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Traffic Calming Schemes In Sakarya:
Applications And Public Perceptions
Hakan Aslan
University of Sakarya, Civil Engineering Department,
Division of Transportation, Sakarya
haslan@sakarya.edu.tr
Abstract: As being one of the main tools in urban transport planning and traffic
management, traffic calming is gaining more attention in the recent years.
Furthermore, it is expected that its use will be increased significantly in the near
future. This paper is mainly assesses the implemantation of traffic calming schemes
in Sakarya and the response from the public. A questionnaire based research was
designed and undertaken in some traffic calmed areas of Sakarya. The results
obtained indicate the factthatthe implemantations and their public perception need
to be improved through bettertechnical applications and public consultation process.
The results conclude thatthere is a significant dissatisfaction among the people from
poorly designed and applied schemes ending up damaging environment and being
very unsightly. The paper also discusses the possible recommendations and
suggestions about the ways ofimproving the traffic calming schemes and expected
benefitsin Sakarya
Introduction
The term traffic calming is very loosely used and can therefore mean differentthings to different people.
Although there is no single com mon definition oftraffic calming accepted by interested authorities[1],it can be
defined as the techniques aimed at reducing vehicle speeds in residential areas, without restricting access. As a
result of this, vulnerable road users and residents are protected, and the quality of life is improved for those
living in the neighbourhood. As one of the main figures in the field of traffic calming, Hass-Klau [2] regarded
traffic calming as ‘ the street regulations and combinations of transport policies used for the Dutch woonerven,
which enforces the reduction of motor vehicle speeds to walking pace, giving equal rights to allroad users and
alleviatesthe adverse environmental safety and severance effects of motor vehicles.
The developments and applications of traffic calming schemes all over the world, especially in the
Europe, has quite rightly brought the subject into the agenda of the transportation related people; researchers,
transport professionals and highway authorities.
Although one of the main objectives of the traffic calming schemes is related to the safety of the traffic
environment, the degree of danger felt by people using the streets is also another important aspect of traffic
calming applications. This research reveals the public perception of the applied traffic calming measures in city
of Sakarya, Turkey.
Traffic Calming in Europe
With the increasing public awareness of environmentalissues in Germany, Federal Ministry of Regional
Planning, Housing and Urban Development handled theissues relatedtotraffic calming. The Ministry played the
leading role in financing traffic calming related applications and first publication about on the analysis and
practical experiences oftraffic calming in 1978/79 was revealed. The two following publications from the same
Ministry were Planning Booklet on Traffic Calming (1982) and Cost of Traffic Calming (1983). These
publications, along with others, changed the attitutes of people and , accordingly,the organisations in highway
and transportation related issues had no longer any question about the need for traffic calming on residential
streets.. The recent studies [3] state that German cities obtained 50 percent increase in bicycle use, 57 percent
reduction in fatal accidents, 45 percent reduction in severe accidents, 40 percent reduction in slight injuries, 43
percentreduction in pedestrian accidents, 16 percentreduction in cyclistaccidents, 16 percentreduction intraffic
accident costs, 66 percent reduction in child accidentsthrough the implementation oftraffic calming projects.
424
�As being the origin country of traffic calming, Woonerf schemes of the 1970's, engineers in Delft
demonstrated that the speed of vehicles could be reduced through specific design measures. The first
applications became so successful not onlyinterms oftraffic management and design but also public perception.
The following years led to new applications in many towns and cities, even villages, and legal legislation was
introduced in 1976 [4]. The reliable and steady positive results obtained from the research projects in
Netherlands [5] formed the basis forthe evolution oftrafficcalming design of our modern days.
Britain was slow to startthe debate and discussion on the notion oftraffic calming as the main objectives
of traffic calming was seen to reduce the accidents and Department of Transport claimed that accident levels
were relatively low compared the other European countries.Đn the following years, with the changing attitudes,
some local highway authorities such as Kent & Hetfordshire took the initiative and started carrying out some
traffic calming projects without any clear official approval from the DOT. Britain is now one of the leading
countries ofthe Europe to implementthe wide range oftraffic calming schemes successfully [6].
Turkey is stillitsinfancy regarding the traffic calming applications and the reviews ofthe current applied
measures. The local authorities have the power to implement the schemes whenever and wherever they think
they are necessary. The residents` opinions are frequently neglected inthe process. However,itis quite clearthat
the purpose of the proposed schemes need to be communicated to local residents and allinterested parties not
only to get their opinions but also to inform them about the technical necessities and possible benefits of the
projecttojustify the application in their mind.
The main objective ofthisresearch isto determine through a questionareifthe traffic calming schemes in
Sakarya are readily acceptable by the general public and make some recommendations based on the analysis of
the questionnaire.
The Need for Questionnaire Survey
A survey is not synonymous with a particular technique of collecting information.[7]. The way of data
collection and the analysis method to be employed are the distinguishing features of the surveys. As the
measurement of perception of the public attitude is atthe core of this study,itis believed thatthe questionnaire
based survey would be most appropriate for giving the freedoom to the people to express theirideas. The same
consideration affected the selection of the type of the attitude measurements and, accordingly, The Continuous
Rating Scale and Linkert Scale were employed as the type of rating scale. Đt is thought that these two rating
scales are quite appropropriateto get atrue and unbaised response by giving the best possible amount of freedom
and flexibilitytothe respondents.
The questionnaire is designed to get the opinion of the people affected by the traffic calming schemes
regarding the main aspects below.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
the necessity ofthe project
the location and the appearance
the effects on journey times
the effects on route choice
the effects on pedestrian safety
the effects on how the streetlook
the effect on noise levels
the effect on the safety of pedal cyclists
whetherthe participants wish to see traffic calming schemes increased.
The following sections are related to the presentation and analysis ofthe data obtained.
The Selection Criteria of the Applied Projects
Đn this study, the Cark street and 503th street were selected as the fields of the study as these two streets
are quite busy in terms of vehicle and pedestrian movements along with the intensity of the residential areas. Đn
addition,these streets are regarded asthe main projectsimplemented in Sakarya by the local authority.
W hile the first street is a two-way district distributor, the second one is one-way local distributor. The
applied technique on both streets is speed humps. Humps are located near to schools, mosques, crossings and
junctions where it is thought that the vehicle speeds need to be reduced to an acceptable levels if there is a
danger for pedestrian safety,.The visuality ofthe humps are enhanced through reflective paints and colouring.
The selected streets are heavily used ones asthey arelinking the city centre withthe most developed parts
425
�of the city.
Appraisal of Results
Đn order to getthe very firstimpression and generalideas of the participants to traffic calming concept,
the first question was related whetherthe traffic calming should be increased in the city as a whole.
The obtained results areillustrated in Figure 1.
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
YES
NO
Figure 1. Do You Think Thatthe Implementation of TrafficCalming Projects Should be Incresaed
Thisresultclearlyindicatesthatthe general attitudes ofthe publictowardstraffic calming schemes are not
in favor. The split is very significant and illustrates the fact that the City Council engineers are facing a big
challenge regarding their traffic restraint policies in order to reduce in the percentage of population opposing
traffic calming schemes.
The necessity ofthe projects applied on the selected streetsis perveived by the public given by Figure 2.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
YES
NO
Figure 2. Do You Think ThatThe Applied Projectis Necessary
The Figure 1 and Figure 2 seem to be showing opposing conclusions. It is belived from Figure 2 that
people are intrested in having a better and safer traffic environment, Figure 1, however, indicates that if the
applications are not projected and carried out properly,this is what makes the people to be against the general
concept oftraffic calming.
426
�Figure 3 illustratesthe public opinion forthe location and appearance ofthe humps.
60
50
40
Location
30
Appearance
20
10
0
Good
Bad
No idea
Figure 3. What Do You Think Aboutthe Location and Appearance ofthe Humps
As figures imply, almost 50 per cent of the general public has the idea thatthe location ofthe humps are
determined properly. Those against the location are generally the people having their residants or shops in the
vicinity of the application area. The respondents` perception towards the appearance of the humps are negative.
This is mainly becasuse ofthe factthatthe applied humps do not have proper markings and design features.
As the main objective ofthe traffic calming isto slow drivers down,itshould resultin an overallincrease
in journey time. The following figures show the results of the survey regarding this point and the effect of the
projects on the route choice behaviour ofthe people,respectively.
60
50
40
30
20
10
ed
d
ge
De
as
c re
i gh
tly
De
cr e
a
se
Ch
an
No
Sl
Sl
i gh
tl y
Đnc
Đn
c
re a
se
re a
se
d
d
0
Figure 4. Effect of Traffic Calming on Journey Times
427
�no
t
er
Ca
n
Ne
v
W
ish
bu
t
So
m
eti
m
es
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 5. Effect of Traffic Calming on Route Choice
Figure 4 and 5 imply interesting results. As most of the people normally do not perceive increases or
decreases in journey times unless they are large and significant, more than 50 percent of the repondents stated
that they did not have any impression that the journey time was extended. Although, one of the drawbacks of
traffic calming schemes is that drivers seek alternative routes without any measures on them, overwhelming
majority ofthe participants expressed thatthey never changed theirroutes. Thisis mainly due tothe nature ofthe
selected streets of the study. The streets are the main and possibly shortest routes in time even with applied
measures comparetothe other alternative routes. Another explanation ofthisisthat drivers do speed up between
the humps in order to offset the lost time due to the speed reductions on humps. A lot of respondents, on the
other hand, wish to chance their routes to escape the negative effects of the humps but due to the lack of
alternative routesthey cannot change the road thatthey drive on.
The perception ofthe public regarding the noise levelis given by Figure 6 below.
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Worst
Slightly
Worse
No Change
Slightly
Better
Better
Figure 6. Effect of Traffic Calming on Noise Levels
There seems to be significant proportion of people saying that the noise levels had gone up. This is
primarily because of the sudden braking noise of the cars when they reach the speed humps, and the sudden
accelaration noise for speeding up just after humps.
As far as pedestrian and pedalcyclists` safety are concerned,the public perception isformed as below.
428
�70
60
50
40
Pedestrian Safety
30
Cyclists Safety
20
10
0
Đncreased
No
Change
Decreased
No idea
Figure 7. Effect of Traffic Calming on Pedestrian and PedalCyclist
As expected, majority of the people perceived that pedestrian safety was improved. Although only a
small percentage of the respondents believe that traffic calming resulted in a decresaed pedestrian safety, it is
very importantthatthese people should also be persuaded about the significant contribution thattraffic calming
can make to the overall pedestrian safety.
Making sense of the combination of these results are not easy, but it can be said that 63 percent of the
participants did not want to see an increased traffic calming but 53 percent of them also believed that traffic
calming applications are necessary. While the first figure illustrates the reaction of the people to the applied
schemes, the second one indicates the fact that people are in favor of the idea of traffic calming if they are
designed and applied properly. People are aware of the benefits of the traffic calming measures and can justify
them in spite of the disbenefits;increased noise level and traveltime.
Conclusions and Recommendations
.
Đtis obviousthattheimportantrolethatraffic calming plays and willcontinue to play intraffic management and
restraint projects, a priority should be given by public authorities to make sure that people are given enough
information aboutthe projects and communicated forthe feedback.
As the aim of this research has been to evaluate the public perception of the traffic calming schemes in
Sakarya and make the recommendations of how to improve this perceptions,the following recommendations are
done in the light ofthis study and obtained results.
1. Without any doubt public should be consulted priorto the implementation of traffic calming measures.
The current system in Sakarya seems to be not inclusive enough. Public should not be given the
impression that decisions are made well before and public consultation exercise done as window
dressings afterwards.
2. Questionnaires should be sent outin the early stages ofthe plans in orderto judge ifthe public assume
that schemes are necessary.
3. Đnitiatives should be introduced for educating the public on the benefits of traffic calming schemes.
Local tv and radio stations along with newspapers may be used for this purpose to make sure that
information is given as widely as possible.
4. As majority of the people supportthe idea of traffic calming but criticise the current implementations,
the utmost care should be paid for the future applications to be designed and carried out with a
predetermined standards. This will surely make the engineers` job in the future easier to get public
support as public might chance their perception aboutthe applied traffic calming schemes inthe past.
5. As people are quite keen to change their routes to escape the disbenefits of the applied traffic calming
measures, the effects of any implementation should be considered as a package by including the
possible alternative routes ofthe streets and roads subjectto implementation.
429
�References
1. MacDonald. (1993). Quantifying the traffic calming effects on vehicle user behaviour. Unpublished MSc Dissertation.
University of Newcastle upon Tyne.
2. Hass-Klau. ( 1990). The pedestrian and city traffic, London. Belhaven Pres.
3. http://www.walkablestreets.com/calm1.htm
4. Lines, C.J., & Castelijn, H.A. (1991). Translation of Dutch 30kph zone design manual. TRRL, PA2046/91
5. Traffic Calming, Local Transport Note 1/107, Department of Transport, March 2007 : TSO
6. Wheeler, G.J., Kennedy, J.V., Davies, G.J., & Green, J.M. ( 2001). Traffic calming schemes in Norfolk and Suffolk.
TRL Report/500. 2001
7. De Vaus, A.D.(1993). Survey in social research. UCL Pres, London
430
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Traffic Calming Schemes In Sakarya: Applications And Public Perceptions
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1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
To Take advantage of Mass Media Implementation on Agricultural Farms
in Konya; The case of Altınekin District
Cennet Oguz
University of Selcuk Faculty of Agriculture 42031 Konya,TUR KEY
coguz@selcuk.edu.tr
Hüseyin Dogançukuru
Agricultural Engineer Public Agricultural Extension department, TURKEY
hdogancukuru@hotmail.com
Abstract:This study was conducted to supply achievement of Agricultural Extension
work which is being implemented in Konya region. Itis significantly important to
state that which extension implements will be used in which level in order to reach
this objective. The minimum usable sample offarm enterprises was determined as 55
based on stratified sampling technique. The data were collected from Altınekin
districtin Konya. The new technologies application is quite high in the research area
and the producers are open to innovation.
The resultsindicate that agricultural modernization has a positive effect on farm
enterprises in the certain district and the reasons behind this are that the producers
are open to innovation and they have positive future expectation,the producers in an
economy have the right kind of knowledge and information, they can produce
economic output efficiently.
Keywords: Mass media, Agriculture Extension, Konya Province
Introduction
The world we liveinisshrinking withthe same level of changing and developing.Inthe nearfuture,the
nations which can cope with this change and development will have the chance to survive. The certain change is
ongoing with a spectacular speed in all part oflife. Rational and economic production oriented towards needs is
the main part of the modernization. Its centre is without doubt the human being. Modern technology which is
utilized for agricultural production will be the cause of an increase in the technical agricultural production. That
also means that there will be an improvement for the living conditions and a boost income of the farmers who
lives in the rural areas.In the end, better quality food consumption, good nutritive and a growing work capacity
will emerge.
On the other hand, the growing population and the population density in urban areas because of the
migration force the farmers to make a production with more quantity and a high quality. Other wise, this
uncontrolled population which consist of unemployed migrants will cause nuisance and socialturmoil. For that
reason the society have to take their responsibility of improving the living conditions of the rural people and
create methods to provide agricultural technical information that they need. They also have to make those
methods work. Itis called agricultural extension. The developed countries that are conscious about this subject
already established the necessary organisations.
With the 130 thousands registered farmers, Konya is the city that has the highest number of farmers in Turkey.
In terms of the area,the situation is also the same and with 135.886ha registered agricultural area; Konya is the
province that has the largest agricultural area. These figures signify the importance of agricultural extension
work that will be implemented in Konya province. In such a broad area with such a large number of farmers,
stating the usage of which agriculturalextension methods willbe utilized in which level willboostthe success of
the agricultural extension work that will be implemented. The main objective of this study is contributing the
success of the agricultural extension work which is being implemented in Konya region. It is significantly
important to state that which extension implements will be used in which level in order to reach this objective.
For the below reasons, Altinekin district was chosen as the research field; the regions is well-known by the
researchers,thelevel ofthe application ofthe new farming techniquesis quite high and the producers are open to
5
�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
innovation.
This study was done in order to revealthe progress in the use of the means of mass communication in
the certain district and the reasons behind this are that the producers are open to innovation and they have
positive future expectations.
Materyal ve Metot
The survey technique was applied for this research. When the survey form was prepared, the research
subject and the features of the agricultural enterprises are considered and we also did benefit from the other
survey forms which have being used for severalresearches.The data which was used forthe research belongs to
years 2006 and 2007. For the purpose of the research, Altinekin district was chosen as the research field and the
reasons behind this are thatthe regions is well-known by the researchers,the level ofthe application of the new
farming techniques is quite high and the producers are open to innovation. With the intention of improving the
accuracy of the findings which is obtained with information gathered from the enterprises and ensuring the
population’s different sections to be represented sufficiently, the stratified sampling methods was used for the
research. The stratified sampling is conducted by considering the factors which affectthe examined populations’
inspected features. With the stratified sampling, the population’s parameters are better estimated because it is
possibleto selectthem from allstratums.(Çiçek and at all. 1996).
Farm SizeGroup(ha)
Sample enterprises (unit)
1-20
13
21-40
29
41- +
13
Total
55
Table 1. The distribution of sample enterprises
Research Results And Discussion
Freehold Land and land use situation
During the research that was carried outinthe enterprises,the case ofland use,freehold land,leasehold
and share land’s width were considered. Enterprises’ ownership in land and their usage can be seen in table 2.
land
FarmSize
Group(ha)
1-20
21-40
41- +
Average
(ha)
14,512
25,664
52,827
31,001
hiring
partnership
Total enterprise area
Avrg.land
(ha)
ratio %
ratio %
(ha)
ratio % area(ha) ratio %
94,61
0,82
5,39
0,00
0,00
15,33
100,00
96,62
0,89
3,38
0,00
0,00
26,56
100,00
100
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
52,82
100,00
97,08
0,57
2,92
0,00
0,00
31,57
100,00
Table 2. Land use sitiuation in investigated holdings
In the Research field,the size of land is estimated as 31,57 ha. 97.08% of thisisfreehold and 2, 92 % is
leasehold.In turkey,the percentage ofthe enterprises which use freehold land is 92,7. Butthe percentage ofthe
enterprisesthat use leasehold and share land is 7.3 (Anonym,1997).
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
FarmSize
Group(ha)
1-20
21-40
41- +
Average
(%)
W heat
6,788
9,647
16,038
10,824
25,60
SugarBarley
beet
bean
sunflower Other
Totalfarm area
3,500
3,092
3,125
3,688
20,194
6,615
5,220
4,208
7,034
4,750
37,475
10,650 9,521
6,500
11,885
8,125
62,719
6,922
5,944
4,611
7,536
6,438
42,272
16,37
14,06
10,91
17,83
15,23
100,00
Table 3. Plant sowing ininvestigated holdings ( ha,%)
The enterprises product proportion isfollowing as; 25,60% wheat, 16,37% barley, 14,06% sugar-beat,
10,91% dryed bean, 17,83% sunflower and 15,23% other plants. The proportion of grain (barley, wheat etc.)
farming and the proportion ofdryed bean and sunflower farming is almost equal. This signifiesthatrotate
cultivation system is working successfully in agriculturalfields.
Substructure situation in village according to the enterprise groups
W hen the villages’infrastructures, where the enterprises are situated, are observed,itis determined that
78, 60% of the enterprises have asphalt-paved road. All ofthe villages have electricity. Only 24, 31% of these
have health centres, 16, 89% ofthese have canalization and 97, 44% of these have telephone. Infrastructures of
the telephone and electricity are completed. Thisindicatesthat farmers easily reach the com munication sources.
