific surface and
specific gravity are listed.
Table 4: Physical properties of cements
Cements
C
C1a
C1b
C1c
C1d
C2a
C2b
C2c
C2d
C3a
C3b
C3c
C3c
Fineness (wt.%)
>32 µm
21.00
21.15
22.10
22.15
22.10
21.20
21.90
21.80
21.90
19.20
18.60
19.10
18.20
>90 µm
0.90
1.18
1.00
1.25
1.20
1.10
1.15
1.15
1.10
0.90
0.90
1.00
0.80
Specific
surface
Specific
gravity
cm2/g
3330
3214
3213
3152
3150
3115
3108
3090
3070
3450
3550
3650
3700
g/cm3
3.12
3.06
3.02
2.97
2.96
3.05
3.01
2.95
2.94
3.12
3.15
3.12
3.11
It is found that BFS has harder structure than BOF slag and hardly grinded slag. BFS of 2400-2500
cm2/g reaches the required fineness after 4 hours of grinding when BOF slag takes only 3 hours for this degree
of fineness. The reference cement (C) produced as Portland cement has a softer structure than the rest of
specimens. Thus, it can easily be said that BFS and BOF slag, ground separately, can attain the same granule size
on the condition that they are grinded finely. When cement’s specific gravity results are examined, it is found
that waste materials (BFS and BOF slag) substituted with clinker have lower specific gravity values.
Volume expansion values of cements are found to be within the limits set by Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-3,
2002). In the light of examining results one can observe that expansion of cements with BOF slag additive is
higher than that of other cements. In BOF slag, when the volume is stable, the rate of free CaO and MgO is of
great importance since the reaction between both oxides and water has an effect on volume stability (Altun and
Yılmaz, 2002).
Alkali Silica Reaction
Mortar specimens are exposed to 1 N NaOH solution with a temperature of 80 °C during 14 days.
The expansions of the mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Table 5].
53
�Table 5: Alkali Silica Reaction Expansions of Cements
ASR Expansion (%)
2
6
10
14
C0
0,096
0,146
0,176
0,184
C1a
0,094
0,137
0,169
0,186
C1b
0,096
0,149
0,187
0,208
C1c
0,110
0,163
0,182
0,222
C1d
0,114
0,169
0,192
0,212
C2a
0,040
0,066
0,086
0,107
C2b
0,034
0,056
0,080
0,104
C2c
0,032
0,052
0,080
0,097
C2d
0,032
0,061
0,075
0,100
C3a
0,083
0,123
0,154
0,170
C3b
0,089
0,112
0,143
0,160
C3c
0,098
0,125
0,136
0,160
C3d
0,109
0,134
0,156
0,170
The outcomes showed tht the ASR expansion values are lower than 0.2%, which is defined as a limit
value on ASTM C-1260. ASR expansion value is increased by the increase of BOF slag percentage in the
cement as shown C1 series sample (Table 5). However, the increase of BFS percentage in the cement resulted a
decrease in ASR expansion value. The expansions of the BOF slag mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution
are given in [Figure 2].
0,250
0,200
0,192
0,187
0,182
0,169
0,212
0,222
0,208
0,186
0,184
0,176
Expansion
0,163
0,137
0,150
0,146
0,149
0,169
0,114
0,110
0,100
0,096
0,096
0,094
0,050
0,000
3
6
9
14
Days
C0
C1a
C1b
C1c
C1d
Figure 2: ASR Expansion of BOS slag
When C1 series ASR expansion value is investigated, the ASR expansion values found to be over than
reference series. The reason for the high ASR expansion value is thought to be the ratio of CaO an MgO in BOF.
BOF slag volumetric stability and leaching behavior caused the most concerns. The most important criterion is
54
�the volume stability, in which free CaO and MgO contents of the slag play an important role. The expansions of
the BFS mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Figure 3].
0,200
0,180
0,184
0,176
0,160
0,146
Expansion
0,140
0,120
0,107
0,100
0,104
0,100
0,096
0,080
0,060
0,040
0,080
0,075
0,066
0,061
0,080
0,097
0,086
0,052
0,056
0,032
0,034 0,032
0,040
0,020
0,000
3
6
9
14
Days
C0
C2a
C2b
C2c
C2d
Figure 3: ASR Expansion of BFS
The value of ASR expansion is also below the limit value given by ASTM-C 1260. It is known that
the existence of BFS reduced the ASR expansion value. Since puzzolans are less reactive and the reaction results
include less amount of alkali than the Portland cement, they are addressed as solvent. Puzzolan cements have
more effective W/C percentage than portland cement. Thus, the amount of alkali become more less, moreover
puzzolans, decreases the amount of Ca(OH)2 which also decrease the PH value. The expansions of the BOF slag
and BFS mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Figure 4].