Farm Size
Group(ha)
1-20
Asphalt road
Electricity
Health organization
Canalization
Ho me phone
exist
exist
not
exist
not
exist
not
exist
not
69,23
30,77 100,00 0,00
7,69
92,31
15,38
84,62
92,31
7,69
89,66
10,34 100,00 0,00
34,48
62,07
27,59
68,97
100,00
0,00
76,92
23,08 100,00 0,00
30,77
69,23
7,69
92,31
100,00
0,00
97,44
2,56
not
21-40
41- +
Average
78,60 21,40 100,00 0,00 24,31
74,54
16,89 81,96
Table 4. Substructure situation according to the enterprise groups (%)
The situation of machinary equipment possessions according to the enterprise groups
In the research area, when enterprises’ usage ofthe equipment-machine is obtained,itisfound that all
the enterprises have tractor and plough. enterprises %97,44 Driller, %94,87 Atomizer, %67,37 Cultivator, %
8,84 Combine harvester, % 37,44 Sugar-beet harvester, % 87,44 Manure distributor, %35,10 Rotatiller, %22,55
subsoiler
It can be understood that when the largeness ofthe enterprise increase ,the possession of agricultural equipment
alsıincrease butin contrary to this situation we have observed thatitcan seen when the largeness ofthe
enterprise increase, possession ofthe sub-soiler, used for crumbling the hard-pan, begins to decrease.
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
Farm Size
Group(ha)
1-20
SugarCo mbine
beet
Cultivator harvester harvester
M anure
distributor
Driller
Atomizer
Rotatiller Subsoiler
92,31
84,62
76,92
0,00
30,77
76,92
30,77
7,69
100,00
100,00
48,28
3,45
27,59
93,10
20,69
13,79
100,00
100,00
76,92
23,08
53,85
92,31
53,85
46,15
97,44
94,87
67,37
8,84
37,40
87,44
35,10
Table 5. The situation of machinary possessions ininvestigated holdings (%)
22,55
21-40
41- +
Average
The situation of using the electrical house equipment (household utensil)
The using Tv and Refrigerator according to the average enterprise groups were observed as 100 %.
Using the washing machine, hoover, dish washer,tv satelitereceiver, bread dough machine were determined as
81,43%,89,12%,13,70% 91,69 % 16,89 respectively. The most noticed resultsisthe increasing of usage of
electrical equipments depending increasing the enterprise largeness.Itshows thatthe results of high usage of
satelite receiverin rural areas put forth the high watching rate of various tv Channels. Nevertheless,itis very
noticeable that usage ofthe Bread Dough machine especially in larger farmer, most ofthe makes/bakes oftheir
own bread isinthe level of 16,89 %.
Farm Size
Washing
(TV satellite Bread dough
Group(ha)
machine
hoover
dish washer
receiver)
machine
1-20
69,23
84,62
7,69
92,31
7,69
21-40
82,76
82,76
10,34
82,76
27,59
41- +
92,31
100,00
23,08
100,00
15,38
Average
81,43
89,12
13,70
91,69
16,89
Table 6. The situation of using the electrical house equipmentininvestigated holdings (%)
Agricultural issues needed assistance for the farmers according to the enterprise groups
Agriculturalissues needed assistance forthe farmers according to the enterprise groups are listed as
below 66,84% for disorder and pests, 80,02 % for growing,88,86 % for market data (prices,support amounts,
credits), 87,98 % for fertiliserand fertilizing, 7,43 % for environmental protection and otherissues. These results
show thatfarmers mostly wonder some issues related to marketing and finance and try to find out support
amounts dealing with supporting their enterprises.itis noticeable situation that farmers needed some knowledge
concerning with environmental protection.
Farm Size
Group(ha)
1-20
21-40
41- +
Average
8
Disorder
Fertilizer and Environmental
and pests
growing
market
fertilizing
protection
61,54
76,92
84,62
92,31
0,00
62,07
86,21
89,66
79,31
6,90
76,92
76,92
92,31
92,31
15,38
66,84
80,02
88,86
87,98
7,43
Table 7. Agriculturalissues needed by assistance in investigated holdings (%)
other
0,00
6,90
15,38
7,43
�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
Information centers reached by the farmers according to the enterprise groups
Information centers reached by the farmers according to the average enterprise groups have been come
out as follow 81,43 % from other farmers, 95,14 % from Sub-province agricultural Directorate, 24,58 % from
agricultural, 8,58 % from published journals, 12,29 % from internet, 9,99 % from universities, 23,96 % from
research institutes, 80,02 from vendors and 7,43 % from other knowledge sources. Sub-province agricultural
Directorate, others farmers and agricultural pesticide vendors have come forward asthe mostly made
connections centers.
SubFrom
province
Farm Size other agricultural Agricultural Published
Research
Group(ha) farmers Directorate
engineer
journal Đnternet Univercity institute Vendor Other
1-20
76,92
92,31
23,08
0,00
7,69
7,69
15,38
69,23 0,00
21-40
82,76
27,59
10,34
13,79
6,90
10,34
86,21 6,90
41- +
84,62
100,00
23,08
15,38
15,38
15,38
46,15
84,62 15,38
Average
81,43
95,14
24,58
8,58
12,29
9,99
Table 8.Information centers reached by the farmers (%)
23,96
80,02
7,43
The Consideration of how accurately the agricultural practices have been done
Itis determined that 1,15 % of Producersinthe enterprise areas carried out accurate activities everytime
,27,4 % ofthem accepted the correctness of practices, 62,68 % accepted some inaccuracies, 8,84 ofthem
accepted thatthet made some mistakes in many times.intotal more than 70 % farmers admitted thatthey makde
some mistakes in some acricultural practices.
M any times, inaccurate
agricultural practices are
com mon
Farm Size Accurate
Sometime
Group(ha) everytime
Accurate
inaccurate
1-20
0,00
38,46
61,54
0,00
21-40
3,45
27,59
65,52
3,45
41- +
0,00
15,38
61,54
23,08
Average
1,15
27,14
62,86
8,84
Table 9. The Consideration of how accurately the agricultural practices have been done(%)
The situation of usage mass communication means according to the enterprise groups
W hen researching the situation of usage mass communication means according to the enterprise groups
in agriculturalissues,it was determined that whole farmers utilized from Tv as mass communication means .
Utilization ratio is 6,28 % from the Radio, 1,15 % from VCD, 16,89 % usage internet, 7,43 % from home phone,
40,58 % from newspaper, 18,30 % from magazine and 41,1 % from leaflets.
Farm Size
Group(ha)
1-20
21-40
41- +
Average
Tv
100,00
100,00
100,00
100,00
Radio
7,69
3,45
7,69
6,28
VCD
0,00
3,45
0,00
1,15
internet
7,69
27,59
15,38
16,89
Ho me
phone
0,00
6,90
15,38
7,43
Newspaper
38,46
44,83
38,46
40,58
Journal
0
24,14
30,77
18,30
Leaflet
30,76
31,03
61,54
41,11
9
�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
Table 10. Utilizing of Mass-Media implemention in investigated holdings (%)
The State Of Attending The Group Agricultural Knowledge Connection Supplies
According To Groups Of Enterprises
According to the means of enterprises,the farmers have attended asthe sharing place of agriculturel
knowledge to farmer meetings at arate of %73,12, panels at %22,02, conference at %14,59 and seminars at
%7,16.
Farm Size
Group(ha)
1-20
21-40
41- +
Average
Farmer
meetings
84,62
65,52
69,23
73,12
Panel
7,69
27,59
30,77
22,02
Conference
15,38
20,69
7,69
14,59
Seminar
0,00
13,79
7,69
7,16
Table 11. The situation of exchangeable agricultural knowledge (%)
The State Of Attending Individual Agricultural Knowledge Connection Supplies
According To Groups Of Enterprises
In the research field,the farmers getsthe agricultural news and knowledge from coffee houses at
%86,56, other farmers when atthe field at %79,13, village rooms at %44,56, stock market at %54,55, market at
%39,17 and from the fairs at%39,17.
Farm Size
On
Village meeting Stock
On
Group(ha)
farm
room
market market Fair
Đn cafes
1-20
84,62
84,62
30,77
38,46
23,08
7,69
21-40
82,76
75,86
41,38
48,28
24,14
48,28
41- +
92,31
76,92
61,54
76,92
30,77
61,54
Average
86,56
79,13
44,56
54,55
25,99
39,17
Table 12. The situation of sources ofindividual exchanging agricultural knowledge(%)
The State Of Getting Out Of The Village According To The Enterprise Groups
W hen examined the state of getting out ofthe village according to the enterprise groups,itis stated that
%55,97 ofthem everyday, %41,73 once a week and %2,30 once in atwo week gets out ofthe village.
Advances in transport opportunities and getting cheaper in rural areas and diversifying ofneeds increased getting
out of village and according to these %97,70 ofthe farmers atleast once a week feelsto get out ofthe village. As
a result,accepting the innovations level becomes high by the farmers who have strong connections with city
centers.
Farm Size
Group(ha)
1-20
21-40
41- +
Everyday
One at a week
One in every two weeks
61,54
38,46
0,00
44,83
48,28
6,90
61,54
38,46
0,00
Average
55,96817
41,73298
2,30
Table 13.the situation of frequency of visiting intervaltothe city (%)
The State Of Mobile Communication Level According To The Enterprise Groups
10
�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
According to the enterprise groups the state of possessing the mobile phone is at a rate of%98,85. The
rate of farmers who constantly have mobile phones nearby is %96,26. The rate of farmers that agricultural
knowledge comes to whose mobile phones is %14,85 and who doesn’t come is %85,15. The rate of farmers who
want to get agricultural knowledges by their phones is % 95,14. The farmers have their phones atthe average of
8,4 years. The farmers have paid 36,23 TL at average for monthly speech fee. Itisimportant to evaluate this
condition and using the form of SMS for farmers to reach knowledge.
Farm Size
Group (ha)
Situation of
Possession of holding the
mobile phone mobile phone
Co ming of
agricultural
knowledge from
mobile phone
Do yo want to
get agricultural
informatin
from phone ?
yes
no
no
yes
no
yes
no
100,00
0,00 92,31
7,69
7,69
92,31
100,00
0,00
8,15
20,5
96,55
3,45 96,55
0,00
13,79
82,76
93,10
6,90
8,28
23,4
100,00
0,00 100,00
0,00
23,08
76,92
92,31
7,69
8,77
26,05
yes
Haw long W hat is
have you
the
had mobile monthly
phone?
cost?
(year)
($)
1-20
21-40
41- +
Average
98,85
1,15 96,29
2,56 14,85
85,15
95,14
4,86 8,40
Table 14. The situation oflevel in mobile communication in investigated holdings (%)
23,3
Result and Suggestions
There are 3.076.650 enterprises in our country and 4.2 %( 130000) of those are in Konya. The following
facts prevent farmers who are disbanded in wide area from gaining accurate, solid information at the correct
time; Konya province has a broad area and itis consist of 31 districts. Our farmers concerns about certain issues
such as; transferring the agricultural technology to the farmers in research fields, announcing the innovations,
strengthening the farmers against the market and transferring the information about agricultural support and
credits. In 2007, agricultural supports was tried to be announced under 102 headings by only the Ministry of
Agriculture (http://www.tugem.gov.tr). Furthermore, there are new headings that need to be announced to
farmers. These are the followings; keeping records during the process of European Union, agricultural support
works based on these records, changes which are made based on figures and practises each years.In the past 3
years including 2005 and 2007, 7 laws, 23 ministers council decisions, 16 com muniqués, 13 circulars and 33
legislations were published by the Ministry of agriculture with the intention of regulating the agricultural
production (http://www.tugem.gov.tr).
The farmers are having difficulties reaching the information and using the communication sources. The
level of following up organs ofthe printed publication islow and the internet use began to increase. Despite the
factthat TV isthe best-known mass communication method, only one channelis consist of agricultural programs
amongst the 373 national TV channels which are revealed in the daily TV listing and the local TV channels
programmes do not have the sustainability. The existing com munication sources do not contain such subjects as
is valuable for the farmers. Furthermore,the farmers are not interested in agricultural subjects which organs of
the printed publication contain. Ministry of agriculture is trying to apply all sort of visual and printed
publications so as to reach banks,the farmer organisations and the private sector farmers. To gain the results of
these efforts, modern communication methods need to be utilized. Mobile communications that present us the
innovations in different sectors has to be included in agricultural extension works.
In the case of mobile communication, one way information flow which isin SMS format requires to be two
way. With the information transfer, sound files also need to be enabled to be sent and received. ARGE works
should be conducted so asto boost and generalizethe effectiveness of mobile communication in orderto produce
communication equipments at the prototype level. Agricultural publications models which are suitable for the
mobile communications methods used by farmers should be generated.
Farmers registration system that is implemented by Ministry of Agricultural, agricultural business
accounting data networks and the software sub-structure of allsort offarmer organisations have to be suitable for
11
�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
the mobile communications.
References
Anonymous, http://www.e-kolay.net
Anonymous, Http://tüik.gov.tr
Anonymous, http://www.tugem.gov.tr
Boyacı.M., 1996 Agricultural Extension in EU and Turkey, Ege University publication, Bornova ,Đzmir.
Cicek.A., Erkan.O., 1996. Research and Samples Method in Agricultural Economics, Gazi Osman Paşa University
Publication, Đzmir.
Celep. C., 1995. Public Education Pegem Pub. Number:22,ISBN:975-7251-14-3.Ankara.
Oakley. P., Garforth. C., 1998, The Guide Extension Education, Number:11 TYUAP publication, Ankara.
Özcatalbas.O., Gürgen. Y., Agricultural Extension and Communication, Baki Bookshop, Adana.
Yurttaş.Z.,2006Agricultural Extension and Communication Technics, A.Ü. Agricultural Faculty, Publication Number:67,
Erzurum.
12
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
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461
Title
A name given to the resource
To Take advantage of Mass Media Implementation on Agricultural Farms in Konya; The case of Altınekin District
Author
Author
Oguz, Cennet
Dogançukuru, Hüseyin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This study was conducted to supply achievement of Agricultural Extension work which is being implemented in Konya region. It is significantly important to state that which extension implements will be used in which level in order to reach this objective. The minimum usable sample of farm enterprises was determined as 55 based on stratified sampling technique. The data were collected from Altınekin district in Konya. The new technologies application is quite high in the research area and the producers are open to innovation. The results indicate that agricultural modernization has a positive effect on farm enterprises in the certain district and the reasons behind this are that the producers are open to innovation and they have positive future expectation, the producers in an economy have the right kind of knowledge and information, they can produce economic output efficiently.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/abe809ca90b9658db6e64444d9bbe85b.pdf
896e4a60c5a24eed54c659ee39494069
PDF Text
Text
The Utilization of Modified Rye Straws as Biosorbents for Cr (VI) Ions
Huseyin Deveci
Faculty of Engineering-Architecture, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Selcuk University, Campus, 42079 Konya, Turkey
hdeveci@selcuk.edu.tr
Erol Pehlivan
Faculty of Engineering-Architecture, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Selcuk University, Campus, 42079 Konya, Turkey
erolpehlivan@gmail.com
Abstract: The potential to remove Cr (VI) ion from aqueous solutions using modified rye
straws (MRS), through adsorption was investigated in batch experiments. Rye straws were
collected from vicinity of Konya, Turkey and modified with various amount of citric acid (CA).
The parameter for modification was selected by trying different parameters such as time,
temperature and citric acid quantity. The rate of adsorption was studied under a variety of
conditions including initial Cr (VI) concentration (1.10-4-4.10-3M), amount of adsorbent (0.050.4 g), pH (1.5 to 7), and contact time (5-240 min). Adsorption of Cr (VI) uptake is in all cases
pH-dependent showing a maximum at equilibrium at pH values of 1.5-2.0 for (MRS). The
batch sorption kinetics has been tested and the applicability of the Langmuir and Freundlich
adsorption isotherms for the present system has been tested at 25°C. The experimental results
inferred that adsorption, electrostatic attraction, complexation and chelation are major
adsorption mechanisms for binding Cr (VI) ion to the (MRS).
Compared to the various other adsorbents reported in the literature, the (MRS) shows very good
alternative adsorbent for practical applicability for waste streams and the results indicated that
MRS can be employed as a low cost alternative in the removal of Cr (VI) ion from wastewater.
Introduction
The increasing contamination of urban and industrial wastewaters by toxic metal ions causes important
environmental pollutions. These inorganic micro-pollutants are of considerable concern because they are nonbiodegradable, highly toxic and have a probable carcinogenic effect (Madoni et al., 1996). The traditional
techniques for the removal of toxic metals from aqueous effluents are incapable of reducing concentration to the
levels required by law. Cr(III) and Cr(VI) are the chromium oxidation states usually encountered in the
environment. The hexavalent form is of particular concern because of its greater toxicity.
Several other methods are utilized to remove chromium from industrial wastewater. These include: reduction,
ion exchange, activated carbon adsorption, electrolytic removal, reverse osmosis, membrane filtration (Cimino et
al., 2000; Gode and Pehlivan, 2003; Lu et al., 2006). There are other systems for treating wastewaters containing
toxic metal ions is today the use of micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae but as yet not suitable for
applications on a large scale (Ho et al.1995). Several studies have established the potential of peat and brown
coal to capture dissolved metals from contaminated waters (McKay and Porter, 1997; Lakatos et al., 2002).
Chromium, in its hexavalent form, is one of the undesirable heavy metals because it affects human physiology
accumulates in the food chain and cause several ailments. Chromium exists in different oxidation states in
aqueous solutions. Although Cr(III) is an essential element for humans, water soluble Cr(VI) is highly irritating
and toxic to humans and animals. The main industrial sources of chromium pollution are leather tanning,
electroplating, printing, mining, metal processing, wood preservatives, paint and pigments, particularly yellow
road paints, textile, metallurgical engineering, battery manufacturing processes and as an anticorrosion agent in
cooling waters (Raji and Anirudhan, 1996; Yu et al., 2003; Sharma and Forster, 1993).
Biosorption is an emergent and low cost option to treat heavy metal pollutants that would otherwise create
serious environmental hazard. A wide range of physical and chemical processes is available for the removal of
Cr(VI) from wastewater. The lignocellulosic waste materials are accomplished requirements for good adsorbent,
they possess some adsorption capacities, and they are locally available and have a low cost. Several natural
adsorbents, including rice bran, soybean and cottonseed hulls (Marshall and Johns, 1996), sawdust (Bryant et al.,
301
�1992), straw (Aderhold et al., 1996) have been investigated for their ability to sequester metal ion from water.
However, limited information exists on the removal efficiency of anions (Achari and Anirudhan, 1995). New
economical, easily available and highly effective adsorbents are still needed.
The purpose of this research was aimed to gain a fundamental understanding of the chemical and physical
phenomena associated with the binding of Cr(VI) to rye straw (RS) obtained as by-product from locally used
wood. The modification of rye straws (RS) by citric acid with the highest sorption capacity was subsequently
investigated for its potential as a sorbent for the removal of Cr(VI) from aqueous solutions. This study reports
the use of citric acid modified MRS as a biosorbent to remove hexavalent chromium from aqueous solutions.
The effects of solution pH, contact time, adsorbent concentration, and initial metal concentration on chromium
(VI) adsorption were investigated in detail.