0,200
0,180
0,160
0,146
0,136
Expansion
0,156
0,170
0,160
0,143
0,160
0,123
0,125
0,100
0,170
0,134
0,140
0,120
0,184
0,176
0,154
0,109
0,096
0,089
0,112
0,098
0,080
0,083
0,060
0,040
0,020
0,000
3
6
9
14
Days
C0
C3a
C3b
C3c
C3d
Figure 4: ASR Expansion of BOF slag and BFS
55
�C3 Series resulted that existence of BFS eliminates the result of harmful effects of BOF slag. Also the
ASR expansion values of C3 series are below the limit value of ASTM C-1260. In the literature there are studies
which points out the harmfull effects of free CaO and MgO on expansion. This result also observed in this study.
On the contrary, the existence of BOF slag has positive effects on durability properties of cement. Researchers
especially emphasize that BOF slag effect are resistant to sulfates (Özkan, 2006; Özkan, 2008; Altun and
Yılmaz, 2002). When cement-based materials are exposed to sodium sulphate attack, gypsum and ettringite are
produced which can cause expansion in concrete. Formation of gypsum plays an important role in the damage of
the material. Gypsum results in softening of the material. There is a close relationship between the Ca(OH)2
content and gypsum formation (Torıı and Kawamura, 1994). Ettringite formation results in cracking and
expansion of the material. Expansion is related to the water absorption of crystalline ettringite. The presence of a
BOF slag results in an increase in the resistance to sodium sulphate attack (Özkan, 2008; Özkan and Yuksel,
2008).
Conclusion
BOF slag, which is environmentally dangerous material and has storage difficulties, has 65% usage in
Europe, but in Turkey none. That it is really very important step to use environmental damaged BOF slag in
other industries for sustainability point of view. Cement production can a new production line for BOF slag. This
study shows that using BOF slag increase ASR expansion value of cement, which is harmful. But it has also has
positive effects on the other durability properties of cement. In order to eliminate the harmful effects of BOF
slag, other materials such as BFS can also be used in cement production. This study shows that durability
properties of cement are at the required level when BOF slag and BFS are used together.
Using environmentally damaged BOF slag along with the other waste material, BFS, in production of cement
material is very important in sustainability of waste management.
References
Altun I.A. & Yılmaz I. (2002). Study on steel furnace slag with high MgO as additive in portland cement.
Cement and Concrete Research. 32, 1247–1249.
ASTM C-1260. Standard test method for potential alkali reactivity of aggregate, mortar-bar method.
Ichikawa T. and Miura M. (2007). Modified model of alkali-silica reaction. Cement and Concrete Research, 37,
1291–1297.
Sakai, K. Watanabe, H. Suzuki, M. Hamazaki, K. (1993). Properties of granulated last-furnace slag cement
concrete, ACI Spec Publ SP, 132, 1367-1383.
Motz, H., Geiseler, J. (2001). Products of steel slags an opportunity to save natural resources. Waste
Management, 21 (3), pp. 285-293.
Özkan, Ö. (2006). Heat effects on cements producing with GBFS and SS as additives. Journal of Materials
Science, 41 (21), 7130-7140.
Özkan, Ö. (2008). Sulfate resistance of mortars produced with granulated blast furnace and steel slag additive
cements. Gazi Üniversitesi Mühendislik Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi, 23(1), 1-8.
Özkan, Ö. & Yüksel, İ.(2008). Sulfate Resistance of Composite Potland Cements Containing Steel Slag and
Granulated Blast Furnace Slag. 3rd International Symposium Sustainability in Cement and Concrete, 8-10 July,
Dundee, Scotland.
Sahay, J., Nagpal, O. P. & Prasad, S. (2000). Waste management of steel slag, Steel Times International, 24 (2),
38-40.
Shi, C. & Qian, J. High (2000). Performance cementing materials from industrial slags- a review. Resources,
Conservation and Recycling 29 (3), 195-207.
Shih, P.H., Wu, Z. Z. & Chiang, H.L. (2004). Characteristics of bricks made from waste steel slag. Waste
Management. 24, 1043-1047.
Torii, K. & Kawamura, M. (1994). Effects of fly ash and silica fume on the resistance of mortar to sulfuric acid
and sulfate attack. Cement and Concrete Research, 24, 361-370.
TS-EN 196-1. (2009). Methods of testing cement - Part 1: Determination of strength. Turkish Standards
Institute, Ankara
TS-EN 196-3, (2002). Methods of testing cement-part 3: determination of setting time and soundness Turkish
Standards Institute, Ankara.
TS-EN 196-6. (2000). Methods of testing cement;Part 6: determination of fineness. Turkish Standards Institute,
Ankara.