Materials and Methods
Materials
(RS) was collected from vicinity of Konya-Turkey. Straws were ground with Retsch RM 100 model
grinding machine. They were ground and sieved to obtain size of 100 µm. Before the use, all the sorbents were
washed thoroughly with deionized water and dried in air oven at 120°C for 24 h. All chemicals were of an
analytical grade. Double distilled water was used to prepare all solutions throughout the experiments. Cr (VI)
stock solution (from Merck) was prepared by dissolving K2Cr2O7 salt in double distilled water. Solutions were
stored in plastic sealed beakers. Solutions of 0.01 M NaOH and HCl (from Merck) were used for pH adjustment.
Modification of Rye Straws (Rs) with Citric Acid (Ca)
First citric acid (10 g) was dissolved in water (50 ml), added over 100 µm 10 g (RS) thoroughly mixed and
allowed to soak for 24 hours at 60°C in the oven. At this period, all surface moisture was removed and (RS)
particles were coated with CA. Then, the dry sample was reacted for 2 hours by elevating oven temperature at
120°C. The oven temperature and reaction time were raised to the desired level (120°C) for 2 to 24 hours and
mixtures were allowed for reacting. Reaction products were mixed with distillated water for 30 min, filtered and
washed with water and the product was dried in the oven. Finally, the modified straws were vacuum oven dried
for 24 h at 45 °C. The thermally treated sample was then cooled to room temperature and then ground.
IR Spectra of RS and MRS
To decide whether citric acid was esterified into RS, IR spectroscopic analysis of both untreated RS and
MRS were studied. The two major changes in the IR spectrum of MRS could be observed by comparing it
with that of MRS: a) a quite evidently increase in the carbonyl (C=O) stretching vibration absorbance in the
range of 1730-1750 cm-1; b) a reduction in the hydroxyl (O-H) stretching band in the range of 3430-3440 cm-1. It
reflected the result of citric acid etherification. For high amounts of introduced free carboxyl groups, it can be
concluded that CA modified (MRS) presented an adequate physical and chemical characteristics to adsorb Cr
(VI) ions.
Carboxyl Determination
0.1 g dry sample was slurried in water and 0.1 N NaOH was added and stirred for 24 h. The mixture was
back-titrated with 0.1 M HCl until the phenolphthalein end point. Conversion factors were determined using
citric acid as standards. Untreated RS was used for comparison in carboxyl determination. Carboxylic acid (%)
has been calculated as 11% for (RS)l and 17% for (MRS) respectively.
Preparation of Cr(VI) solution
An accurately weighed quantity of the K2Cr2O7 (purchased from Merck Company) was dissolved in doubledistilled water to prepare a stock solution (500 mg/L). Experimental solutions of the desired concentrations were
obtained by successive dilutions (1x10-4- 4x10-3 mol/L). Experiments were carried out at initial pH values
ranging from 1.5 to 7.0; initial pH was controlled by addition of dilute HCl or NaOH solutions. 0.1 M KNO3
solution is used for ionic strength. All chemicals used were of analytical reagent grade.
302
�Adsorption Experiments
The sorption mixture was consisted of 0.1 g of sorbent in 50 mL of chromium solution from 1x10-4-4x10-3
mol/L K2Cr2O7 for 2 h at 25 °C. After equilibration, the sorbent-solution passed through a filter and was
analyzed for Cr(VI) ion content using an UV- spectrometer. The sorbent dosage was changed in the range of
0.01-0.4 g. The chromium concentration (1x10-4-4x10-3 mol/L) was adjusted in the batch experiments. Contact
time adsorption experiments were conducted at 25°C in a well-mixed Pyrex glass vessel with a cover. Cr(VI)
removal is built up; equilibrium conditions are attained after nearly 2 h.
To study the effect of pH on sorption, the pH of the chromium solution was adjusted to values in the pH
range of 1.5-7.0 by the addition of 0.1 M HC1 or 0.1 M NaOH prior to experiment. All pH measurements were
performed with a Crison Basic 20 Model pH meter. Time dependent experiments were carried out by shaking the
adsorption mixture at various predetermined intervals and analyzing the Cr(VI) content at the end of the contact
time.
Results and discussion
Effect of pH on Cr(VI) Removal
There are methods available for contacting sorbent materials with solutions contacting metal ions. Batch
contacting process has been employed to investigate the performance of the modified straws in removing Cr(VI)
from aqueous solution. Lignocelluloses resources and the cell walls of RS mainly consist of polyphenolic
compounds, hydroxyl groups such as tannin and lignin, which are believed to be the active sites for attachment
of heavy metal cations. All those components are active ion exchange compounds. The lignin content of woods
is usually in the range of 18–35%. Tannins are complex polyhydric phenols that are soluble in water and they
occur chiefly in hardwoods, and are present in many barks, including softwoods barks. Lignin molecule is built
up from the phenyl propane nucleus, i.e. an aromatic ring with a three-carbon side chain. Natural tannins are
classified as either hydrolysable or condensed tannins. The hydrolysable tannins are esters of glucose with one or
more polyphenolic acids, commonly gallic, digallic, or ellagic acid.
The interactions of Cr(VI) ions with RS surface molecules are complex, dominated by adsorption, ion
exchange and chelation. Hunt (1986) notes as a generalization the binding of Cr(VI) ions involved two
mechanism, the first of these being simple ion exchange and the second through the formation of complexes,
which may be chelates. According to the mechanism and the discussion of pH effect, the adsorption will lead to
a decrease in pH as equivalent H+ will be released along with the adsorption. Hexavalent chromium existing as
negative species in solution may release hydroxide (OH−) instead of proton (H+) when they are adsorbed by RS,
and therefore result in an increase in pH. This is the case for most metal adsorption, but there is always exception.
Because of the complexity of most biomaterials, it is very likely that both of these processes of Cr(VI) binding
will take place in a system at the same time. The following equation (1) describes the chemical adsorption
involving exchange with hydroxyl ions:
R–CO + H2O + HCrO4− ↔ R–COHO3Cr+ + 2OH−
(1)
The effect of pH is presented in Fig. 1. The effect of pH on adsorption of Cr(VI) was studied at room
temperature be varying the pH of metal solution–MRS suspension from 1.5 to 7.0. The percent adsorption
decreases in the pH range of 2.0–7.0, showing the maximum adsorption at pH 1.5. The pH dependence of
adsorption may suggest that Cr(VI) ions are adsorbed according to the ion-exchange mechanism, and
deacetylation dependence of adsorption may indicate the chelation mechanism. The pH increase was lesser at
lower initial pH values. It may be due to hydrolysis of the adsorbent in water, which will create positively
charged sites (Dakiky et al., 2002). Percentage removal of Cr(VI) was maximum at the initial pH of 1.5 (92.21%,
by MRS) and decreased at higher initial pH values. As described in Eq. (1), hydroxyl species are released from
the process of Cr(VI) adsorption instead of hydrogen ions.
303
�Fig. 1. Effect of pH on the adsorption of Cr(VI)
At initial pH of 1.5, the adsorbent surfaces might be highly protonated which favor the uptake Cr(VI) in the
predominant anionic form (HCrO4-) (Srinivas Rao et al, 1992). With increase in pH from 2.0 to 7.0, the degree of
protonation of carbon surfaces reduced gradually and hence removal was decreased. The rate of adsorption of
Cr(VI) ion on (MRS) was great for pH changes from 1.5 to 2.0 for Cr(VI) ion. An increase in pH above pH 2
shows a slight decrease in adsorption in which the surface of the adsorbent is negatively charged. Decrease in
adsorption at higher pH is due to the formation of soluble hydroxyl complexes.
Different mechanisms, such as electrostatic forces, ion exchange, chemical complexation, must be taken into
account when examining the effect of pH on Cr(VI) sorption. One of the common proposed mechanisms is
electrostatic attraction/repulsion between sorbent and sorbate. Thus, the increase of Cr(VI) sorption at acidic pH
should be due to the electrostatic attraction between positively charged groups of biomaterial surface and the
HCrO4- anion, which is the dominant species at low pH. Moreover, the decrease of the sorption with increasing
pH could be due to the decrease of electrostatic attraction and to the competitiveness between the chromium
anionic species (HCrO4– and CrO42–) and OH– ions in the bulk for the adsorption on active sites of the sorbent.
From these assumptions it can be suggested that Cr(VI) removal also takes place by physical adsorption.
Speciation studies of Cr(VI) in aqueous solution, on the basis of spectrophotometer, electrochemistry,
indicates the existence of the following equilibrium;
H2CrO4 = H+ + HCrO4HCrO4- = H+ + CrO422HCrO4- = Cr2O72- + H2O
(2)
(3)
(4)
Equilibrium is dependent on pH, with HCrO4- and Cr2O72- existing primarily in acidic media and CrO42being the lone species of Cr(VI) above pH 7.0. At higher pH range, the fraction of Cr2O72- species rapidly
decreases with increasing pH above 5. In the removal of Cr(VI) process, the anion is not a simple monovalent
anion but rather a series of chromate anions depending upon the pH and concentration of the solution. The total
chromate species will be represented as Cr(VI). In the neutral solution at low concentrations, Cr(VI) will be
present in the form of HCrO4− and CrO42−. At acidic pH, HCrO4− is the predominant Cr(VI) species in the
aqueous phase. The decrease in adsorption at high pH values may be due to the competitiveness of the oxyanion
of chromium and OH- ions in the bulk. Processes of oxo group protonation and Cr(VI) reduction were lowering
because both these reactions require protons.
The decrease in the adsorption with increase of pH may be due to the decrease in electrostatic force of
attraction between the sorbent and sorbate ions. At lower pH ranges, due to the high electrostatic force of
attraction, the percentage of Cr(VI) removal is high. At very low pH value, the surface of sorbent would also be
surrounded by the hydronium ions which enhance the Cr(VI) interaction with binding sites of the biosorbents by
greater attractive forces. A decrease in adsorption above pH 4.5 may be due to occupation of the adsorption sites
by anionic species like HCrO4-, Cr2O27-, CrO24-, etc., which retards the approach of such ions further toward the
sorbent surface (Donmez and Aksu, 2002).
304
�Effect of time on the removal of Cr(VI)
Cr(VI) adsorption by (MRS) was studied by mixing for a predetermined time interval. An initial
concentration of Cr(VI) 2.10-3 M was tried and the concentration of Cr(VI) remaining in the equilibrated solution
was plotted as a function of the equilibration period for the (MRS). The plots for Cr(VI) sorption (%) versus time
for (MRS) (Fig. 2) showed that equilibrium was attained in 90 min for the adsorption of Cr(VI). The uptake of
Cr(VI) is initially rapid then continues at a much slower rate. The concentration of Cr(VI) in the solution
increased rapidly within 60-90 min and the sorption was virtually completed within 90-110 min.
Fig. 2. Effect of contact time on the sorption of Cr(VI)
The metal uptake versus time curves was single, smooth and continuously leading to the saturation
suggesting the possible monolayer coverage of metal ions on the surface of the adsorbent. The capacity of (MRS)
reached in this study is 0.89 mmol Cr(VI) per gram of (MRS) at pH 2.0. Therefore, in addition to other some
natural sorbents, (MRS) provides relatively cheap alternatives for Cr(VI) ion removal .
Effect of initial Cr(VI) ion concentration
The effect of Cr(VI) concentration on the sorption by the (MRS) sorbents was investigated by varying the
concentration (1.10-4 M to 4.10-3 M) at a pH of 2 for 120 min equilibrium time. The percent Cr(VI) ion
removal efficiency of (MRS) increased with increasing metal concentration. At higher concentrations, more
Cr(VI) ions are left unabsorbed in solution due to the saturation of binding sites. Langmuir and Freundlich
isotherms have both been used to describe observed sorption phenomena of various metal ions on sorbents
(Madoni et al. 1996). The sorption data of Cr(VI) ion have been correlated with Langmuir and Freundlich
models [Eqs. (5) and (6)]. These isotherms relate metal uptake per unit weight of resin qe to the equilibrium metal
ion concentration in the bulk fluid phase Ce.
Langmuir equation:
Ce
C
1
=
+ e
q e K b AS AS
(5)
where, As and Kb are coefficients, qe is the weight adsorbed per unit weight of adsorbent and Ce is the metal
concentration in bulk solution at equilibrium. Fig. 4 conforms to the Langmuir and Freundlich models.
Freundlich equation:
n
(6)
q = Kf C e
305
�where, n is the Freundlich constant, and Kf is the adsorption coefficient, q is the weight adsorbed per unit weight
of adsorbent and Ce is the equilibrium metal concentration in fluid. Taking logs and rearranging the equation (6),
equation (7) was obtained.
log q = log Kf + n logCe
(7)
The linear plots of Ceq/q vs Ceq show that adsorption follows the Langmuir adsorption model and the
correlation coefficients are calculated 0.97 for (MRS). The Langmuir-type sorption isotherm was suitable for
equilibrium studies suggesting the formation of monolayer coverage of the adsorbate on the surface of adsorbent
in the concentration studied. The data for the uptake of metal ions by the resin has been processed in
accordance with a linear form of the Langmuir isotherm equation.
Effect of Ionic Strength
Ionic strength is one of the important factors influencing aqueous phase equilibrium. Generally, adsorption
decreases with increasing ionic strength of the aqueous solution. The effect of the interfering ion KNO3 was
evaluated. The electrostatic attraction at low ionic strength appears to play a negligible role in the removal of
Cr(VI) for sorbents. The results indicate that there was no significant decrease in the removal of Cr(VI) ion for
the interval of (0.0001-0.001M) KNO3 ionic concentration.
Amount of sorbent
The effect of variation of (MRS) amount on the removal of chromium by (MRS) is shown in Fig. 3. It is
apparent that the equilibrium concentration in solution phase decreases with increasing (MRS) amount for a
given initial chromium concentration. The fraction of metal removed from the aqueous phase increases as the
sorbent amount is increased in the batch vessel with a fixed initial metal concentration (Fig. 3). This result was
anticipated because for a fixed initial solute concentration, increasing amount of adsorbent provides greater
surface area (or adsorption sites).
100
Sorption, %
.
75
50
25
0
0
0,05
0,1
0,15
0,2
0,25
0,3
0,35
0,4
0,45
Adsorbent amount (g)
Fig. 3. Effect of sorbent dosage on the sorption of Cr(VI)
Conclusion
The studies indicated that equilibrium in the adsorption of Cr(VI) on (MRS) was reached in 90 min of
contact time between the (MRS) and the solution. The optimum pH corresponding to the maximum adsorption
was found to be at pH 2.0 for (MRS). Cr(VI) adsorption on the (MRS) was described by the Freundlich isotherm
model. The adsorption of Cr(VI) increased with an increase in the concentrations of these metals in solution.
306
�References
Achari, V.S., Anirudhan, T.S. (1995). Phenol removal from aqueous systems by sorption on Jackwood sawdust., Ind. J.
Chem. Technol. 2, 137-141.
Aderhold, D., Williams, C.J., Edyvean, R.G.J. (1996). The removal of heavy-metal ions by seaweeds and their derivatives,
Bioresource Technol., 58,1, 1-6.
Bryant, P.S., Petersen, J.N., Lee, J.M., Brouns, T.M. (1992). Sorption of heavy metals by untreated red fir dust, Applied
Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 34-35, 778-788.
Cimino, G., Passerini, A. and Toscano, G. (2000). Removal of toxic cations and Cr(VI) from aqueous solution by hazelnut
shell. Water Research 34(11), 2955-2962.
Dakiky, M., Khamis, M., Manassra, A., Mer’eb, M. (2002). Selective adsorption of chromium(VI) in industrial wastewater
using low-cost abundantly available adsorbents, Adv. Environ. Res. 6: 533–540.
Dönmez G. and Aksu Z. (2002). Removal of chromium (VI) from saline wastewaters by Dunaliella species. Process
Biochemistry, 38(5): 751-762.
Gode, F., Pehlivan, E. (2003). A comparative study of two chelating ion-exchange resins for the removal of chromium(III)
from aqueous solution. J. Hazardous Mat. B100, 231–243.
Ho, Y.S., Wase, D.A.J. and Forster, C. F. (1995). Batch nickel removal from aqueous solution by Sphagnum moss
peat. Water Research 29(5), 1327-1332.
Hunt, S. 1986. Diversity of Biopolymer Structure and its Potential for Ion Binding Aplications, In: Immobilization of Ions by
Biosorption, Eccles, H. And Hunt, S. (Eds), Ellis Horwood, Chichester.
Lakatos, J., Brown, S.D., Snape, C.E. (2002). Coals as sorbents for the removal and reduction of hexavalent chromium from
aqueous waste streams. Fuel 81, 691-698.
Lu, A., Zhong, S., Chen, J., Shi, J., Tang, J., Lu, X. (2006). Removal of Cr(VI) and Cr(III) from aqueous solutions and
industrial wastewaters by natural clino-pyrrhotite. Environmental Science & technology. 40(9), 3064-3069.
Madoni, P., Davoli, D., Gorbi, G. and Vescovi, L. (1996). Toxic effect of heavy metals on the activated sludge protozoan
community. Wat. Res. 30, 135-142.
Marshall, W.E., Johns, M.M. (1996). Agricultural by-products as metal adsorbents: sorption properties and resistance to
mechanical abrasion”, J Chem. Techn. Biotech., 66, 192-198.
McKay, G. and Porter, J.F. (1997). Equilibrium parameters for the sorption of copper, cadmium, and zinc ions onto
peat. J. Chemical Technology and Biotechnology 69, 309-320.
Raji, C., Anirudhan, T.S. (1996). Preparation and metal±adsorption properties of the polyacrylamide-grafted sawdust having
carboxylate functional group. Ind. J. Chem. Technol. 3, 345-350.
Sharma, D.C., Forster, C.F. (1993). Removal of Hexavalent Chromium Using Sphagnum Moss Peat, Water Research, 27(7),
1201-1208.
Srinivas Rao, P., Shashikant, R., Munjunatha, G.S. (1992). Kinetic studies on adsorption of chromium by coconut shell
carbons from synthetic effluents, J. Environ. Sci. Health A 27 (8) 2227-2241.
Yu L.J., Shukla S.S., Dorris K.L., Shukla A., Margrave J.L., (2003). Adsorption of chromium from aqueous solutions by
maple sawdust, J. Hazard. Mater. B 100 : 53–63.
307
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The Utilization of Modified Rye Straws as Biosorbents for Cr (VI) Ions
Author
Author
Deveci, Huseyin
Pehlivan, Erol
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The potential to remove Cr (VI) ion from aqueous solutions using modified rye straws (MRS), through adsorption was investigated in batch experiments. Rye straws were collected from vicinity of Konya, Turkey and modified with various amount of citric acid (CA). The parameter for modification was selected by trying different parameters such as time, temperature and citric acid quantity. The rate of adsorption was studied under a variety of conditions including initial Cr (VI) concentration (1.10-4-4.10-3M), amount of adsorbent (0.05- 0.4 g), pH (1.5 to 7), and contact time (5-240 min). Adsorption of Cr (VI) uptake is in all cases pH-dependent showing a maximum at equilibrium at pH values of 1.5-2.0 for (MRS). The batch sorption kinetics has been tested and the applicability of the Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherms for the present system has been tested at 25°C. The experimental results inferred that adsorption, electrostatic attraction, complexation and chelation are major adsorption mechanisms for binding Cr (VI) ion to the (MRS). Compared to the various other adsorbents reported in the literature, the (MRS) shows very good alternative adsorbent for practical applicability for waste streams and the results indicated that MRS can be employed as a low cost alternative in the removal of Cr (VI) ion from wastewater.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/27ad977a2ffc3183c1137636304545e5.pdf
821315dec698f5ad8af1c68a54dfe9ab
PDF Text
Text
1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
The Use of Wild Edible Fruits
in Sustainable Fruit Production in Turkey
Sezai Ercişli
Ataturk University Agricultural Faculty
Department of Horticulture
Erzurum, Turkey
M uharrem Güleryüz
Ataturk University Agricultural Faculty
Department of Horticulture
Erzurum, Turkey
E mine Orhan
Ataturk University Agricultural Faculty
Department of Horticulture
Erzurum, Turkey
Yaşar Ertürk
Ataturk University
Hamza Polat Vacational School
Erzurum, Turkey
Hüseyin Karlıdağ
Ataturk University
Hamza Polat Vacational School
Erzurum, Turkey
Abstract: More recently wild edible fruits have been gained more importance particularly for
sustainable agriculture and land protection not only in Turkey but also throughout the world.