56
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
649
Title
A name given to the resource
Sustainability of Iron and Steel Factory Wastes in Cement
Author
Author
ÖZKAN, Ömer
Aktas, Muharrem
Sarıbıyık, Mehmet
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This study reports the results of an experimental study conducted to determine sustainability development of composite cements manufactured with Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Slag and Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) combination. The overall objective of this work is to determine whether a combination of BOF slag and BFS might be processed into a sufficiently cementitious material to produce Composite Portland Cement (CPC). Three group of cement are produced. First group is BOF slag, second group is BFS and the last group is the mixture of BOF slag and BFS. Physical properties and Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) of those groups are evaluated. Result of BOF slag CPC showed the maximum ASR expansion. However; results of BFS composite portland cements showed minimum ASR expansion value.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
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1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
Sustainability of Effective Use of Water Sources of Turkey
Şükriye Aras HĐSAR
Fisheries Department, Agricultural Faculty,
Atatürk University, Erzurum, TURKEY,
sarashisar@hotmail.com
Olcay HĐSAR
Fisheries Department, Agricultural Faculty,
Atatürk University, Erzurum, TURKEY,
ohisar@atauni.edu.tr
Sıtkı ARAS
Fisheries Department, Agricultural Faculty,
Atatürk University, Erzurum, TURKEY,
msaras@atauni.edu.tr
Adem Yavuz SÖN M E Z
Fisheries Department, Agricultural Faculty,
Atatürk University, Erzurum, TURKEY,
ayavuzs@atauni.edu.tr
Gonca ALA K
Fisheries Department, Agricultural Faculty,
Atatürk University, Erzurum, TURKEY,
galak@atauni.edu.tr
Abstract: Natural water resources had been threaten by increase of temperature due to global
warming and not proper usage of them this causing health problems both for human and
aquatic environment.
Therefore new studies have been forced in the rehabilitation and sustainable usage of water
sources recently in the world.
In this paper information about their currency state and future projections is given based on
many published data.
Keywords: water resources, Turkey, sustainable
Introduction
One of the important vital resources of sustainable development is water. World population in
20.century increased approximately three fold in proportion to 19.century. On the contrary it is seen that
utilization of water resources increased six fold.
However the fast consumption doesn’t have properties about providing equal opportunities and benefits
to beneficiaries of resources. Swedish hydrologist Malin Falkenmark points out that annual capitation of
agricultural, domestic-urban,industrial water demand limit of minimum sufficiency is 1000m3 in a country. So
under thislimit means poverty in point of water. There are water famines especially in three regions of world at
presenttime. These are Africa,the Middle East and South Asia.
In 20.century,itis written official enrolments thatthe speed of water consumption increase istwo half
fold of the speed of population increase broad world. Even the Middle East in which has trouble with water
problem, the rate of population increase exceeds %3 in lots of counties, and new generation doubles up the
previous one numerically. On the other hand,itis guessed that with the increasing population in the developing
countries in 20 years,in ratio of %17 more water will be needed to grow food products. On that account,itis
guessed that the increase in total water consumption will be %40 in 2025. According to World Bank experts’
guesses, the number of countries which have substantially troubles with water famine is anticipated to rise to
%34, and itis pointed outthatmore than 3 billion people will be faced with water famine in 2025.
Water crisis is described like that over one billion people’s not gaining enough access to healthy
333
�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
drinking water and half of world population’s not having enough water and groundwork of waste water. So,
unavoidable water crisisis possiblein the whole world.
On the other hand, according to evaluations, dirty waters cause %80 of illness in developing countries,
and death of approximately 10 million people ever year. The recession of water quality and the anxieties about
qualification of water provided that water resources are included in environmental protection and development
content of United Nations Environment Program.
Turkey’s Water Potential and Assessment of Situation
W hen the water potential of a country, which is reinforced by rainfall, is divided to population,
capitation of annual average of water amount is gotten. It does not mean thatthe water potential of a country is
always usable property. There are important differences between the total water potential and usable water
potentialin countries where rivers have irregular flow.
Turkey is 779.425 square kilometersintotal area,land area is 765.152 square kilometers and water area
is 14.300 square kilometers.
The climate of Turkey is semiarid and there are excessivetemperature differences among some regions.
Annual average amount of rainfallis 643m m3 (TUĐK 2008). Water resources are limited according to irrigable
solid in Thrace and Central Anatolia regions, in Eastern Black Sea is reverse of this. Underground and
aboveground waters of our country are given in Table 1 and 2.
Flow
186,05
Consumable Annual Average Amount of Water
95,00
Actual Annual Consumption
27,50
Table 1. Aboveground Waters (billion m3) (Kıran, 2005)
Drainable Annual Water Potential
12,20
Assigned Amount
7,80
Actual Annual Consumption
6,00
Table 2. Underground Waters (billion m3) (Kıran, 2005)
W hen population increase of our country is considered, capitation amount of annual water is guessed
2750m3 in 2010; capitation amount of usable wateris 1300m3 in same term. It shows thatthere will be critical
deficiency of waterin furtheryears especially in arid yearsin some parts of country (Kıran, 2005).