These kinds of fruits including rose hip, mountain ash, wild persimmon, wild grape, barberry,
wild cherries, wild figs, European elderberry, wild raspberry, blackberry etc. has higher
amount healthy promoting compounds compared to cultivated fruits. This wild fruit has also
not been spraying by chemicals. Therefore, they can accept health fruits. The synthetic
nutrition’s are also not used for these kinds of fruits. This wild grown fruit has also protective
effects against soil erosion. These wild fruits increased biodiversity where they abundant as
well. In present study, wild edible fruits and their use in sustainable agriculture has been
discussed
Introduction
Horticulture plants including fruits, vegetables and grapes are important to the well-being of people in
every country of the world, providing essential ecological,economic and cultural services. They are main food
resources for humans because they include several vitamines for example vitamin C, A, B6,thiamine, niacin, E,
several minerals and dietary fiber (Quebedeaux and Bliss, 1988; Quebedeaux and Eisa, 1990; Wargovich, 2000).
As well known, most of the vitamins are produced by horticultural plants. Their contribution as a group is
estimated at 91% of vitamin C, 48% of vitamin A, 27% of vitamin B6, 17% of thiamine,and 15% of niacin in
diet. Horticultural plants are also supply 16% of magnesium,19% of iron, and 9% of the calories. They are also
an important protein sources,particularly nutsincluding almond, hazelnut, pecan, pistachio, chestnut and walnut
fruits. When compared proteins between fruits and the other plant crops,itis clear that proteins of fruits are of
high quality as to their content of essential amino acids. Fruits, particularly nuts are well known for their high
fatty acid content as well (Verma and Joshi, 2000). However there were wide genotypic effects on these
parameters which mostly related to genetic derivation. Environmental and pre and post harvest conditions are
also affecting its contents.
Fruits in the daily diet have been strongly associated with reduced risk for some forms of cancer, heart
78
�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
disease, stroke, and other chronic diseases (Quebedeaux and Eisa, 1990; Tomas-Barberan and Robins, 1997;
Prior and Cao, 2000; Southon, 2000; Wargovich, 2000). Some components of fruits are strong antioxidants and
antioxidant capacity varies greatly among fruitspecies and genotypes (Prior and Cao, 2000).
There are some fruit growing countries such as China, Turkey etc. has great ecological diversity within
the country. This ecological diversity has contributed not only to a high genetic diversity, but has also allowed
the successfulintroduction and cultivation of a great number of fruittree taxa.
On the other hand these countries have also a long history offruit cultivation. Fruit culture has played an
important role in Turkey’s history. Over 85 fruit species including almost all the deciduous, most of the
subtropical and some tropical fruits are grown. Deciduous fruits are spread all over the country. However, the
subtropical and tropicalfruitsare grown mainly in the south where the winteris warm and the summer is hot.In
the north of Turkey, tea, some citrus,loquat, persimmon and kiwi can be grown (Agaoglu et al. 1997; Ercisli,
2004). In rural areas, apricot, almond, walnut, chestnut, cornelian cherry, plum, hawthorn, rose hips etc. have
been propagated to alarge extent from seed, resulting in a wide range of variability (Ercisli, 2004).
In this review we are discussed about wild growing fruits and possible use of in sustainable fruit production in
Turkey.
Classification of Fruits
Fruitspecies are mainly classified either climatic orfruit properties. According to climatic properties,fruit
species can be classified into 3 main groups (Temperate fruits, subtropical fruits and tropical fruits). In fruit
properties, the species can be classified as citrus fruits, pome fruits, stone fruits, nuts, berries, Mediterranean
fruits etc.(Agaoglu et al., 1997).
Fruitspecies can also classified as cultivated or domesticated,semi domesticated and wild.In most part of
Turkey,itis possibleto see all 3 kinds of fruits.
The cultivated fruits mostly seen in commercial orchards, semi-domesticated are can be seen near cities,
towns, villages. Howeverthe wild edible fruits are widely distributed far away from cultivated araes. Particularly
rural areas of Turkey are very rich interms of wild edible fruits. The most distinct characteristics ofthree groups
are fruit sizes. The fruit size of three groups as follow; cultivated>semi-domesticated>wild. Sometimes wild
term is as ‘Black box’ because in general wild plants are belongs to different speciesthen cultivated ones.
Wild Fruit Diversity in Turkey
The biodiversity ofthe wild fruitsin Turkey is an important bio-gene poolthatis essentialto human life,
biological and agricultural development in the future. Areas of wild fruitsin Turkey are mainly concentrated in
Mediterannean, Black Sea, Middle, East, North East and South Anatolia regions (Ercisli, 2004).
Turkey holds a greatrichness of wild fruits with regardto variety and biological diversity. Withtheir wide
variety of form the wild fruits create unbelievable displays in the region's unique landscape. Since the
availability of land for cultivation in some region (North East Anatolia, Black Sea Region)islimited due to the
steepness of the land, wild fruits dominates fruit production and collecting wild fruits in these areas has been
more important than fruit growing. The rich diversity of fruit species in the country can be explaining of its
unique location. As well known Turkey is junction of different gene centers of crop origin and domestication.
The main families in Turkey including fruits are; Juglandaceae, Berberidaceae, Saxifragaceae, Rosaceae,
Rhamnaceae, Elaeagnaceae, Grossulariaceae, Anarcadidaceae, Cornaceae, Coryllaceae, Ericaceae,
Caprifoliaceae, Moraceae etc.(Ercisli, 2004). To exploitation of the bioresources of the wild fruitsin Turkey,
more recently several projects were started. In order to conserve the resources of the semi-wild and wild fruits
some institutes belongs to Ministry of Agriculture in Turkey set up some collections from them.
Nutritive Value of Wild Fruits
Having lower water content and nutritionally richerthan cultivated fruitsthe wild fruits areindispensable
foods not only for wild animals but also forlocal people. The wild fruits collected are consumed fresh orin dried
forms or alternatively some of them are used for making syrup and pestils(dried fruit pulp).Itcan be concluded
thatthe wild edibles eaten by thelocal peoples are a good source of nutrients,and considering theirlow cost and
easy availability, need to be popularized and recommended for commercial exploitation.Considerableinterest
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
has been generated by recent studies on the chemical composition of some wild fruitsin most parts ofthe world.
Some of these wild fruits have higher nutritional values compared with levels found in cultivated fruits
(Eromosele, 1991; Netzel et al.,2007; Wang and Lewers, 2007). Wild fruits which are pesticide residue free are
important food sources for rural populations. Nutritious wild fruits have the potentialto be promoted for wider
use, domestication and comm ercialization. As has been evidenced by studiesin many parts of world, wild fruits
provide an important component of the diet, particularly for children (Falconer, 1990). Wild fruits contribute
greatly to diet quality ratherthan quantity. Anotherimportant characteristic of some wild fruits are their storage
capacity.
Secondary Metabolite Production
Plant secondary metabolites are a generic term used for more than 30,000 different substances which are
exclusively produced by plants. The plants form secondary metabolites e.g. for protection against pests, as
colouring,scent, or attractants and asthe plant's own hormones.It used to be believed thatsecondary metabolites
were irrelevant for the human diet. The importance of these substances has only recently been discovered by
scientists. Secondary metabolites carry out a number of protective functions in the human body. Plant secondary
metabolites can boostthe immune system, protectthe body from free radicals, kill pathogenic germs and much
more (Agrawal, 1999; van Baarlen et al., 2007). Among seconder metabolites anthocyanins which is very
abundan particularrly wild and semi-domesticated colorfulberries and smallfruitssuch as wild strawberry, wild
raspberry, wild blackberry, sea buckthorn, bilberry, wild bluberry, black and red mulberry, barberry, cornelian
cherry etc. has anticancerogen, antioxidant, antithrombotic, antiinflammation effects. Caratenoids has
anticancerogen, antioxidant and antiinflammation effects. Flavonoids has anticancerogen, antimicrobial,
antioxidant, antithrombotic, strength immune system. Glucosinalats has antimicrobial, antioxidant,
anticancerogen and also reduce cholesterol levels. These seconder metabolites are also the most importan raw
materialsfor medicines. The studies have shown thatthese compounds prevent harmful UV radiation penetrating
through leaves. The wild plants are more tolerant than cultivated plant to damaging effect of UV radiation and
water stress because in these negative conditions they accumulate more seconder metabolites (Davies, 2004).
In contrast to the primary metabolites (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins and mineral nutrients)
secondary metabolites do not have nutrient characteristics for human beings. They are usually found in very
small amounts but have an effect on humans. The function or importance ofthese compounds to the organism is
usually of an ecological nature as they are used as defenses against predators, parasites and diseases, for
interspecies competition, and to facilitate the reproductive processes (coloring agents, attractive smells, etc).
Wild fruits can synthesize and accumulates a variety of secondary metabolites. Some of the biologically active
secondary metabolites substantiate the claim made in traditional system of medicine. Wild fruits appear to be a
resource of many biologically active compounds. Their derivates are already in extensive use for the control of
drug-resistant malaria. In vitro studies on some of the other active compounds identified in wild fruits will
hopefully give new therapeutic and agricultural products ofcommercialimportance
Threats on Wild Fruits in Turkey
As elsewhere in the world, the wild fruits in Turkey face an onslaught of threats from human activities,
habitat destruction, over-grazing, over-harvesting and the increasing impact of global climate change. For rural
communities the forests including numerous wild fruits also provide grazing for livestock and the under-storey
of wood pastures is cut for hay to provide fodder during the winter months. A high proportion of the threatened
taxa are critically endangered,thatis,they face an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. Many of these
are narrow endemics, such as Crataegus tanacetifolia, whose fragmented populations are threatened by cutting
and/or over-grazing. Others, relatives of domesticated fruit trees and shrubs such as Pyrus elaegnifolia is
threatened by collection of saplings as rootstock for grafting.
Although an important source ofincome for rural communities, unsustainable rates of harvesting of these
plants such as chestnuts continue to pose a huge threattothe country’s unique fruit and nut forests. The threatis
further compounded by unregulated logging, grazing, hay-making and, more recently, a number of the species
that are endangered or vulnerable are wild relatives of domesticated fruit and nut varieties. This includes seed
propagated semi-wild apricots(Armenica vulgaris), which isthreatened by unsustainable harvesting and cutting.
The wild apple species are still found in the fragmented fruit in Turkey and are threatened by habitat
degradation, mainly from agricultural development and overgrazing. Therefore, there is necessity to come to
80
�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
grips with conservation of invaluable bioresources, understanding of the relationships between eco-environment
and humankind. During the initial stages of agricultural development, the wild fruit forest was seriously
damaged through the reclamation of wasteland. In order to gain great benefits from the wild fruits,the peoples
cut down ancient wild fruittrees/shrubs. Some herdsman also cut down wild fruittreesto enlarge their meadow
area, leading to the disappearance of primary wild chestnut forest. According to previous investigations, there
has been a reduction inthe number of wild appletree seedlings due to over-grazing and dung injuries,leading to
a decrease in the activity of wild apple trees to reproduce. The human activities have accordingly caused
environmental degradation and a reduction in species numbers and distribution area, which willinevitably lead
tothe endangerment and extinction of many rare species.
The Use of Wild Edible Fruits in Sustainable Fruit Production
Wild fruit species are very important source of adapted plant material especially when unfavorable
climatic and soil conditions are present. These species are also more effective than non-native species in
controlling soil erosion. Once established, since they are adapted to local dry conditions,their care is easierthan
non-native species. Deep spreading roots help combat soil erosion (Kaya, 1999). They also grows in a
tremendous range of conditions from very dry, sterile, sandy woodlands to river bottoms to rocky hillsides and
moist or very dry locations.Itthrives on almost any type of soil. The wild fruitshrubs orthreestolerates drought
and cold. It develops strong lateral roots and grows fast (Gungor et al., 2002) and is valued for their ability to
reclaim degraded soils. It has also been used for wildlife habitat plantings. There is some indication that new
markets for specialty native berries and fruits may be opening up.
Considerations for a Rural Development Strategy
As well known wild or indigenous fruit species has been played an important role in Anatolia’s history.
As mentioned before in the past Anatolia had the host a lot of civilization. All previous civilizations have been
used fresh and dried fruits as well as extracts for medicinal and social purposes. However,atthe beginning 19th
century the commercial orchards established with monoculture fruit species and thus wild fruits are neglected.
As well known wild fruits, particularly berries widely found in foreststhus one strategy would be to enhance the
recreational and tourism potential value of wild harvesting. This could be done in conjunction with innovative
interpretive programs toimpartto visitorssome ofthe historicalsignificance of native fruits and berries and their
uses by local peoples living rural areas in Turkey. To be successful on this topic, harvesting areas remain in as
natural because the tourists will be seek wild experience. Also,itisimportantthatthese areas should be not far
away for walk and suggested distance from town, village or resorts should be maximum 40 km. These areas are
also must be uncontaminated. Local festivals and celebrations, native recipes and cooking traditions, and local
history can be helpfulto success on thisstrategy. Near villages ortowns each house can produce special products
from these wild fruits and can be sellrelatively higher prices because visitors may have remote this culture. The
one ofthe mostimportantthings for selleristhatthey mustimply that all products are fully nature. The villagers
can also establish some small nurseries to multiply nature wild fruits and can sellthem as planting material to
tourists.
References
Agaoglu Y.S., Celik H., Celik M., Fidan Y., Gulsen Y., Gunay A. et al. (1997). General Horticulture. A.U.Z.F. No:4, p 339.
Agrahar-Murugkar, D., & Subbulakshmi, G., (2005). Nutritive values of wild edible fruits, berries, nuts, roots and spices
consumed by the Khasi tribes of India. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 44, 207-223
Agrawal, M., (1999). Environmental pollution and plant responses. CRC Press, ISBN 1566703417, pp. 393.
Davies, K.M., (2004). Plant pigments and their manipulation. Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 1405117370, pp 352.
Ercisli, S., (2004). A short review of the fruit germplasm resources of Turkey Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 51,
419-435.
Eromosele, I.C., Eromosele, C.O., & Kuzhkuzha, D.M., (1991). Evaluation of mineral elements and ascorbic acid contents in
fruits of some wild plants. Plant Food Human Nutrition. 41,53-57.
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
Falconer, J., (1990). `Agroforestry and Household Food Security', in Agroforestry for Sustainable Production, Economic
Implications, R T Prinsley (ed), Commonwealth Science Council, London.
Gungor, I., Atatoprak, A., & Ozer, A., (2002). Bitkilerin Dunyasi, Bitki tanıtımı detayları ile fidan yetistirme esaslari, Lazer
Ofset Matbaa, Ankara
Kaya, Y., (1999). Fırat vadisi'nde erozyon ve erozyon alanında iyi gelisen bitkiler. Türk Tarım ve Ormancılık Dergisi, 23,724.
Netzel, M., Netzel, G., Tian, Q., Schwartz, S., & Konczak, I., (2007). Native Australian fruits-a novel source of antioxidants
for food. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies. 8, 339-346.
Prior, R.L., & Cao, G., (2000). Antioxidant phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables; diet and health implications.
HortScience 35:588-592.
Quebedeaux, B., & Bliss, F.A., (1988). Horticulture and human health. Contributions of fruits and vegetables. Proc. 1st Intl.
Symp. Hort. and Human Health. Prentice Hall, Englewood, NJ.
Quebedeaux, B., & Eisa, H.M., (1990). Horticulture and human health. Contributions of fruits and vegetables. Proc. 2nd Intl.
symp. Hort. and Human Health. HortScience 25,1473-1532.
Southon, S. 2000. Increased fruit and vegetable consumption within the EU: potential health benefits. Food Research
International, 33,211-217.
Tomas-Barberan, F.A. and Robins, R.J. (eds.). 1997. Phytochemistry of fruits and vegetables. Oxford Science Publ., Oxford,
UK, 375 pp.
Van Baarlen, P., Van Belkum, A., & Thomma B.P.H.J., (2007). Disease induction by human microbial pathogens in plantmodel systems: potential, problems and prospects. Drug Discovery Today. 12, 167-173.
Verma, L.R., & Joshi, V.K., (2000). Postharvest technology of fruits and vegetables. Indus publishing Co. New Delhi, India.
Wang., S.Y., & Lewers, K.S. (2007). Antioxidant capacity and flavonoid content in wild strawberries. Journal of the
American Society for Horticultural Science, 132, 629-637.
Wargovich, M.J., (2000). Anticancer properties of fruits and vegetables. HortScience 35:573-575.
82
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478
Title
A name given to the resource
The Use of Wild Edible Fruits in Sustainable Fruit Production in Turkey
Author
Author
Ercisli, Sezai
Güleryüz, Muharrem
Orhan, Emine
Ertürk, Yasar
Karlıdağ, Hüseyin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
More recently wild edible fruits have been gained more importance particularly for sustainable agriculture and land protection not only in Turkey but also throughout the world. These kinds of fruits including rose hip, mountain ash, wild persimmon, wild grape, barberry, wild cherries, wild figs, European elderberry, wild raspberry, blackberry etc. has higher amount healthy promoting compounds compared to cultivated fruits. This wild fruit has also not been spraying by chemicals. Therefore, they can accept health fruits. The synthetic nutrition’s are also not used for these kinds of fruits. This wild grown fruit has also protective effects against soil erosion. These wild fruits increased biodiversity where they abundant as well. In present study, wild edible fruits and their use in sustainable agriculture has been discussed
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f73d81cfa82f6eaedb1e342c8c4d82d2.pdf
f9c9c792df96a55082a8f24e9051cde4
PDF Text
Text
The Use Of Building Models As An Educational Material And Their
Impact On Learning
Ahmet C. APAY
Department of Construction, Sakarya University,
Adapazari, Turkey,
aapay@sakarya.edu.tr
Emine AYDIN
Department of Construction, Sakarya University,
Adapazari, Turkey,
emineb@sakarya.edu.tr
Tahir AKGUL
Department of Construction, Sakarya University,
Adapazari, Turkey,
takgul@sakarya.edu.tr
Ali GURBUZ
k.aligurbuz@gmail.com
Abstract: Materials are an indispensable component of education and teaching and used for
supporting teaching during the teaching-learning process. Aids and materials are employed in
an attempt to fulfill the objectives of the teaching process during education-teaching activities.
In today’s rapidly-changing and developing world, individuals are not supposed to obtain
information from one single source and memorize it; in contrast, the objective is to school the
type of individuals who can know how to access to information, how to use it and how to
come up with ways to overcome problems encountered. The use of teaching materials
designed in accordance with the principles of teaching technologies is vitally important for
enabling individuals to develop such skills. A fundamental factor in increasing the level of
achievement in courses, in ensuring a decent educational system and in enabling students to
experience an enduring learning process is to get students to like the subject to be taught.
Otherwise, students will not be interested enough to get the input and no enduring learning
process will take place no matter how well-versed and experienced an instructor is in his/her
field. This paper is a study into the effects of the use of educational materials on the level of
students’ achievement and interest in courses. Furthermore, it includes a comparison between
the efficiency of material-aided instruction and teacher-centered instruction. The effect of
these two methods on the level at which particular concepts related to a lesson are learned has
been analyzed through the use of experimental design with pretest-posttest control group.
Keywords: Building models, education and teaching, educational materials
1. Introduction
As a term the model denotes to doing a smaller or bigger copy of an object in a determined scale. Today the
model usage is widespread in many fields. The models to examine human body used in biology and medicine,
the earth model which is a minimized copy of the Earth used in geography, in machine sector the models with
changing scales from ½ to 1/25 according to their dimensions and details, earthquake models, dynamic models
showing the flow of a stream, military models, ship models, car models, airplane models, architectural models,
training models, topographic models, terrain models, urban models, park-garden models, people models,
building models, interior models, and etc can be given as examples. In terms of building education, the term of
model brings “architectural models” such as topographic, building, furnished building interior into mind.
Material use in education is a rapidly spreading application in permanently developing and renewing Turkish
education system. Oral narrative technique centred and teacher-centred education model which are implemented
widely until recently has started to loose its validity today. Oral narrative technique should be implemented with
other education methods and supported with other materials in the education place. [1]
2. The Importance of Material Use in Education
838
�Materials are indispensable parts of education and training in our age. In order to realize educational objectives,
equipment and materials are used in all of education and training studies. Artificial and natural substances are
named as material when they serve for a virtual or actual purpose. When it is associated with education
“education material” is named as “course material” and it defines all of the living, non-living, practical and
theoretical information and affluences regarding to that course. The conception of material includes virtual,
actual, artificial and natural data or affluences which serve for a purpose. [2]
Material is an efficient education tool. It is possible to define the education tool as an environment to provide
information sharing between a communication channel (teacher) and receivers (students) [3]. In today’s rapidly
changing and developing world, it is not expected that individuals to obtain the information from one source and
memorize this information, on the contrary it is intended to raise individuals who know ways to achieve
information, who use them and when faced with a problem who can create solution methods by using that
information. The use of education material which is prepared in accordance with the principles of the education
technologies has significance for teachers to design an active and interactive learning environment which is
necessary for individuals to acquire these above features. [4]
3. Using Building Model As An Education Material
Department of Building Education is a department that theoretical and applied courses are taught together. In
theoretical courses in order to be helpful for the correlation with applied courses and in order to develop the three
dimensional thinking abilities of students, the building model is preferred as the material in this research. The
achievement and attitudes of students toward Technical Drawing are examined with the designed building model.
Cross-sectioning of the building plan is one of the parts for students that they densely need to use three
dimensional thinking powers. Through the expression via model technique it is expected that for students to
develop their perception ability better and perform a more efficient learning. The research is conducted with 60
students in total, as 30 from control group and 30 from experiment group, who are chosen according to random
sampling methodology among the 1st year students who take Technical Drawing course in 2008-2009 Spring
semesters and from Department of Building Education at Sakarya University Faculty of Technical Education. In
this research two different learning methods are applied randomly to these two categories. No information is
given to students in experiment and control groups regarding whether they are in experiment or control group.
The application is done in the duration of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” which is specified in the Course
Curriculum. In order to give the necessary information to students and to test their learning regarding to this
course, a housing project which is constituted of the ground floor and a normal floor is prepared. Since some
factors are thought such that the students meet with this issue as first time and the course hours are limited, the
project is designed so simple. In order to teach the “Cross-sectioning of a plan” in a best way, two section lines
are passed with “A-A Section” code on X axis of floor plans and with ““B-B Section” code on Y axis of floor
plans and it is given importance that the section lines to touch to the stairs, low floor, door-window frames
(Figure 1).
Figure 1. Floor Plans
3.1. Preparation of the Model
To express the selected issue in a best way by the model it is planned to break into horizontal pieces from 2/3
length of the height of floor and vertical pieces from the places that the A-A and B-B section lines pass in order
to show the floor plans as in the project (Figure2,3,4 and 5). Hence, in this way floor plans and section lines can
be understood more clearly in terms of what they mean.
839
�Figure 2. The First Floor of
the Model
Figure 3. The First Normal Floor
of the Model
Figure 4. The A-A Section View of
Model
Figure 5. The B-B Section View
of Model
A greater scale is selected compared to a standard scale and 1/20 scale is preferred in order to make all class to
see the model during the course hour and more importantly to enable permanent learning which is our main
objective.
3.2. Research Design
In this research it is attempted to determine the effects of Expression and Teaching Activity and TeacherCentred Education Activity on students’ success and students’ attitudes toward Technical Drawing courses. For
this purpose an experimental design which is suitable to “pre-test and post-test” model with control group is
used.
Groups
Control
Pre-test
AT
AI
Education Activity
Teacher-centred Education Activity
Post-test
AT
AI
Experiment
AT
AI
Model Aided Education Activity
AT
AI
Table 1. Research Design with Pre-test/Post-test Control Group AT: Achievement Test, AI: Attitude Inventory
As seen on Table 1, the topic of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” of Technical Drawing Course is taught by Teachercentred Education Activity for control group whereas it is taught by Model Aided Education Activity for
experiment group. In the research, the effects of Teacher-centred Education Activity and Model Aided Education
Activity are compared in terms of learning of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” of Technical Drawing Course. Before
the application of two different education activities both for experiment and control groups the Achievement
Test (AT) is applied firstly as pre-test to evaluate their pre-information level toward “Cross-sectioning of a plan”
and then applied as post-test after courses of experiment and control groups. And again, in order to determine the
pre-attitudes of students toward Technical Drawing Courses “Technical Drawing Attitude Inventory” is applied
firstly as pre-test and then applied as post-test after courses of experiment and control groups before the
application of two different education techniques both to experiment and control groups .
3.3. Variables of Research
3.3.1. The Achievement Test
The Achievement Test (AT) is prepared under the control of field specialists. It is constituted of drawings and
questions which are prepared according to the “Cross-sectioning of a plan” unit of the Technical Drawing
Course Curriculum which is prepared by the Head of Department of Building Education at Sakarya University
Faculty of Technical Education.
The Achievement Test is implemented two times for two groups in the form of pre-test and post-test as being
before the education and after the education. Before the education activity the pre-test is applied in order to
evaluate the pre-information level of students regarding to “Cross-sectioning of a plan” and after the education
activity the post-test is applied to reveal the effect of these two different activities on students to learn this issue.
3.3.2. Technical Drawing Attitude Inventory
Fivefold Likert-type attitude inventory (I strongly agree, I agree, I neither agree nor disagree, I don’t agree, I
strongly disagree) toward Technical Drawing which comprises of 12 items as being 6 of them positive and 6 of
840
�them negative statements in order to determine the approaches of students toward the Technical Drawing Course.
The scale results are evaluated by scoring the positive questions as “I strongly agree” (5 points), “I agree” (4
points), “I neither agree nor disagree” (3 points), “I don’t agree” (2 points),“I strongly disagree”(1 point) and the
negative questions as “I strongly agree” (1 point), “I agree” (2 points), “I neither agree nor disagree” (3 points),
“I don’t agree” (4 points),“I strongly disagree”(5 points). The pre-test before the education and the post-test after
the education are implemented to the experiment and control groups of “Technical Drawing Attitude Inventory”.
(Technical Drawing Attitude Inventory is given in Appendix-B).
3.4. Course Teaching for Control Group
The achievement test and attitude scales are applied as pre-test in order to determine students’ pre-information,
skills and attitudes regarding to this issue. Teaching of this issue is started after one week. During the course oral
narrative, written expression and question-answer methods are applied. The topic is transferred to students with
the classical method as oral and written by using blackboards. The questions regarding to the incoherent parts are
answered after lecturing and the lecture is ended with a last repetition. After the course “Technical Drawing
Achievement Test” and “Technical Drawing Attitude Inventory” are applied as post-test and the results are
recorded.
3.5. Course Teaching for Experiment Group
Before one week from the course the achievement test and attitude inventory pre-test applications are applied in
order to determine the pre-information, skills and attitudes of students regarding to this topic as in the control
group. The prepared model material is used actively during the course and showing the details regarding to this
issue on the model as three dimensional become useful for students to animate plans and sections in their minds
regarding to this issue. After course by preserving same conditions with control group The Achievement Test
and The Attitude Inventory are applied as post-test and the results are recorded. The results of pre-test and posttest Achievement Test and Attitude Inventory for Experiment and Control Groups are given in APPENDIX C-F.
3.6. Data analysis
For independent groups the t-test is performed in SPSS 16.0 package programme in order to reveal whether there
is a statistical difference among the experiment and control groups in terms of readiness regarding to this issue
and attitudes toward courses such as Technical Drawing and occupational drawing. For dependent groups the ttest is performed in package programme in order to reveal the effect of two different education methods
(Teacher-centred Education Activity and Model-Aided Education Activity) on success and attitudes toward
“Technical Drawing Course, Cross-sectioning of a Plan”. One Factor Covariance Analysis (ANCOVA) is
performed in order to compare the effects on learning of two different education activities after performing the
educational activities and after bringing the pre-information and readiness level of students under control.
ANCOVA is recommended in order to show the effectiveness of the applied experimental operation in
experimental designs with pre-test and post-test control group. The ANCOVA test is defined as a “powerful
technique which allows comparison among the groups by providing the statistically control of another variable
or variables which are related to the dependent variable and named as common variable, besides the independent
variable which is tested in a research to observe its effect. ” [5].
3.7. Findings
The findings which are obtained through testing the data of experiment and control groups are given in this
section. The hypothesis statements which are to evaluate changes in the points of achievement and attitude points
of groups are tested with t-test by using SPSS 16.0 (Statistical Package for Social Sciences for Personal
Computers) package programme. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test results for independent groups
according to AT pre-test points, which is done to reveal the pre-information of experiment and control groups
regarding to the issue of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” of Technical Drawing Course and to determine the
difference between groups in terms of pre-information regarding to the specified topic, are summarized on Table
2.
Group
N
X
S.S
Experiment
30
18.50
11.08
Control
30
15.83
9.20
t
p
1,014
0,315
N: Number of students, X: Arithmetic mean, S.S: standard deviation, t: tscore , p: significant coefficient
841
�Table 2. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test results of groups according to AT pre-test points
On Table 2, according to AT pre-test results of experiment and control groups t=1,014, p=0,315 values are
obtained. Since p-value is greater than the significance level of 0.05 there is no statistically significant
difference between experiment and control groups in terms of pre-information regarding to the “Cross-sectioning
of a plan” topic of Technical Drawing Course. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test results for
independent groups which are obtained according to pre-test results are summarized on Table 3 with the aim of
determining the attitudes of experiment and control groups toward the Technical Drawing Course before
educational activity.
Group
N
X
S.S
Experiment
30
3,67
0,59
Control
30
3,37
0,83
t
p
1,386
0,171
N: Number of students, X: Arithmetic mean, S.S: standard deviation, t: tscore , p: significant coefficient
Table 3. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test results of groups which are obtained by Technical
Drawing Course Attitude Inventory pre-test points
Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test results, which are obtained according to the pre-test points of
Attitude Inventory toward Technical Drawing Courses, are seen on Table 3. According to this, t=1,386, p=0,171
values are obtained from pre-test points of Attitude Inventory toward Technical Drawing courses of experiment
and control groups. Since founded p–value is greater than the significance level of 0.05, there is no statistically
significant difference between experiment and control groups in terms of their attitudes toward Technical
Drawing course.
Hypothesis- 1: Hypothesis Sentence: The model-aided education activity has no effect on students to gain
information and skills regarding to the issue of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” of Technical Drawing Course. In
order to test the hypothesis the t-test is performed for dependent groups.
Test type
N
X
S.S
AT Pre-test
30
17,50
11,08
AT Post-test
30
79,83
19,32
t
p
-13,160
0,000
N: Number of students, X: Arithmetic mean, S.S: standard deviation, t: tscore , p: significant coefficient
Table 4. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test results of experiment group according to AT pre-test and
post-test points
According to Table 4, the model-aided education activity has an effect on students to gain information and skills
regarding to the issue of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” of Technical Drawing Course. A significant difference is
found between the pre-test points and post-test points of experiment group with model-aided education activity.
Hypothesis-2: Hypothesis Sentence: Teacher-centred education activity does not have an effect on students in
terms of gaining information and skill regarding to the topic of “Cross-sectioning from a plan” of Technical
Drawing Course. In order to test the hypothesis the t-test is performed for dependent groups.
Test type
n
X
S.S
t
p
AT Pre-test
30
15,83
9,20
-13,521
0,000
AT Post-test
30
65,00
18,98
N: Number of students, X: Arithmetic mean, S.S: Standard deviation, t: t score , p: significant coefficient
Table 5. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test results of control group according to AT pre-test and
post-test points
842
�According to Table 5 teacher-centred education activity has an effect on attainment of information and skills by
students regarding to the topic of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” of Technical Drawing Course. A difference is
found among the pre-test and post-test points of control groups with teacher-centred education activity.
Hypothesis-3: Hypothesis Sentence: There is no significant difference between the model-aided education
technique and teacher-centred education activity for students in terms of gaining information and skills regarding
to the topic of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” of Technical Drawing Course.
Group
Experiment
Control
N
X
S.S
30
79,83
19,31
30
65,00
18,98
F
p
9,701
0,003
N: Number of students, X: Arithmetic mean, S.S: Standard deviation, F: analysis points , p: significant coefficient
Table 6. The covariance analysis results of experiment and control groups according to the AT post-test points
According to Table 6, when the AT pre-test results of students are brought under control, the following result is
achieved that there is a significant difference between the teacher-centred education activity and model-aided
education activity in terms of their effects on learning. According to AT post-test results, with their higher
achievement average the difference is in favour of the experiment group.
Hypothesis-4:Hypothesis Sentence: “There is no statistically significant difference between the students
educated with model-aided education activity and students educated with teacher-centred education activity in
terms of attitudes toward Technical Drawing course after the education”.
Group
Experiment
Control
N
X
S.S
30
3,89
0,53
30
3,83
0,64
t
p
-0,374
0,711
N: Number of students, X: Arithmetic mean, S.S: Standard deviation, t: t score , p: significant coefficient
Table 7. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test results of groups according to Technical Drawing
Attitude Inventory post-test points
According to Table 7, there is a significance difference between the experiment and control groups in their
attitudes toward Technical Drawing Course. According to this result, both model-aided education activity and
teacher-centred education activity affect students in terms of developing positive attitudes toward Technical
Drawing course. Although the difference between the average points of groups is not statistically significant, it is
in favour of control group with model-aided education.
4. Conclusion And Suggestions
In this research according to the t-test results of independent groups which is performed to evaluate the AT pretest results of experiment and control groups, a statistically significant difference is not found in pre-information
of experiment and control groups intended to the concepts regarding with the “Cross-sectioning of a plan”. In
the Achievement Test post-test covariance analysis (ANCOVA) which is applied by controlling the preinformation regarding to the topic of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” of Technical Drawing course of experiment
and control group, a significant difference is founded between the teacher–centred education and model-aided
teaching activity. With higher achievement average in terms of the Achievement Test post-test results this
difference is in favour of the experiment group. This result shows that the students that are educated with modelaided education activity are more successful than the students that are educated with the teacher-centred
education activity. It is observed that students learn better and become more successful in the classroom where
the model material is used.
843
�According to the t-test results which are performed for independent groups as a result of the pre-test results of
Technical Drawing Attitude Inventory, a statistically significant difference is not found in terms of pre-attitudes
of experiment and control groups regarding to the Technical Drawing course.
According to the Attitude Inventory post-test results which are applied after two different education activities
performed by controlling the pre-attitudes of students toward Technical Drawing course, a positive
transformation is determined in the attitudes of students toward this course after both of these education
techniques. A significant difference is not found by obtaining group averages as 3.83 and 3.89 for two groups
according to the post-test results of attitude inventory. However, the average pre-test points of control group with
the teacher-centred education techniques increases from 3.67 to 3.83 whereas the average of experiment group
with model-aided education technique increases from 3.37 to 3.89. The increase rates in averages can be
evaluated as in favour of the model-aided education activity.
Since models and other visual materials which are used in education and training meet the conditions of
education by doing and living, they provide permanence and will be helpful to raise successful individuals.
Reference
BUYUKOZTURK, S. (2001). Pre-Experimental Designs finaltest Control Group Designs and data analysis, Pagem A data
analysis, (pp. 1-3), Ankara, TURKEY.
DEMĐRKUŞ, N., (1999). “Fen Bilgisi Öğretim Yöntemleri ve Uygulamalarının Verimli Hale Getirilmesi”, Symposium on
Teacher Education and Contemporary Perspectives, D.E.U. Buca Faculty of Education Journal Special Issue (11) (pp. 414425), Izmir, TURKEY.
DOĞDU, S., ARSLAN, Z., (1993). Applications of Educational Technology and Education Appliances, (pp.40), Ankara, ,
TURKEY.
YALIN, H. Đ., (2001). Instructional Technology and Material Development, Nobel publishing, (pp. 82), Ankara, TURKEY.
ZAMAN, S. (2006). “Mitoz ve Mayoz Bölünme Konusunda Geliştirilen Bilgisayar Destekli Biyoloji Öğretim Materyalinin
Değerlendirilmesi” KTÜ Science Institute, (pp. 129-131).
844
�
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636
Title
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The Use Of Building Models As An Educational Material And Their Impact On Learning
Author
Author
APAY, Ahmet C.
AYDIN, Emine
AKGUL, Tahir
GURBUZ, Ali
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Materials are an indispensable component of education and teaching and used for supporting teaching during the teaching-learning process. Aids and materials are employed in an attempt to fulfill the objectives of the teaching process during education-teaching activities. In today’s rapidly-changing and developing world, individuals are not supposed to obtain information from one single source and memorize it; in contrast, the objective is to school the type of individuals who can know how to access to information, how to use it and how to come up with ways to overcome problems encountered. The use of teaching materials designed in accordance with the principles of teaching technologies is vitally important for enabling individuals to develop such skills. A fundamental factor in increasing the level of achievement in courses, in ensuring a decent educational system and in enabling students to experience an enduring learning process is to get students to like the subject to be taught. Otherwise, students will not be interested enough to get the input and no enduring learning process will take place no matter how well-versed and experienced an instructor is in his/her field. This paper is a study into the effects of the use of educational materials on the level of students’ achievement and interest in courses. Furthermore, it includes a comparison between the efficiency of material-aided instruction and teacher-centered instruction. The effect of these two methods on the level at which particular concepts related to a lesson are learned has been analyzed through the use of experimental design with pretest-posttest control group.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4f1c79fb8dd7114be56baeebed230a59.pdf
0645a0c00f4a46417b52513640671451
PDF Text
Text
The Use of Asphaltites in the Landfill Layer
Lemi Tufan Taşpolat
Bilecik University VocationalHigh School,
Department of Building Technology, Bilecik
Hasan Yamik
Bilecik University Engineering Faculty,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bilecik
Mesut Kaplan
Bilecik University VocationalHigh School,
Department of Food Technology, Bilecik
Abstract:The waste materials emerged in developing cities should be disposed without
damage to environment. Landfills must properly be designed and well managed. Recently,
some waste materials were began to be used with clay in landfill layer design. This process
was positive effects on environment by means of recycling, regains to economy and reducing
environmental pollutions. In this study, asphaltite dust was added at ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%
to mixture of 90% kaolinite and 10% bentonite by weight. Geotechnic, physical and chemical
experiments were carried out on the samples. The experiment results were in acceptable limits
with the literature, United States Environmental Protection Agency and the Turkish solid
waste regulations. As a result, the asphaltite can be used as an additive material in landfills.