W hile the annual population increase is %2.3 in Turkey, this rate is %3.6 in Southeastern Anatolia
Project region, and this is twofold of %1.8 increase in world. Actually when capitation annual water amount is
considered,the common aspectisthat Turkey is not a rich country about water resources. The capitation annual
amount of water is 1300m3 in our country. However this amount is 3000m3in Asia, 5000 in Western Europe,
7000 in Africa, 18000 in North America, 23000 in South America and 7600m3 in overallworld (Türkkan 2009).
The Possible Effects of Global Warming and Insensible Use of Water to Our Country’s Water Resources
All world countries and science world started to ponder about more productive use and development
sustainability of available water resources because of global warming and unconscious usage of natural water
resources.
Global warming is named shortly “the rising oftemperature on surface of atmosphere, oceans, and land
masses”. The cause of this warming is guessed as greenhouse gases which are included to atmosphere with the
burn of fossilfuelslike coal, natural gas, crude oil.
Global warming started to produce clearly its effects in our country too like whole world. Turkey is in
the risk group countries about potential effects of global warming. Our country will be affected by negative part
of global warming like forestfires, arid, desertification and especially reducing of water resources.
According to V. technical report of IPCC, which was published in 2002, it is made determined that
temperature increases to 0.25°C every 10 years in Turkey, there is fall average %10 in rainfall, when a line is
drawn from Samsun to Adana between 2071-2100 years, its west part will warm up 3-4°C, its east part will
warm up around 4-5°C, daily rainfall amount will fallto 0.25mm, vaporization and evaporation willincrease,
summer aridity will increase, there will be decline in fish species which live in interior waters depending on
reducing in waterresources (Atalık 2005). Againitis made determined alot ofresearchesin paralleltoreport of
IPCC; the negative effect of climate change to water resources will be pretty much in 10 yearsterms to come.
One of the biggest problems of available recourses is water pollution when itis considered that aridity
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
and desertification problems will increase more with global warming in our country which takes place in arid
and semiarid belt.
Natural water resources are become dirty and unusable by upward industry and industrialization, and
polluting resources day by day. Water pollution is one ofthe mostimportant environment problems in nowadays
(Uslu &Türkman 1987). Chemical pollutions are frequently come across by usage of pesticide and chemical
drug in agriculturalstrife withthe development ofindustry and industrialization especially late yearsin waters of
our country (Sönmez et al. 2008). Wash, which is a physical pollution,is one of the biggest problems of water
resources. Our barrages are established for kind of aim with big investments, another aim of them is irrigation.
Our barrages fillin shortertime than estimated economic life with soil materials which are carried by river and
surface flows. Generally economic lives of barrages are determined 50 years, butitisseen thatsome barrages fill
in 15-20 years with the effectof excessive wash (Karamanlı13 years, Altınapa 10 years, Kemer 22 years).
Itis clear that our country’s water resources are become weak day by day, and they are not developed
enough according to upward population. So, itis possible that there will be water problems in 10 years in our
country which is not water wealthy.
Water Policy of Turkey and the Conformity with World Strategies
Turkey aims to join European Union in the near future. With this aim, our country has to make
consistent own legislation to legislation of Union and has to make applicable this new legislation. Water Frame
Directive was prepared frame by European Union in 1996 and put into effect in 2000. It is a conjunctive
directive to all member countries and candidate countries in concession process. The necessary precautions and
constitutionaltransforms of candidate member countries are clear especially. The two main titles of Water Frame
Directive of European Union attract attention. First of them is “Usage of Sustainable Water” (80/68/EEC) topic
(Efeoğlu, 2005). To provide continuity of available resources is emphasized and to constitute necessary
substructure about financial supportis wanted in this main title. The otherimportanttitle is “Aquatic Ecosystem
and Prevention of Waters”. In other words to prevent pollution in available resources and to avert damage to
nature stabilityis aimed.
W hen the two materials are handled holistically, providing sustainability and averting pollution of our
available resources are only possible with again attend to production with make refining of used waters or return
them to nature stability. The same situation appears when development and strategic plans of our country are
looked at. The two provisions support regulation of management of resource in 9th development plan of 20072013 years.“Environmental Protection and Development of Urban Groundwork” title of plan is 159.provision.It
emphasizes that “Fast population increase and industrialization duration continue to be an importantforce factor
on sustainable usage of natural resources. The uncertainties in distribution of duty and authority between
institute and institution about protect environment and not being negative affected of production duration about
sustainable usage of natural resources have not been dispelled sufficiently.” 162. Provision points out the
agreement on the topic that “United Nations Climate Change Frame Engagement was approved by the Turkish
National Assembly in 24 May 2004.