Introduction
In recent years,as a result of condensation ofthe world's population in cities and increasing consumption,
the waste management (collection, transport, processing, waste treatment, recycling or disposal of waste
materials)is becoming a serious problem. The increasing of production and consumption resultsin the increase
of amount of waste. In the developing countries, distinct rules of waste disposing is initiated to prevent the
environment pollution. However, many technologies are developed for the recycling of wastes, many of then
cannot be recycled by the economical and technological points of view. The collected wastes can be burned
and/or composted by newly developed technologies, however, a final amount of trashes must be stored for the
lastremoval procedure.
In the regular landfill areas, highly polluted garbage water leaks and reaches to the bottom layer. This
leakage water can diffuseto ground and surface water. For avoiding this diffusion, clay layers are supposed to be
constructed as a bottom liner. The waste materials should be covered to isolate from surrounding environment
and humans and to prevent leakage of rain water to landfill. Some properties are required for this impermeable
clay barriers; ie; resistance to environmental effects, lower permeability, higher ductility to prevent crack
formation, chemical stability, prevention capability of contaminants by diffusion of similar mechanism
(Taşpolat, 2006).
In the landfilllayers, utilization of suitable materials and possibly waste mixture material are important
to block the heavy metal diffusion in garbage water. By this way,the waste materials,such as fly ash, would be
gained to economy.
Severalresearchers have studied the usage potential of fly ash in the clay layer as a hydraulic barrier.In
these studies,itis seen thatthe fly ash can be used for leakages having alkalin character (Edil and Berthouex,
1990; Palmer et al, 2000; Prashanth et al, 2001; Kalkan and Akbulut, 2004). Zeolite-Bentonite mixture was also
used as an altenative material.In these mixtures,the proportion of bentoniteto zeolite between 0,05 to 0,20 was
obtained as a suitable mixtures. The cation exchange capacity and lower permeability values of the zeolite and
bentonite have shown that itcould be used in clay layers (Kayabalı et al, 1997; Tuncan et al, 2003; Kaya and
Durukan, 2003).
Besides natural materials, the petroleum based geomembranes can also be used widely as a hydraulic
barrier. The using of impermeable geomenbranes have been allowing to build thinner clay layer. In this case,
the thin layer should be carefully applied in orderto preventthe tearing and puncturing.
In this study, usability of asphaltite dustin the impermeable layer was investigated. For thisreason,three
mixture of soilto asphaltite dust(the proportions were 5,10,15% dustto dry soil by weight) have been prepared.
The following tests are carried out on the samples taken from the mixtures: Index properties of the specimens
416
�were determined by liquid limit test, plastic limit test, shrinkage test, sieve test, hydrometer test and buoyancy
analysis tests. Mechanical properties of the specimens were determined by standard proctor test, permeability
test, unconfined compression test and UU triaxialtest. Finally, physicochemical properties such as pH, EC, CEC
were determined by chemicaltests.
Materials And Method
M aterials
Na Bentonite Clay
Bentoniteis a colloidal aluminium hydrosilicate. The volume of bentonite can rise 10 to 30 times by the
addition of water. It has a swelling characteristic till 200ºC. This property loses completely over 600ºC. The
vertical permeability of bentonite clay is 4,09x10-10 cm/s and the lateral swelling pressure of bentonite clay is
4,48 kg/cm2 (Mining SpecialExpert commission 2001). The bentonite clay used in this study is Na-Bentonite.It
was supplied from the Karakaya Bentonite factory, Ankara (Tuerkey). Some physicochemical and geotechnic
parameters of Na Bentonite clay were shown in table 2.1, the amount of total metal is shown in table 2.2, the
results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental analysis are shown in table 2.3
(Koyuncu 1998).
Kaolinite Clay
Kaolinite clay is a product of a type of rock which contains a great amount of feldspar. Kaolinite consists
of silica and aluminium layers. The thickness of layers are 7.2 Å, the length of layers are between1000 and
20000 Å and the specific surface area is(SSA) 15m2/g.
The clay used in this study is obtained from the Bilecik district. The clay is produced by a three step
procedure; first excavation from clay ores,then cleaning from fine sand by water washing and, finally crashing
below 40 µ m At the end of washing, groups of clay and shale are completely decomposed. The 80 % ofthis clay
consist of kaolinite mineral.
Some physicochemical and geotechnical parameters of the kaolinite clay are shown in table 2.1, the
amounts oftotal metal are shown in table 2.2 the results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans
Elemental analysis are shown intable 2.3(Koyuncu 1998).
Asphaltite
Asphaltite, one of the primary energy sources, was assumed that it is a fossil fuel. While amount of
oxygen is 3-44% in turba, lignite and coal,itis thought that asphaltite materials have formed as a result of oil
transformation, duo to its amount of oxygen (2%).
During transformation, asphaltite comes out after natural asphaltits coloris bright black or matt black.Its
hardness varies between 2 and 3, specific gravity varies 1.03 and 1.20 and itsthermal value varies between 10
and 23 Mj/kg.Itcontains 10 to 55% constant carbon, 0 to 2% oxygen and from a dribletto 5% mineral material.
It melts between 120-135o C and solubility of asphaltitein carbon sulphide is between 45% and 100% (Nakoman
1997).
Other physicochemical and geotechnical parameters, the amount of total metal, the results of chemical
analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental analysis are given in tables 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 respectively
(Koyuncu 1998).
At the beginning;the asphaltites were used in production of dye and some chemical materials. After 1920,
they has been also used for production of asphalt. Lately,itis used in production of synthetic petroleum.
In addition, it is used in production of ammonia after gasifying. Asphaltite materials are also
important because of valuable minerals (nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, titanium and uranium) in
its contents. Asphaltites can also be used in production of energy by direct burning (Atlaş et al, 1994a).In figure
2.1, asphaltite coal and waste of asphaltite dust used in energy sector are shown.
Additions
pH
CEC
EC
SM NSA GSW UVW
Grain Size Distribution (%)
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�Silt
clay
Cu
Cc
Na-Bentonite 9.50
90.22
2.69
12.7 6.82 2.76 0.94
2
46
Kaolinite
4.86
25.93
0.15
0.1 7.36 2.64 0.59
11
26
Asphaltite 8.37
4.73
0.14
0.54 1.61 2.66 0.34
------CEC:Cation Exchange Capacity, EC:Electrical Contuctivity,WC:Water Content,
OSA:Organic Substance Amount, GSG:Grain Specific gravity,UVW:Unit Volume Weight
(meq/100g)
(mS/cm)
(%)
(%)
(gr/l)
Sand
52
63
----
40
170
----
0.8
1.7
----
Table 2.1: Some physicochemical properties of materials used in the study.
Additions
Al
As Cu
Na-Bentonite 90262 <5 81
Kaolinite 123750 <5 280
Asphaltite
671 <5 66
Zn
Fe
Cd
Ca
71 10724 <0.5 12134
52 7550 <0.5 770
35 1650 <0.5 27761
Co
21
22
22
Pb Cr Mg Mn Mo
91
9 6815 2419 92
136 405 1230 870 10
63
6 6034 258 73
Ni
Na
K
7 16920 2558
280 3000 6000
88 5022 579
Table.2.2: Total metal amounts of materials (mg/kg).
Additions
Na-Bentonite
Kaolinite
Asphaltite
SiO2
59.49
51.52
58.05
Al2O3
18.06
32.00
0.60
Fe2O3
4.14
1.75
0.33
CaO MgO P2O3
3.72 2.42 0.11
0.20 0.20
0.70 34.79 0.00
K2O Na2O SO3
Cl Mn2O3
0.91 2.50 0.10 0.003 ---0.50 0.09
0.004 0.04
0.00 0.03 0.04 0.000 ----
HL
8.02
9.60
5.32
CO2
1.31
1.03
4.84
DW
----------
HL:Heating loss,DW:Dependent Water
Table 2.3: Chemical compound determined by X-Ray elemantal analysis of materials used in the study
Figure 2.1:. Asphaltite coal and waste asphaltite dust used in energy production
Experimental Study
Impermeable clay layer was prepared by 90% kaolinite and 10% bentonite mixture by dry weight This
mixture was named as control specimen - 90K+10B. Then, the asphaltite dust was added to the mixture at ratio
of 5%, 10% and 15%. Specimens were prepared with compaction in a standard proctor mold by using optimum
water contents for every mixture.
The sharpened brass pipe whose diameter is 38mm and heightis 203m m was used for taking specimens
from the compaction mold. From the pipe,the specimens with 37 mm diameter and 74 mm height were obtained.
Several experiments are carried out on these samples to determine the geotechnical, physical, physicochemical
properties and, environmentalimpacts.
Geotechnical Properties
The AST M D854-2000 test was used forthe determination of specific gravity. For consistency limits, BS
1377 Part 2: 1990: 4.3 and 5.4 were applied for the liquid limittest and plastic limittests respectively. For the
liquid limit test,the cone penetrometer method was utilized. The shrinkage limit test was applied according to
the AST M D427 1998 standard. The grain size distribution was also determined according to the AST M
standards.
Generally,the soil classification study is carried out as a last geotechnical examination. For this purpose,
418
�there are two standards, namely; USCS (Unified Soil Classification System) and A ASHTO (American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Office).In this study the both method are utilized for
determination of soil class. The soil classification, specific gravity and consistency limits are given in table 2.4.
The curves of grain size distribution were also given in figure 2.2.
PARA METERS
USCS
A ASHTO Specific
Gravity
Consistency Limits (%)
Liquid
Plastic Shrinkage Plasticity
limit
limit
limit
index
Control(90K10B)
CH
A-7-5(9) 2,64
50,97
32,38
1,75%
18,59
90K10B +5% Asp.
CH
A-7-5(12) 2,63
50,44
32,40
1,42%
23,66
90K10B +10% Asp. CH-CL A-7-5(10) 2,59
50,26
32,62
1,25%
26,11
90K10B +15% Asp.
CL
A-7-5(9)
2,55
49,01
32,80
1,35%
30,45
Table 2.4: Soil classifications ofthe mixtures,specific gravity and consistency limit values.
Figure 2.2: Grain size distrubution curves
Mechanical Properties
In this study the standard proctor test was applied to the mixtures by using AST M D 698-78 and the
relation between water contents and dry unit volume weight was observed. The other mechanical test in this
study is permeability. “Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity, Saturated Leachate Conductivity, and Intrinsic
Permeability”,indicated in USEPA Method 9100 (1986) was used in thistest. The results of tests are shown in
table 2.5 The triaxial UU test was done under 100 kPa and 200 kPa surrounding pressure in accordance with
method suggested in Turkish Standard No1900. The unconfined compression test was also used in triaxial UU
test method but the only difference is the absence of cell pressure. The results of triaxial UU test and the
unconfined compression test are shown in figure 2.3 and 2.4 respectively.
PARA METERS
Control(90K10B)
90K10B +5% Asf.
90K10B +10% Asf.
90K10B +15% Asf.
The result of compaction
opt. water content%
22,72
22,61
22,46
22,35
Permeability m/s
1.2 x 10-9
1.4 x 10-9
1.5 x 10-9
1.8 x 10-9
Table 2.5: Optimum water contents and permeability results
419
�400
0%
Pressure (kPa)
380
5%
10%
360
15%
340
320
300
280
260
240
0
10
20
30
Cure time (Day)
Figure 2.3: Strenght vs cure time in triaxial UU test.
180
Pressure (kPa)
160
0
5%
10%
15%
140
120
100
80
60
0
10
20
Cure tim e (Day)
30
Figure 2.4: Strenght vs cure time in unconfined compression test.
Physicochemical Properties
Physicochemical properties of materials are also extremely important for permeability. Therefore, pH,
cation exchange capacity(CEC), electricalconductivity(EC) and the amount of organic materialare also studied
forthe conclusion at usability of the studied material.
U.S. EPA Method 9045 (1986) was used for of pH test. For comparison, pH values of the same mixtures
were remeasured one day later. This measurement is similarto the technique suggested by Jackson(1958). The
sodium saturation method was used for CEC. EC of specimens were determined by sinking electrode into the
mixture (Wilcox1946; Karakouzian et al. 1996). The amount of organic materialin the mixture was determined
by dry-burn method (Standard Methods 1993, Horneck et al.1989).
The results are shown in table 2.6. Leachatetestis done for the physicochemicalresults and itisshown in
table 2.7.
420
�Materialas
pH
Control(90K10B)
90K10B +5% Asp.
90K10B +10% Asp.
90K10B +15% Asp.
8,9
8,2
8,2
7,9
EC
(mS/cm)
1171
1420
1674
1765
CEC
(meq/100g)
13,44
16,33
17,90
17,18
O.E.M
(%)
0,1
7,9
9,9
10
Table 2.6: Physicochemical properties ofthe mixtures.
Cu
Zn
Ni
Pb
(ppm)
(ppm)
(ppm)
(ppm)
Control(90K10B)
22,25
20,50
20,00
21,25
90K10B +5% Asp.
0.25
0,25
0,00
0,00
90K10B +10% Asp.
0,25
0,25
0,00
0,00
90K10B +15% Asp.
0,25
0,25
0,00
0,00
Table 2.7: Results ofthe leachate experiment ofthe mixtures.
Materials
The properties belong to environmental conditions
The effect of environmental conditions is another factor on the permeability of mixtures In order to
determine thesebehavoir; freezing and thawing strength was determined according to “Methods for Freezingand-Thawing Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures” indicated in AST M D560-82 (1985) and results are
given in table 2.8.
Initial water contents
The number of cycle
Grain loss (%)
(%)
Control(90K10B)
25
12
17,6
90K10B +5% Asf.
25
12
19,9
90K10B +10% Asf.
25
12
23,8
90K10B +15% Asf.
25
12
25,2
Table 2.8: Freezing-Thawing experiment results of asphaltite powder mixtures.
Materials
Discussion
Plasticity index values of all specimens used in this study are between 16 and 19. These values are
appropriateto Ip < 50 criterion determined forlandfilllayers studied by Daniel and Wu,1993. Itis observed that
the materials are CH and CL class according to USCS. However a variation was observed from higher (CH)
plasticity clay to lower plasticity clay (CL) asthe amount of asphaltiteinthe mixtures has increased. This shows
that CH, CL and MH type of soil can be used in landfilllayers.
It was declared that the acceptable maximum volume shrinkage ratio was 4% for landfilllayers (Daniel
and Wu, 1993, Kleppe and Olson, 1984). Volume shrinkage ratios is measured between 1,25%-1,75% in this
study. On the other hand, the specific gravity measured for samples is 2,55 at minimum and 2.63 at maximum.
These values are between 2,5-2,7 ranges observed in previous studies (Yong-Weidth, 1985, Benson 1994).
The optimum water content values ofthe samples are around 22%. The solid waste regulationsis declared
that the optimum water contents must be between 20 and 40%. When the amount of dissolved saltin water in
soilincreases, EC also increases. The maximum EC obtained is 1765 mS/cm. In previous studies,itis declared
that EC<4000 mS/cm is a reasonable value (Tuncan et al,1996). When the saltinthe soilis dissolved in water,it
causes an increase in the permeability. The permeability values of samples are between 1,2x10-9 and 1,8x10-9
m/s. The highest permeability value indicated by USEPA is 10-8 m/s. On the other hand, the amount of organic
materialinthe mixture has increased as the amount of asphaltitefrom 0,1% to 7,9% increased. Organic material
increase makes increasing influence on permeability.It was confirmed by testresults.
On examining CEC behavior of samples,it was seen thatithasincreased from 13,44% to 17,90%. Higher
CEC value willreduce heavy metal pollution in leakage water. Furthermore, higher CEC means higher potential
421
�of expansion which is another criterion of permeability. The results of Leachate test were shown that the
asphaltite dust added mixtures was absorbed Cu, Pb, Zn and Ni excellently. As can be seen from table 2.7,these
values are reduced from 22,25 ppm to 0,25 and 0.
The unconfined compression test and triaxialtestresults ofthe samples were shown that asphaltite has no
positiveinfluence on strength values. Depending on curetime and amount of additives,some decline was seen in
strength values. Finally, afterfreezing and thawing test consisting oftotally 12 cycles,it was seen that grain loss
has increased with asphaltite increase. It has increased from 17.6% to 25,2% at the end of 12 cycles. It can be
declared thatthe grain losses can make negative influence to the strength values oflayers.
Conclusions
It was determined that the usage of asphaltite dust has reasonable criteria as additive materials in the
kaolinite-bentonite mixture landfilllayers asthe results are comparable with criteriain the literature and Turkish
solid waste municipial regulations. The usage of asphaltite will also influence the environment by means of
recycle of waste material.
In future, studies with asphaltite dust,itis suggested thatincreasing addition ratio, considering solutions
in orderto see heat effects,repetition experiments atlow and high temperature,researching mixtures which will
be composed with only kaolinite or only natural clays.
References
ASTM D 427, 1998, Standart Test Method for Shrinkage Factors of Soils by the Mercury Method. Annual Book of ASTM
Standarts
ASTM D 854, 2000, Standart Test Method for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Water Pycnometer. Annual Book of ASTM
Standarts.
ASTM D 4318, 2000, Standart Test Method for Liquit Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of soils. Annual Book of
ASTM Standarts.
Atlaş, M., Fikret, H., Çelebi, E., 1994a, Development of Energy Sector of Turkey and supply-demand projections, Turkey
6.Energy Congress, pp197-201,17-22 October, Đzmir, (in Turkish).
Benson, C. H. ve Othman, M. A.,1993, Hydraulic Conductivity of Compacted and Thawed In Situ, Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, ASCE,119, 2, pp276-294.
Daniel, D. E., 1987, Earth Liners for Waste Disposal Facilities, Geotechnical Practice for Waste Disposal 87, R.D. Woods,
ed., ASCE, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp 21-39.
Daniel, D. E. And WU, Y. K., 1993, Compacted Clay Liners and Covers for Arid Sites, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
ASCE, Volume 119, pp 223-237.
Das, B. M., 1998, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Fourth Edition, International Thomson Publishing, Boston.
Edıl, T.B ve Berthouex, P.M, 1990, Earthen Barriers Technology For Waste Containment, Waste Management, 10, 2, pp
147-153..
Kalkan, E. Ve Akbulut, S., 2004, The Positive Effects of Slica Fume on The Permeability, Swelling Pressure and
Compressive Strength of Natural Clay Liners, Engineering Geology, 73, pp145-156.
Kayabalı, K, 1997, Engineering Aspects Of A Novel Landfill Liner Material: Bentonite-Amended Natural Zeolite,
Engineering Geology, 46, 2, pp 105-114.
Luczak-Wılamowska, B.,2002, Neogene clays from Poland as mineral sealing barriers for landfills: experimental study,
Applied Clay Science, 21, 1-2, April, pp 33-43.
Roehl, K.E, ve Czurda, K., 1998, Diffusion And Solid Speciation Of Cd And Pb Đn Clay Liners, Applied Clay Science, 12,
pp 387-402 .
Mining Special Expert Commission, 1995, Kaolin, p 1-4, (in Turkish).
422
�Mining Special Expert Commission, 2001, Bentonit, p 2-26, (in Turkish).