As a conclusion, our resources are limited and bounded sustainability because of industrialization,
upward population and especially climate change. First ofthese resource are waters without doubt. So the waters
which are used in areas ofindustry,industrialand production, are necessary totake for provident and refinement
certainly.
Conclusion
Water resources should be used to satisfy the needs of present day and future for the protection of
ecolojic stability and also providing sustainable devepment of human societies. It is more important for our
country which isin the risk group countries because of global climate change. The mostimportant solution way
isthe providing sustainability of available resources. Our rivers, which are the most important renewable water
resources, should be used consciously, should be protected regime of them, short built dimension catchments
should be constituted and evaluated instead of high built dimension catchments. Waters, which are used in
industry and industrial,should be returned to natural environment with least damage afterrefinement. Economic
lives of river,lake and barrages should be lengthened with taking necessary precautions about erosion and water
pollution which is based on agricultural pest control. To constitute an applicable “Sustainable Water Policy” is
necessary with founding a functional government unit and determining inventories of water resources. The most
important ofthem isto encourage people about conscious water usage, and stoping waste should be emphasized
because wateris not an endless resource.
335
�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
References
AB Sustainable water resources .www.abgs.gov.tr
Atalık, A. (2005). Effect of global warming on water resources and agriculture. www.zmo.org.tr
“Climate Change and Biodiversity”, IPCC Technical Paper V, April 2002
Efeoğlu, A. (2005). A.B Water frame drective and continued study of this area in turkey.
Development plan 9. www.dpt.gov.tr
Kıran, A. (2005). Water in the Middle East. Đstanbul.
Sönmez, A.Y., arslan, G., Hisar, O & Aras, M.S. (2008). Water information. Ankara.
Şen, Z. (2006). Effect of climate change on water resources.
Türkan, M. (2009). Potential and significant of our country water resources. Forest ecology and solid research
headengineering. Ankara.
Uslu, O., & Türkman, A. (1987). Aaquatic toxicology and control. T.C. premiership environment main management.
336
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Sustainability of Effective Use of Water Sources of Turkey
Author
Author
HİSAR, Sükriye Aras
HİSAR, Olcay
ARAS, Sıtkı
SÖNMEZ, Adem Yavuz
ALAK, Gonca
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Natural water resources had been threaten by increase of temperature due to global warming and not proper usage of them this causing health problems both for human and aquatic environment. Therefore new studies have been forced in the rehabilitation and sustainable usage of water sources recently in the world. In this paper information about their currency state and future projections is given based on many published data.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
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PeerReviewed
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Superparamagnetic NiFe2O4 Nanoparticles to Remove Arsenic From
Drinking Water
Yüksel Köseoğlu
Fatih University, Department of Physics, Buyukcekmece 34500 Istanbul-TURKEY
Abstract: Superparamagnetic nanoparticles of nickel ferrite (NiFe2O4) were
produced by PEG assisted hydrothermal method. XRD, FT-IR, TEM and VSM were
used for the structural, morphological, and magnetic investigation of the product,
respectively. Average particle size of the nanoparticles was estimated by the
Scherrer equation using the full-width at half maximum (FWHM) of the most
intense XRD peak and found as 14 nm. While the nanoparticles indicate a
superparamagnetic behavior above the blocking temperature of 72 K, they have
ferromagnetic behavior at temperatures lower than the blocking temperature. These
nanoparticles were dispersed into drinking water contaminated with arsenic (As),
and once they bind to arsenic, they have been removed from the water solution using
a strong magnet. The results were measured by Atomic Mass Spectrometry and
found that these nanoparticles had removed 90 % of the arsenic. The measurements
were repeated several times with the same sample and get almost the same results.
Keywords: Superparamagnetism, Ferrite, XRD, VSM, Atomic mass spectroscopy,
Arsenic
Introduction
Nanophase materials with an average grain size in the range of 1 to 50 nm have attracted research
interest for more than a decade since their physical properties are quite different from that of their bulk micronsized counterparts because of the large volume fraction of atoms that occupies the grain boundary area [1-3].
This new class of materials is used in important applications like high frequency transformers, ferrofluids,
pigments in paints and ceramics, biomedical applications like drug delivery system, hyperthermia, NMR, high
density magnetic recording, varistors and dye-sensitized solar cells [4-11]. The surface area of the
nanostructured materials is large as the grain sizes are small. The increase in the interfacial energy due to defects,
dislocations and lattice imperfections leads to changes in various physical properties and hence one can tailor
make the materials with specific properties. Almost 50 % of the atoms reside in the grain boundary area when
the grain size is reduced to less than 10 nm whereas it is only 1-3 % when the grain size is 100 nm [1, 12]. Since
a large fraction of atoms is present at the grain boundaries, the nanocrystalline materials exhibit enhanced
diffusivity.
Arsenic (As) contamination in drinking water is a major health and environmental issue around the
world, especially in the developing countries [13,14]. Removal of arsenic from drinking water is an important
problem for environmental engineering and while there are ways to remove arsenic, thay are expensive and
require extensive hardware and high-pressure pumps that run on electricity. Iron oxide is an interesting sorbent
for the removal of arsenic and other heavy metal contaminants[15,16]. When magnetic iron oxide is made as
nanoparticles, the smaller particle size and high surface area enhances its capacity for As removal [17]. An
external magnetic field can be used to separate the magnetic nanoparticles after sorption.
Here we report the PEG assisted hydrothermal synthesis of nickel ferrite (NiFe2O4) nanoparticles and
show the potential use of the nanocomposite of superparamagnetic NiFe2O4 for the waste water treatment,
especially for arsenic removal, by magnetic separation, using a small magnetic field. The experiments involved
suspending pure samples of uniform-sized nickel ferrite nanoparticles in water. Once they bind to arsenic, a
magnetic field was used to pull the particles to out of solution, leaving only the purified water. We measured the
tiny particles after they were removed from the water and ruled out the most obvious explanation: the particles
were not clumping together after being tractored by the magnetic field due to surface modification by
polyethylene glycol (PEG). It is also found that the composite can be easily dispersed in water and the magnetic
carbon fluid thus obtained is very stable for few days.
439
�Results and Discussion
FTIR analysis
Two mainbroad metal-oxygen bands are seen in the IR spectra of all spinels, and ferrites in particular. The
highest one, v1, (Fig. 1) generally observed in the range 600-550cm-1, corresponds to intrinsic stretching
vibrations of the metal at the tetrahedral site, Mtetra↔O, whereas the v2-lowest band, usually observed in the
range 450-385cm-1, is assigned to octahedral-metal stretching, Mocta↔O [7,18]. It is known that Ni2+ ions have
octahedral-site preference Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions can occupy both octahedral and tetrahedral sites [19].
Transmittance (a.u.)
NiFe2O4
PEG
4000
3000
2000
1000
-1
Wavenumber (cm )
Fig. 1. FTIR spectra of NiFe2O4, synthesized by PEG-assisted hydrothermal method. Red line shows
the FTIR spectra of PEG.
However, no clear peak due to octahedrally coordinated metal ions has been observed which is expected to
be below 400 cm-1. This may be due to the broadening of this peak attributed to very small particles of spinel
ferrites. The bands observed around 3430 and 1521 cm−1 frequencies are ascribed due to the stretching modes
and H-O-H bending vibration of the free or absorbed water molecules.
XRD analysis
The powder X-ray diffractograms recorded for sample of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles is shown in Fig.2. Samples
are considered to be single-phase spinel structure as no extra peaks and no unreacted constituents were observed.
This allows the estimation of average crystallite size and its standart deviation from XRD. The experimental line
profiles, shown in Fig.2, were fitted for 9 peaks (111), (220), (311), (400), (422), (511), (440) (622) and (533)
the calculated average crystallite size, D and standart deviations σ, are presented in Table 3.
440
�40
50
60
533
622
422
400
111
30
440
511
311
220
intensity (a.u.)
20
70
2θ (Degree)
Figure 2: Experimental and theoretically fitted XRD patterns of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles.
The cation distribution in NiFe2O4 can be infered from the X-ray diffraction relative integrated intensity
calculations by using the following formula suggested by Buerger [20]:
2
I hkl = F hkl PL p
where
(1)
F is the structure factor, P the multicipty factor and L p is the Lorenz-polarization factor which
depends only on the Bragg’s diffraction angle
Lp =
θ
1 + cos 2 2θ
sin 2 θ cos 2θ
(2)
Some peaks’ intensity ratios in the XRD pattern of spinel structures were reported as cation distribution
sensitive peaks, such as I 220 / I 400 , I 220 / I 422 and I 422 / I 400 [21,22]. In the calculations (i) all possible cation
arrangments are considered with 0.01 stoichiometric sensitivity that Ni+2 and Fe+3 can site both tetrahedral and
octahedral sites, (ii) the oxygen positional parameter was chosen between 0.3700 and 0.3900, ideal spinel
structures that are 0.3852, 0.3822 and 0.375 respectively [23] and (iii) for the agreement of calculated and
experimental intensity ratios, the difference of calculated and experimental relative intensities for all distribution
cases are considered and the sum of these differences are minimized. Finally the closest calculated data are taken
to be the correct distributions. Note that there should be no need for the thermal correction because of the
spinel’s high melting temperature and hence very small thermo-vibrational effect of spinel on XRD patterns [24].
As a result the experimental lattice constants, chosen oxygen positional parameters, the relative insenties of
experimental and calculated XRD peaks, and their corresponding cation distribution results are listed in Table 1.
The occupancy of Fe+3 ions on A site is greater than 0.78 and in all substance the Fe+3 ions dominate in Td sub
lattice.