Nozhernikova, A.N., Nekrasova, V.K., Lebeder, V.S., and Lifshits, A.B., (1993), Microbio-logical Process in Landfills,
WST, Vol.27, No.2, pp 242-252.
Koyuncu, H.,1998, Physicochemical, Microstructure and Geotecnical Properties of Petroleum Boring Wastes improved with
Stabilization/Solidification Method, PhD Thesis, Osmangazi University,(in Turkish).
Nakomon, E.,1997, Southeastern Anatolia Asphaltical Material Appearances, Mining Journal, November, pp 41-51, (in
Turkish).
Palmer, B.G., Edil, T.B. ve Benson, C.H., 2000, Liners For Waste Containment Constructed With Class F And C Fly Ashes,
Journal of Hazardous Materials, 76, 15 September, pp 193-216.
Prashanth, J.p., Sıvapullaıah, P.V., ve Srıdharan, A., 2001, Pozzolanic Fly Ash As A Hydraulic Barrier in Landfills,
Engineering Geology, 60, 1-4, June, pp 245-252.
Taşpolat, L.T., 2006, Utilization of Afyon Waste Marble Dust and Şırnak Asphaltite in the Landfill Liners, MSc Thesis,
Afyon Kocatepe University, (in Turkish).
TS 1900, 1997, Soil Laboratory Testing In Civil Engineering, Ankara, Türkiye, (in Turkish).
U.S. EPA METHOD 9100, 1986, Physical/chemical methods, saturated hydraulic conductivity, saturated leachate
conductivity, and instinsic permeability, triaxial-cell method with back pressure, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid DC.
20460, Environmental Protection Agency, 9100-20-24, September.
U.S. EPA METHOD 9045, Physical/chemical methods, Soil pH, test methods for evaluating solid waste, (SW-846), IA, IB,
IC and II., Third Edition, Doc. Control No: 955-001-000001, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Wılcox, J. C., 1946, Determination Of Electrical Conductivity Of Soil Solution, Science Agronomy. 32, pp107-117.
Karakouzian, M., Pıtchford, A., Leonard M. And Johnson, B., 1996, Measurement of Soluble Salt Contend of Soils From
Arid And Semi-Arid Regions, Geotechnical Testing Journal, GTJODJ, 19,4, December, pp364-372.
Horneck, D.A., Hart, J.M., Topper, K., and Koepsell, B., 1989, Methods of Soil Analysis Used in The Soil Testing
Laboratory At Oregon State University. SM 89:4-16. Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University, U.S.A.
Tuncan, A., Tuncan, M., Koyuncu, H., 1996, Applied Research of Physical and Chemical Effects of Pollution Produced by
Petroleum Boring Wastes in Soil, TUBITAK Project, KTÇAG-136, p194.(in Turkish).
423
�
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521
Title
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The Use of Asphaltites in the Landfill Layer
Author
Author
Taspolat, Lemi Tufan
Yamik, Hasan
Kaplan, Mesut
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The waste materials emerged in developing cities should be disposed without damage to environment. Landfills must properly be designed and well managed. Recently, some waste materials were began to be used with clay in landfill layer design. This process was positive effects on environment by means of recycling, regains to economy and reducing environmental pollutions. In this study, asphaltite dust was added at ratio of 5%, 10% and 15% to mixture of 90% kaolinite and 10% bentonite by weight. Geotechnic, physical and chemical experiments were carried out on the samples. The experiment results were in acceptable limits with the literature, United States Environmental Protection Agency and the Turkish solid waste regulations. As a result, the asphaltite can be used as an additive material in landfills.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fccba2c5a2f3c41325185b5a7c3b813b.pdf
f71c5441f43dc5921cf7ca8ec30746e7
PDF Text
Text
The Sustainability Problems of Irrigation in Turkey
Prof.Dr. Nizamettin Çiftçi
Selçuk University Agricultural Faculty –Konya/Turkey
nciftci@selcuk.edu.tr
Assist.Prof.Dr. Bilal Acar
Selçuk University Agricultural Faculty –Konya/Turkey
biacar@selcuk.edu.tr
Assoc.Dr. Ramazan Topak
Selçuk University Agricultural Faculty –Konya/Turkey
rtopak@selcuk.edu.tr
Assist.Prof.Dr. Muhittin Çelebi
Selçuk University Çumra MYO –Konya/Turkey
mcelebi@selcuk.edu.tr
Abstract: Water, a vital source for humanity and all living things throughout the history,
has contributed to the formation of civilizations. It has the economical value as well as
social and cultural characteristics. The land and water potentials have reduced due to
rapid growing in urbanization and industrialization in Turkey. Water quality has begun
to deteriorate as a result of environmental factors. Irrigated land also has been increasing
every year. Turkey has arid and semi-arid climate characteristics and annual average
precipitation is almost 643 mm. The total annual available surface and groundwater
potential is 110 km3. Annual water potential per capita is 2565 m3, and available water
potential is 1517 m3 in Turkey. According to the water per capita, Turkey is a waterstress country. Turkey covers a total land area of 78 million hectares, of which 28
million hectares is cultivated land. The economically irrigable land is 8.5 million
hectares under the present condition. According to the 2009 records, irrigated land is 5.1
million hectares. Presence of large number of fragmented and small farm lands, scant
water supplies, poor and insufficient infrastructures in irrigation networks, deficiency in
irrigation water management and drainage problems have affected negatively to the
sustainability of irrigation in Turkey.
Keywords: Water, land and water potentials, available water potential, sustainable
irrigation.
Introduction
Water is the prime element for human life on earth but, it is not exist in every place, amount and time
on earth. It is the strategic natural resource and will be also very important. The utilization of water
resources and related studies are as old as human history. In general, agriculture is the most water user
sector in the world.
The increase of the population has resulted more water requirement. There is a serious water
scarcity and water stress problems in 80 countries with 40% of population. It is estimated that the world
population will reach about to the 8.5 billion in the year of 2025. This shows that population will increase
as 35-40% between current and 2025 year. Food problems associated by irrigation will be very serious in
future. In present, water scarcity problems have been observed mainly in African and Middle East
Countries as well as highly populated Asian Countries (Çiftçi et al 2009a; Çiftçi et al. 2009b).
191
�Water resources are 1.36 billion km3 in the world. Of this amount, 97 % is saline water with only 35
million km3 of this is fresh water (3%). The 68.3% of this is in poles as a freeze form and 31.4% of is as
soil moisture or groundwater form. The 0.3% of total fresh water in the world is streams, lakes and swamps
areas (Çiftçi & Kutlar 2007).
Presence of non-uniform water distribution in world causes some problems. The reason of it water
distribution is difference in hydrological cycle in different places.
The development level of countries has very important role in water consumption. As we
mentioned above in most countries, agriculture is the highest water user. Water is used for three different
purposes. These are; - drinking and usage (in residents) - agriculture, and 3- industry . The averages of
water use in the world are 70%, 20% and 10% in agriculture, industry and drinking and usage, respectively.
Increase in water use has lead to reduction in water quality. Human activities may cause two type
of contamination of water resources. It is very important for human health, especially for children, to use
the fresh water at present. In the world, almost one million people in 40 countries have used the poor
quality water. Increment in irrigated lands will also increase the water consumption.
Turkey is situated in 36o-42o North latitude and 26o-45o East longitude so that it has a unique
geographical and cultural position. The length of the land border is 2949 km and coastal boundary of 7816
km with total of 10765 km. The neighbors are Greece and Bulgaria in West; Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Iran in East and ; Iraq, Syria in South. Ankara, capital city of Turkey, is 875 m above the sea level (Ulus)
(Anonymous 2009).
The construction of huge irrigation networks started after 1950's and had very importance. These
big irrigation projects are irrigated by Menderes, Gediz, Seyhan, Ceyhan, Yeşilırmak, Kızılırmak, Fırat and
Dicle Rivers. The project consisted of Dicle and Fırat is called as Southeastern Anatolian Project (SAP) and
is one of the huge projects in the world (Kara 2005).
Turkey can be considered a ` water-stressed ‘country according to the water resources. It is
estimated that available water potential of Turkey will be fully used after 20 years.
Land and Water Potential in Turkey
Land Potential of Turkey
Agricultural production is the function of arable land and soil fertility in such area. It means that not
only land size is important but also fertility of soil is very important. Turkey covers 28 million hectares of
cultivated land.
To make an irrigation project, arable land and water supply as well as suitability of arable land for
irrigation are necessary. The land potential with the slope lower than 6% is 16.5 million hectares in Turkey.
The 8.5%of this is economically irrigable land. The irrigated land at present is 5.1 million ha (Çiftçi et al.
2008) are presented in Table 1 (Kara 2005, Çiftçi & Kutlar 2007).
Land Status
1.
2.
3.
4.
•
•
•
•
Area (million ha)
Arable land
Land for field crop production
Land for vineyard and Horticulture
Land for meadow
Irrigable Land
Economically irrigable land
Land suitable for irrigation after the some
improvement
Currently irrigated land
26.6
16.0
2.6
8.0
16.5
8.5
8.0
5.1
Table 1. The utilization patterns of lands in Turkey
192
�As seen from the Table 1 that almost 8 million ha land is exposed to fallow. As a result of this,
although arable land potential is 26.6 ha, only 18.6 ha of it is under cultivation.
Water Potential of Turkey
In general, the climate is semi-arid in Turkey. Due to the surrounding with three directions of
Turkey by seas, high mountains lies on parallel to the sea costs, rapid changes in elevation and distance to
the coasts result in climate changes in small distances. Turkey has different climate characteristics due to
the geographical position. In the exception of the East Black Region, the climate varies from arid to semiarid. The climate changes depend upon the seasons and regional differences. There are total 26 big river
basins in Turkey. There is difference between the basins in respect to the rainfall. The annual rainfalls are
350mm and 2400m for Middle Anatolia Region and East Black Sea, respectively.
Water potential of a country is the sum of surface and groundwater. As it is known that source of the
water in earth is rainfall.
The annual average precipitation in Turkey is almost 643 mm, corresponding to a volume of 501
km3 and the annual runoff is 186 km3. The 274 km3 of total precipitation is lost by transpiration and
evaporation. Another 41 km3 of total precipitation feeds the underground water system and 186 km3 end up
as surface runoff. The annual consumable surface water potential is computed as 98 km3 and extractable
groundwater potential of 12 km3 should be added to this, bringing the total annual consumable potential to
110 km3 (Figure 1) (Kara 2005; Çiftçi et al. 2009b).
A nn ual average precipitation: 501 k m 3
Groun dwater:
69 km 3
From precipitation :
158 km 3
Surface run off (dom estic):
186 km 3
Con sumable:
12 km 3
C on sumable:
Consumable:
95 km 3
95 km 3
Flow from n eigh boring
countries:
7 km 3
C on sumable:
3 km 3
Total surface run off:
193 km 3
Con sumable:
98 km 3
T otal con sumable
water resources:
110 k m 3
Figure 1. Water Potential of Turkey.
193
E vaporation:
274 km 3
�Water supply is used for different purposes such as energy production, irrigation, and others. By
considering increase in population requirement to the water due to the irrigation, drinking and usages with
demands to water in developed industry and tourism sector, water consumption estimation has been
performed in Turkey.
The water consumption estimation performed by sector base, economically irrigable land potential
of Turkey (8.5 million hectares) will be completely opened to the irrigation by construction of irrigation
networks in the year of 2030 and also estimated that irrigation water uses will reach the 71.5 km3.
On the other hand, the main target is to minimize the water uses as 65% in total water uses by using
the modern irrigation technologies in 2030. Thus, in sector base, all 110 km3 water will be used completely
in 2030 (Table 2). Usages of fresh water potential and situation in the future are given in Figure 2
(Anonymous 2009).
Year
Total
water
use, km3
35.645
38.900
39.300
40.000
110.000
1999
2000
2001
2002
2030
Development,
%
irrigation
%
34
35
36
38
100
26.415
29.200
29.300
32.000
71.500
75
75
75
75
65
Water Use (km3)
Drinking%
usage
5.520
15
5.700
10
5.800
15
6.000
15
25.300
23
industry
%
3.710
4.000
4.200
4.300
13.200
11
11
10
10
12
Table 2. The Usage of Water in Sector Base in Turkey (Anonymous 2002)
water usage, km3
80
irrigation
drinking-usage
60
industry
40
20
0
1
2
3
4
5
Years
Figure 2. Water Usage Ratios in Turkey
Water-rich country can be defined as the country that has the water potential of 10 000 m3/person
per year. According record of 2009, it is estimated that the population is about to the 72.5 millions in
Turkey. The annual water potential per capita is 2565 m3.
The available water potential per capita is 1375 m3/person/year. Thus, Turkey can be considered a
` water-stressed ‘country by comparison to the some countries.
According to the Government Statistical Institute records, it is estimated that the population will
reach about to the 80 millions in Turkey in the year of 2025 year. The available water potential per capita
will reduce to the 1375 m3/person/year. It is possible to estimate the importance of water potential by
considering some factors such as present growth rate and variations in water consumption habits. This
estimation is valid under the conditions of transferring the present resources without any destruction up to
2025. Therefore, in order to transfer the water resources properly and sufficiently to the next generation,
water resources should be conserved best and used efficiently.
194
�Water Management and Sustainability Problems in Turkey
The residential and industrial water uses are getting increasing and there is a competition between
these two sectors and agricultural use.
To improve the efficiency of irrigation, there is a need a irrigation method covered high crop yield,
elements of modern irrigation technologies.
Water Management
Water management is defined as development , distribution and uses of water resources. Main goal
in water management is improvement of the farmers income. This can be obtained by effective water
distributions and uses. Water management is briefly described as the distribution and uses of water.
The number of organizations are responsible in water management at Turkey. Similar
responsibilities may result conflict and problems in practice. However, there are two important
organizations for water management namely General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works (GDSHW) and
City Private Management (CPM) are two government organizations.
According to 2008 records, the area for opened to the irrigation is about 5.1 million hectares, and 2.9
million hectares and 1.3 million hectares have been irrigated by GDSHW and General Directorate of Rural
Services and Public (GDRS), respectively. The rest 0.9 million hectare has opened to irrigation by farmers.
The 6.5 million hectors of the total 8.5 million economically irrigable land will be managed by
GDSHW in 2030. The other 1.5 and 0.5 million hectare land will be irrigated by other government
organizations and public sector (Anonymous 2009). There are different management types in Turkey.
These are;
Government irrigation management: The first big government irrigation manager is a GDSHW and
responsible for constructions of dams. These dams are not so much so that the organization has managed,
maintenance-repair of such dams. Due to the not transfer of huge structures and difficulty in management
those structures have only managed by GDSHW.
Management with local managers; In small places where the not availability of irrigation cooperatives
and water user associations (WUA) or even making the organization but not properly managed small areas,
municipal or local managers or community have managed the systems. In local management, poor
management of irrigation structures and not having the sufficiently information and use the irrigation
systems as financial sector are the deficiency of local management. The efficiency of this management is
low.
Public Irrigation; Farmers are the manager in this system and is small or medium scale irrigation
management. There is transfer problem in this management. Farmers solve their problem by using their
facilities. They are responsible for them and effectiveness is parallel with the their experiences.
Irrigation Cooperatives- Water management; Irrigation cooperatives were built with 1163 number by
cooperative policy. The components of cooperative are General Community, Management Community and
Control Unit. In addition, Irrigation Cooperative Superior Community and Irrigation Cooperative Central
Association are available (Çiftçi et al. 2008). The purposes of irrigation cooperatives are determined by
negotiations and these are follows (Çiftçi 1991) ;
• These cooperatives may construction of irrigation structures for agricultural uses,
management, maintenance-repair, land consolidation if necessary, supply credit in water
obtaining points.
• The number of the irrigation cooperative was 2386 in 2006 in Turkey and members in
cooperatives, number of the association and central association were 280043, 7 and 1,
respectively (Anonymous 2006). The areas served by cooperatives (1307852 ha) are
presented in Table 5.
• Irrigation cooperatives have appropriate management model for small-medium sized
farms as well as farmers' self-government democratic management, ease of self-
195
�regulatory and public administration by the control status and have the capacity of
meeting maintenance and repair expenses. However, they have the some disadvantages
such as members of farmers in cooperatives could not detect the purposes of these
organizations, having financially, legally and technically inadequacy.
Water Use Associations (WUA) ; WUA is built by local management permission and it has the
government characteristics. Personal are employed like the government criteria. However, the members of
the decision makers and managers are selected by farmers in WUA.
WUA can be built by required village and municipality. Each WUA has the special procedures.
WUA community and community members are present in accordance of their procedures. The general
secretary must be agriculture engineer and organizes works as if head of the WUA. The management of
WUA is conducted by legislation, management and official decisions.
GDSHW has transferred 2.090.330 ha areas of total opened irrigation of 2.9 million ha according to
the 2008. The 1.883.702 ha area has transferred to the 362 WUA. GDSHW has transferred 90% of opened
irrigation to the WUA (Anonymous 2008).
Water Supply
Irrigated Land (ha)
%
Small Dam
143385
10.96
Surface
858837
65.67
Groundwater
30563
23.37
Total
1307852
100
Table 3. Areas Served by Cooperatives
In considering the total 5.1 million irrigated areas in Turkey, 37% of it has transferred to the WUA.
There is some problems during transferring of irrigation Networks in Turkey. These are mostly legislation,
financial and technical problems.
Problems in irrigation management
Development and management policies in soil and water resources should be rereviewed in
Turkey. For sustainable irrigated agriculture, water management and management policies of government,
irrigation cooperatives and WUA should be reviewed and required regulations should be performed. In
recently, government is the exception for water management and it can be responsibilities of contributions
to the water users and guide.
The purposes of transferring irrigation water management are follows:
• Facilitates farmers attendance and responsibility in management
• Local management in determined rules by farmers,
• Self inspection by own members,
• Reduction in management-maintenance and meeting the outcomes by farmer organizations.
Cooperatives are mostly ignored in irrigation water management. However, in small-scale
production countries cooperatives are much more effective.
Number
Ratios (%)
Area (ha)
Ratios
(%)
WUA
362
42,7
1 883 702
90,1
Irrigation cooperative
100
11,8
94 148
4,5
Municipal
154
18,2
70 612
3,4
Village Community
225
26,5
40 198
1,9
Organizations
196
�Others
6
0,8
1 670
0,1
TOTAL
847
100
2 090 330
100
Table 4. Transferred Areas and Organizations (Anonymous 2008 )
Water management has transferred to the Village Community, Municipal, WUA, Services
performed helps to villages, Cooperatives and Universities. The top rank is WUA between these. Various
problems may be observed in irrigation water management in Turkey. These are as follows;
• Deficiency in attendance of farmers to the irrigated agriculture investments and problems in
re obtaining of charges,
• Deficiencies in water conveyance, distribution and applications and excess water losses,
• Postpone problems such as in land leveling, consolidation, electrification,
• Observation of some problems in reduced yield, salinity and drainage,
• Surface and groundwater contaminations via agricultural chemicals, food nutrients and
industrial wastes,
•
Low irrigation efficiency and irrigation ratios, excess water losses and low irrigation
performance due to the surface irrigation methods,
• Incorrect crop patterns in region,
• Maintenance-repair problems in irrigation networks,
• Postpone in maintenance-repair works after the transfer or irrigation management to the
WUA and irrigation cooperatives,
• Financial, legislation, management and education problems in irrigation cooperatives and
WUA.
References
Anonymous. (2002). General Directorate of Sate Hydraulic Works (GDSHW) http://www.dsi.gov.tr/ (in Turkish).