Lattice
Parameter
a
(A)
Oxygen
Positional
Parameter
u
8.36
0.3750
I220/I400
I422/I400
Cation Distribution
(Ni0.22Fe0.78)
[Ni0.78Fe1.22]
Obs.
Cal.
Obs.
Cal.
1.25
1.23
0.41
0.45
Table 1: The values of XRD cation distribution in NiFe2O4 nanoparticles.
441
�In the spinel structure the cations on different sub lattites ( A and B sites) have oppositely aligned magnetic
moments according to the Neel’s ferrimagnetic theory [55]. So the magnetic moment per formula unit in
µ B (Bohr magneton) is
n B ( x) = M B ( x) − M A ( x)
where
(4.4)
M B and M A are B and A site magnetic moment in µ B . The magnetic moment per formula unit is
calculated by cation distribution results of XRD and Neel’s theory with ionic magnetic moment of 5 µ B and
2 µ B for Fe+3 and Ni+2 , respectively [23]. The results are summarized in Table 2. The calculated
agreed well with experimentally obtained values, confirming a collinear magnetic structure.
n B values
.
Cation Distribution
(XRD)
(Ni0.22Fe0.78) [Ni0.78Fe1.22]
Saturation Magnetization
Ms (emu/g)
(VSM)
40.93
Magneton number nB(μB)
Obs.
Cal.
(VSM)
(XRD)
2.16
2.20
Table 2: The magnetic moment per unit formula from XRD and VSM for NiFe2O4 nanoparticles
TEM
( XRD- Profile Fit)
VSM (LN Langevien Fit)
DTEM ( σ )
Av. Size (Geo.StD)
15 (0.23)
DXRD ( σ)
Av. Size (StD.)
14.1 (5.0)
Dm(σ
σ m)
Av. Size (Geo .StD.)
13.9 (0.58)
Table 3: The obtained particle sizes or size distributions of Ni Fe2O4 nanoparticles.
TEM analysis
The TEM micrograph and particle size distribution of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles synthesized by by
hydrothermal method using PEG 400 are given in Fig. 3. During synthesis, temperature was increased to 150 0C
and samples were kept for 21h in the owen. A good crystallinity can be attributed to the heat during synthesis
process. 150 particles are counted in NiFe2O4 nanoparticles and particle size has been determined as 15 nm from
the size distribution from Fig.3 (b) which agrees with the result of XRD measurement (14.1 nm).
442
�25
% counts
20
15
10
5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Pa r t i c l e s i z e ( n m )
(a)
(b)
Figure 3 (a) The TEM micrograph of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles synthesized by using PEG 400, (b) particle size
distribution.
VSM analysis
By using Quantum Design Vibrating Sample Magnetometer (QD-VSM), the magnetic characterizations of
NiFe2O4 nanoparticles were performed. In detail, the magnetization of Ni-ferrites were studied as a function of
external field between ±5 kOe and as a function of temperature (between T=10 K and the room temperature).
Magnetic hysteresis curves were then analyzed for temperature dependency of the samples’ magnetization under
zero field cooling-ZFC and field cooling-FC.
The magnetization curve of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles synthesized by hydrothermal method using PEG 400 is
analized at room and 10 K temperature in Fig. 4 and 5.
Magnetization (emu/g)
40
T=305 K
20
0
-20
-40
-10000
-5000
0
5000
10000
Magnetic Field (Oe)
Figure 4 Magnetic field vs magnetization curve of NiFe2O4 synthesized by hydrothermal method using PEG 400
at room temperature.
443
�It is observed that the room temperature M-H curve of NiFe2O4 powders does not show a hysteresis in Fig.
4. The value of magnetization sharply increases with the external magnetic field strength. M-H curve has an s
shape at low field region and the high field side of the curve is almost linear with the external field. However, a
saturation state of magnetization has not been reeached yet in the presence of a relatively strong magnetic field
of even 10 kOe, which is consistent with the previous studies [25,26]. A saturation magnetization of 40.93 emu/g
is obtained for the room temperature measurement.
It is known that fine particles are easy to activate thermally and overcome magnetic anisotropy. Particles
lost their hysteresis property above blocking temperature and magnetic moments follow the same direction with
applied magnetic field. So that the magnetic moments do not have any remanent magnetization and a hysteresis
loop to observe coercive field.
80
60
T=10 K
Magnetization (emu/g)
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-10000
-5000
0
5000
10000
Magnetic Field (Oe)
Figure 5 Magnetic field vs magnetization curve of NiFe2O4 synthesized by hydrothermal method using PEG 400
as fuel at 10K temperature.
The M-H curve of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles denoted that coercive field and saturation magnetization increased
at 10 K temperature in Fig. 5. Coercive field is measured as 132 Oe which is higher than 305K value. And
saturation magnetization reached 65.35 emu/g because of the magnetic exchange energy. The width of hysteresis
terminates around 50 emu/g values, after that a line follows a continuous shape by increasing applied field. An
increasing trend in saturation magnetization is also observed in the high magnetic field regime.
444
�Magnetizatization (emu/g)
18
12
190 K
6
100 Oe
ZFC-FC
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Temperature (K)
Figure 6 Magnetization vs temperature curve of NiFe2O4 synthesized by hydrothermal method using PEG 400
as fuel.
The magnetization vs temperature curve of NiFe2O4 synthesized by hydrothermal method using PEG 400 as
fuel has been obtained in Fig. 6. The magnetization of the NiFe2O4 sample increases by decreasing temperature
in FC (field cooling) measurement. The magnetization of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles at 10 K temperature is measured
as 15 emu/g in FC process which means the magnetization direction of each particle is frozen in the field
direction. The ZFC magnetization exhibits a maximum around a critical temperature which is blocking
temperature TB. Both curves, only joins at around 220 K temperature only and then diverges. Here, the blocking
temperature (TB) of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles is determined as 190 K as seen in Fig. 6. After ZFC process,
magnetization of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles is measured as 4 emu/g which denotes that the magnetic moments did
not align at 10 K temperature.
Arsenic Removal
The NiFe2O4 nanoparticles covered with PEG can be easily dispersed in water and the dispersion is found to
be stable for a long time. Similarly, the nanocomposite can be easily separated using a laboratory permanent
magnet and again redispersed. This shows that the PEG is strongly attached to the surface of the Ni-ferrite
nanoparticles. To demonstrate the application of the Ni-ferrite nanocomposite for arsenic removal by magnetic
separation, the nanocomposite is used for the removal of arsenic in drinking water. The photographs in Figure 7
(a) show this behavior very clearly. This shows the efficiency of the nanocomposite for arsenic removal after
adsorption on nickel ferrite by magnetic separation.
100
B
Removal efficiency (%)
80
60
40
20
0
1
2
3
4
Cycles
445
5
6
7
�Figure 7 The separation of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles from solution by a magnet (A) and removal efficiencies of
arsenic during adsorption-desorption cycles for NiFe2O4 nanoparticles (B)
The graph of removal efficiency of arsenic as a function of time for various amounts of the
nanocomposite used are shown in Figure 8. 94% removal is observed within few minutes when 0.5 g/L of the
nanocomposite is used for 25 mg/L arsenic solution. The amount adsorbed is calculated using the relation, qe =
(Ci−Cf)V /m, where Ci and Cf are the initial and final concentrations of arsenic, respectively, in mg/L, and m is
mass of the nanoparticles in mg/L. The value of qe is calculated as 18 mg/g. Similar high adsorption capacity for
drimaren red dye and other contaminants is reported for iron oxide/commercial AC composite [27]. qe of 11.9
mg/g of Fe3O4/carbon nanotube nanocomposite is reported very recently for methylene blue (MB) removal [28].
100
90
Removal efficiency (%)
80
70
60
50
0.20g
0.3g
0.5g
40
30
20
10
0
-10
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Time (min)
Figure 8 Removal efficiency of arcenic from water as a function of time using different amounts of NiFe2O4
nanoparticles.
Conclusion
Thus, the present study shows that superparamagnetic NiFe2O4 nanoparticles were successfully synthesized by
using PEG assisted hydrothermal method and arsenic strongly attached to these nanoparticles. The magnetic
fluid obtained by dispersion of the nanoparticles in water is relatively stable and this dispersion is very efficient
for the removal of arsenic from contaminated water by adsorption on magnetic nanoparticles and a subsequent
simple magnetic separation process. Also, these nanoparticles can be used repeatedly to remove arsenic from
drinking water.
References
[1]
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�
Dublin Core
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Extent
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543
Title
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Superparamagnetic NiFe2O4 Nanoparticles to Remove Arsenic From Drinking Water
Author
Author
Köseoğlu, Yüksel
Abstract
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Superparamagnetic nanoparticles of nickel ferrite (NiFe2O4) were produced by PEG assisted hydrothermal method. XRD, FT-IR, TEM and VSM were used for the structural, morphological, and magnetic investigation of the product, respectively. Average particle size of the nanoparticles was estimated by the Scherrer equation using the full-width at half maximum (FWHM) of the most intense XRD peak and found as 14 nm. While the nanoparticles indicate a superparamagnetic behavior above the blocking temperature of 72 K, they have ferromagnetic behavior at temperatures lower than the blocking temperature. These nanoparticles were dispersed into drinking water contaminated with arsenic (As), and once they bind to arsenic, they have been removed from the water solution using a strong magnet. The results were measured by Atomic Mass Spectrometry and found that these nanoparticles had removed 90 % of the arsenic. The measurements were repeated several times with the same sample and get almost the same results.
Date
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2010-06
Keywords
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Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)