Anonymous. (2006). Teşkilatlanma ve Destekleme Genel Müdürlüğü TEDGEM - Ankara
Turkish).
www.tedgem.gov.tr (in
Anonymous. (2008). General Directorate of Sate Hydraulic Works (GDSHW) http://www.dsi.gov.tr/ (in Turkish).
Anonymous. (2009). General Directorate of Sate Hydraulic Works (GDSHW) http://www.dsi.gov.tr/ (in Turkish).
Çiftçi, N., Acar, B., Şahin, M., Yaylalı, I., & Yavuz, D. (2009a). Land and Water Potentials of Turkey and Major
Problems in Irrigated Agriculture, Proceedings International Conference on Lakes and Nutrient Loads, 2009, Pocradec.
305-310.
Çiftçi, N., Acar, B., Yaylalı, I & Çivicioğlu, N. (2009b). Groundwater Potential Usage and Contamination Problems in
Turkey under Global Warming Period, Proceedings International Conference on Lakes and Nutrient Loads, 2009,
Pocradec. 456-462.
Çiftçi, N & Kutlar, Đ. (2007). Water potential and water resources of Konya Plain. Journal of Konya Ticaret Borsası, 24,
34-37 (in Turkish
Çiftçi,N.,Kutlar,Đ., & Demir, N. (2008). Konya Đli Sulama Kooperatiflerinin Sulamadaki Etkinliği. Konya Kapalı
Havzası Yer Altı Suyu ve Kuraklık Konferansı, 11-12 Eylül, 2008. S. 57-66. Konya (in Turkish)
Çiftçi, N. (1991). Orta Anadolu Toprak ve Su Kooperatifleri Sulama işletmelerinde Görülen Sorunlar, Karınca
Kooperatif Postası, No. 653, Ankara.
Kara, M. (2005). Irrigation and irrigation systems. Selçuk University. Agricultural Faculty, ISBN 975-448-177-6:
Konya-Turkey (in Turkish).
197
�
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378
Title
A name given to the resource
The Sustainability Problems of Irrigation in Turkey
Author
Author
Çiftçi, Nizamettin
Acar, Bilal
Topak, Ramazan
Çelebi, Muhittin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Water, a vital source for humanity and all living things throughout the history, has contributed to the formation of civilizations. It has the economical value as well as social and cultural characteristics. The land and water potentials have reduced due to rapid growing in urbanization and industrialization in Turkey. Water quality has begun to deteriorate as a result of environmental factors. Irrigated land also has been increasing every year. Turkey has arid and semi-arid climate characteristics and annual average precipitation is almost 643 mm. The total annual available surface and groundwater potential is 110 km3. Annual water potential per capita is 2565 m3, and available water potential is 1517 m3 in Turkey. According to the water per capita, Turkey is a waterstress country. Turkey covers a total land area of 78 million hectares, of which 28 million hectares is cultivated land. The economically irrigable land is 8.5 million hectares under the present condition. According to the 2009 records, irrigated land is 5.1 million hectares. Presence of large number of fragmented and small farm lands, scant water supplies, poor and insufficient infrastructures in irrigation networks, deficiency in irrigation water management and drainage problems have affected negatively to the sustainability of irrigation in Turkey.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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PDF Text
Text
The Sustainability of Agricultural Activities and its Effects on Internal
Waters And Living Areas
Hasan Kalyoncu
Süleyman Demirel University,
Faculty of Science Art, Department of Biology, Isparta, Türkiye.
Ismail Hakkı Kalyoncu
Selcuk University,
Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Garden Plants, Konya, Türkiye.
Abstract:Residues of some medicals and fertilizers used in agricultural areas can
reach to some receptors through some processes such as irrigation and surface waters.
These natural receptors are rivers, lakes and seas. The materials coming from
agricultural areas have more destructive effects on the lakes and rivers since these are
smaller. The most pronounced pollutants coming from agricultural areas to rivers and
lakes are pesticides and fertilizers which are known as a source of nitrogen and
phosphor. Chemicals in some areas where pesticide were used are mixed into rivers
and lakes through that way they reach to water habitats and organisms. On the other
hand, this causes to increase organic ratio, eutrophication and for ecological balance
to be destroyed.
Pathogens are transmitted to surface waters with human and animal wastes
and then these contaminated surface waters threat human health. An important
amount of pathogens is distributed to receptors through use of wastewaters for
irrigation. In order to this negative effects to be removed, in order to save rivers and
lakes, wild irrigation must be stopped, the direct approach of wastewaters into the
rivers and lakes must be prevented, the usage of fertilizers and pesticides must be
controlled, mechanical and biological war must be strengthen. The sustainable
ecological living areas can be constructed by taking the water sources and biological
kinds under control with these precautions.
Introduction
Some reasons, such that the environment knowledge of population has not been well developed, the
world population has increased very fast, and the industry and technology have developed too fast, cause that the
drinking water is decreased in time. Beside these, pollution of water sources irresponsibly will cause problems
can not be solved (Haviland, 2002; Dağlı, 2005; Akın, 2007 ).
Increasing demand on the food with increasing population makes that the quality and quantity must be
increased. As a result of these demand, the usage of fertilizer and pesticide are increased in time (Huber et al.,
2000; Causape et al., 2004). The chemicals used agricultural areas are classified in two groups to be fertilizers
and pesticides (Alloway, 1995). They are very important issue since they are toxic, decomposition of them is
very difficult, and they can be deposited in living organisms and environment (Egemen, 2006). Pesticides and
chemical fertilizers are mixed into rivers which are one of the ecosystems mostly affected from environmental
pollution (Huber et al., 2000, Causape et al., 2004; Taş, 2006 ).
The pollutions caused by agricultural activities are firstly transferred into the rivers and then goes to
lakes and seas throughout rivers. It can prevent the development of zoo and phytoplankton which have an
important place on the feeding chain of aquatic livings even in the case of the existence of pesticides in trace
level in the water (Aguilar et al., 1997).
This pollution is badly affecting not only livings living in pollution but also it can reach human through
feeding chain (Yılmaz, 2004). It is important to note that the determination of existence of DDT (pesticide) on
the penguins, seal and people living in poles where no pesticides have never been used shows the power of
circulation of chemicals used in agriculture over the world (Egemen, 2006).
The harms given by the improper usage with the increase of this improper usage of pesticides and
chemical fertilizers will reach to so high level (Öztürk and Tosun, 2004). At present, as the production and usage
of pesticides and chemical fertilizers continue to increase, in order to the health and environmental problems the
641
�production to be decreased, this case must seriously be taken under control (Atasoy and Rastgeldi, 2006).
Agricultural Activities And Pesticide
Since pesticides remain in nature for so long time without decomposition, they have no selectivity on
the selected organisms and collected in some parts of food chain, they can cause destructions of some beneficial
kinds and ecological balance and appearing of new kinds presenting resistance to these kind of products
(Kambur et al., 2005).
It has been well known that pesticides can reach ecosystem of water in several ways. For example, some
several medicines can contaminate into water with direct application of pesticides to the buggies during fighting
against wild grass in or around the canals of drainage and irrigation or vector insects such as mosquitoes. The
medicines in some places where pesticides were used several pesticides reaches to aquatic plants and insects in a
way of mixturing these pesticides to river or ground water by rain water. The pesticides mixture into ground or
surface waters have limit values for livings according to some structural properties presented in some receptors.
The concentrations exceeding these limit values badly effect the life of livings. The first step of bioconsantration
mechanisms in aquatic systems is consisted of plankton. An important part of plankton in aquatic habitats
consists of algae. Since algae are primary producer, they play a functional role in habitats on which algae exist.
Algae which are primary produces in aquatic environment form the base of organic production and they are quite
sensitive organisms for physical and chemical changes in an environment where they exist. Algae are key targets
for pesticide contaminations since they haw echophysiological similarities (Kambur et al., 2005). The primary
production presented by algae forms foundations of whole organic production in aquatic environment. Algae
forming the first circle of chain of feeding in waters are organisms which are quite sensitive to the physical and
chemical changes in environment where they exist (Round, 1984; Hutchinson, 1967).
Sensitivity of algae, which is an important group in either plankton or benthic organisms in fresh water,
to different toxic materials is different. Algae have an important role in determination and improvement of water
quality and in rehabilitation of waste water. On the other hand, algae remove some elements such as nitrogen and
phosphors, existing in quite large amount in aquatic environment, from environment using them as materials of
feeding. Because of this, a change in quality and quantity of algae which is primary produces in aquatic
environment cause a whole ecosystem to be destroyed (Turan, 2008).
It has been understood that fishes are harmfully affected from the low level residues of several
pesticides mixed into water in several ways and attitudes of fishes are changed. It has also been reported that
babies of some kind of fishes are too sensitive to pesticides. The residues of pesticides even in minimal level, in
stagnant waters uses up oxygen in water and destroy the feeding environment for fishes (Anonymous, 2004).
The organisms dead by the effects of pesticides are deposited in the bottom of the water by sinking. CO2
or poison gases raised during the decay prevent aquatic organisms coming near to these areas (Anonymous,
2004). Pesticides transferred to aquatic ecosystems presents some different effects on organisms in receptor
environments. These effects cause death of fishes, other vertebrates and in invertebrates and algae to be harmed,
and also cause disappear from environment. In addition to this, pesticide residues cause chronic toxicity to be
developed by food chain and drinking contaminated water (Turan, 2008). As a result of this, biological variety in
ecosystems has been affected. Some increases in the pollutants cause some organisms to be increased too much
while cause some organisms to be removed from environment or to be annihilated. Some types can only be left
which can tolerate pollution. Some damages, which cannot be reversed, appear as a result of destruction of the
ecological balance (Kalyoncu et al., 2009).
The gills of fishes first met pesticides and, therefore, the most series damages are taken place on that
organ (Heath, 1987). On the other hand, it has some harmful effects on haematology depending on kind of fishes
(Shakoori et al., 1991; 1996; Atamanalp and Güneş, 2002a; Atamanalp and Güneş, 2002b; Atamanalp and
Cengiz, 2002; Atamanalp and Yanık, 2003). The specimens taken from liver have shown that some
histopatological effects beside some changes on the colour and size (Atamanalp et al., 2002). The
osmoregulation event which is very important event in either sea or fresh water fishes are badly affected by
changes of permeability of the gills and skin (Heath, 1987). Attitudes of fishes exposed to chemicals present
some differentiations from others. Especially some changes on the some staminal attitudes, such as feeding and
adaptation, may cause the fish to loss health. The problems on the neural system appear to be problems on the
central neural system as well as problems on the working systems of receptors (Heath, 1987). Pollutants have
different effects in the each of different stages of pregnancy biology depending on the groups belonging to,
active material contained, concentration and kind of fishes (Çelikkale, 1991; Heath, 1987; Dhawan and Kaur,
1996; Holcombe et al., 1976). It is well known that the s-triazine compounds, which comprise Atrazine and
Terbuthylazine, are usually termed recalcitrant, and especially the first one, due to its asymmetric substituent
groups, is particularly resistant to biodegradation (Varghaa et al. 2005). These two chemicals are furthermore
642
�herbicides which affects the photosynthetic electronic transport, inhibiting the algal growth in aquatic
environment (Eullaffroy and Vernet, 2003), the primary level of the food web. In addition Atrazine even at low
exposure concentrations (5µg l-1) affected significantly aquatic organisms (Steinbergi et al., 1995).
Agricultural Activities And Chemical Fertilizers
When we have looked the harmful effects of fertilizers on environment, it has been thought that mostly
nitrogen and phosphors containing fertilizers have given harm on the environment; especially it is well known
that it causes the water quality in the watery areas are destroyed as a result of that nitrogen and phosphors
containing pollutant are transferred into rivers in anyway and then it also causes eutrophication with increases on
the amount of nitrogen and phosphors (Ceran, 2001).
The amount of nitrate mixed into drinking water and rivers through washing out process are increased
as a result of usage fertilizers containing nitrogen in high level (Sencar et al., 1993). The compounds containing
nitrogen has several effects in the view of water pollution, and the most harmful effect is known to be that of
changing oxygen compositions, eutrophication, hygiene on the obtaining of drinking water and toxicity problems
(Uslu and Türkmen, 1987).
Approach of phosphor to surface water causes some undesirable effects in aquatic systems as a result of
increase in the primary production. Too much increase in green plants and algae in some rich parts in oxygen of
water (eutrophication), increase in the blurrily of water, increase in the light input of aquatic macrophytes, not
enough oxygen and an increase of amount of some death of plants in the bottom of the water starts anaerobic
conditions and reduces the quality of the water are the most important factors on the reduction of the water
quality (Muslu, 1985).
Phosphor components broken up into orthophosphate by aquatic plants are important compositions of
food materials. If too much phosphor is loaded, pH value of water and tampon systems are changed (Muslu,
1985). A layer on the water is produced by decreasing surface tension of the water. This layer reduces the
transmission of light and oxygen transfer and effect biological activities destructively (Akman et al., 2000). The
load of nitrogen and phosphor existing in the environment put pressure on the aquatic ecosystems. Although
phosphor has some feeding properties for algae, the extremely high existence in the environment cause some
algae to be removed from environment and some of them to be destroyed. This also results with extremely
development of taxa tolerating the increase of feeding salts. This change taken place in aquatic ecosystem is not
only effective on algae but also destructively affects other living groups (Kalyoncu et al., 2009).
Results And Suggestions
The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides unplanned and in extremely high amount in agricultural
areas effect destruct on all ecosystems. Some cases must be considered before the usage of chemical fertilizers
and pesticides in order to completely prevention or minimization of the destructive effects.
- It must be note that the pesticides used in agriculture must be easily separable in nature. Beside this,
biological fighting methods must be taken over instead of pesticides produced synthetically.
- If applications of pesticide are un-exceptionally necessary, farmers must be educated and trained to
apply enough and to avoid over use. The technical and sustainable production with plants, which is more
economical and suitable for ecosystems, must be carried out for especially in areas near basins and sources of
water.
-It is well known due to the human health and environment that the chemical fertilizers and pesticides
used in agricultural areas are important source of pollutants and reaches to aquatic system with surface water. In
order to types of kinds in the aquatic systems to be protected, attention must be applied for application of them in
suitable time and dose. The effects of chemical components applied on the aquatic ecosystems must be studied
and sustainable control must be carried out.
- The ecological agriculture together with advanced agricultural techniques must be applied. Technical
and environmentalist agriculture must be carried out for ecological balance to be saved. Some types suitable
against diseases and for dried climate must be produced and mechanical and biological techniques for pest
management must be developed and then made suggested for common use.
- Instead of too much water, enough water applications must be desired, wild and surface irrigations
must be left. System must be turned to pressurized irrigation, irrigation time for plants must be determined.
Irrigation policies must be put into the agricultural irrigation programs of governments.
- On the other hand, system must be changed from opened system to closed systems. The usage of
water and fertilizer applied by farmers must be planned, controlled and sustainable.
643
�- Refinery system for wastewater must be constructed legally in cities. Water and wastewater must be
transmitted through different waterworks and leakages from the system must be minimized. Purified water must
be used in green areas and urban agricultural areas.
- Especially the problem of drainage must be solved by completing the foundation of irrigation. The
regulation for price of irrigation must be made in the most suitable manner. Economical and efficient irrigation
must be supplied and direct indirect encouragement must be applied.
- More advantageous against erosion, desert condition, dried climate, more environmentalists,
sustainable advanced agricultural techniques must be applied.
- As a result, harmful materials reached to aquatic areas as a result of agricultural activities effects on
all of livings from algae to fishes living aquatic areas. The importance of agriculture for humanity is
unquestionable. But, the aquatic systems are as important as agricultural areas. The chemicals reaching to
aquatic areas coming from agricultural areas returns back to people with usage and drinking waters and causes
series destructive effects in health. The fresh and clean water sources have gained more importance because of
the changes on the global climate. The environmental pollution must be stopped by protecting aquatic
ecosystems. The ecology must be kept to be sustainable and carefully followed.
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Kumbur, H., Özer, Z., Özsoy, H.D., (2005). Tarım Đlaçlarının (Pestisitlerin) Çevresel Etkileri ve Mersin ili'nde Kullanım
Düzeyleri. In: GAP, IV. Tarım Kongresi, 21-23 Eylül 2005, Şanlıurfa, 702-707s.
Muslu,Y., (1985). Su Temini ve Çevre Sağlığı. ĐTÜ Matbaası, Cilt III, Đstanbul.
Öztürk, Ġ., Tosun, N., (2004). Famoxadone ve Cymoxanil Etkili Maddeli Bir Fungisitin Domates (Lycopersicon esculentum
Mill.) Bitkisi Üzerine Fizyolojik Etkisi. Ege Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Derg. 41: 77–87s.
Round, F.E., (1984). The Ecology of Algae. Cambridge University Press.
Sencar, Ö., Gökmen, S., Yıldırım, A., (1993). Tarımsal Ekoloji. GOP Üni. Ziraat Fak. Ders Notları, Yayın No:l, Tokat.
Shakoori, A. R., Iqbal, M. J., Mughal, A. L., Ali, S. S., (1991). Drastic biochemical changes following 48 hours of exposure
of Chinese grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella, to sublethal doses of mercuric chloride. Proc 1. Symp. Fish &
Fisheries, Pakistan.81-98.
Shakoori, A. R., Mughal, A. L., Iqbal, M. J., (1996). Effects of sublethal doses of fenvalarate (a synthetic pyrethroid)
administered continuously for four weeks on the blood, liver and muscles of a freshwater fish, Ctenopharyngodon
idella. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 57: 487-494.
Steinbergi, C. E. W., Lorenz, R. and Spieser, O. H. (1995). "Effects of Atrazine on Swimming behaviour of Zebrafish,
Brachidanio rerio." Water Research 94: 981-985.
Taş. B., (2006). Derbent Baraj Gölü (Samsun) Su Kalitesinin Đncelenmesi. Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi, Ordu Fen Edebiyat
Fakültesi, Biyoloji Bölümü, 52750, Perşembe-Ordu. 15, 61, 6-15s.
Turan Z., (2008). Bazı Pestisitlerin (Dıazınon Ve Dıchlorvos) Scenedesmus Acutus (Meyen)
Chodat’ In
Gelişimi Üzerindeki Etkilerinin Đncelenmesi. Fırat Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Biyoloji Anabilim Dalı yl.,
26s.
Uslu, O., Türkman, A., (1987). Su Kirliliği ve Kontrolü (Water Pollution and Control). T.C. Başbakanlık Çevre Genel
Müdürlüğü. Eğitim Yayınları Dizisi 1, Đzmir.
Yılmaz, F.,( 2004). Mumcular Barajı (Muğla-Bodrum)’nın Fiziko-Kimyasal Özellikleri. Ekoloji, 13, 50: 10-17s.
Varghaa, M., Takàtsc, Z. and Màrialigeti, K., (2005). "Degradation of atrazine in a laboratory scale model system with
Danube river sediment." Water Research
645
�
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The Sustainability of Agricultural Activities and its Effects on Internal Waters And Living Areas
Author
Author
Kalyoncu, Hasan
Kalyoncu, Ismail Hakkı
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Residues of some medicals and fertilizers used in agricultural areas can reach to some receptors through some processes such as irrigation and surface waters. These natural receptors are rivers, lakes and seas. The materials coming from agricultural areas have more destructive effects on the lakes and rivers since these are smaller. The most pronounced pollutants coming from agricultural areas to rivers and lakes are pesticides and fertilizers which are known as a source of nitrogen and phosphor. Chemicals in some areas where pesticide were used are mixed into rivers and lakes through that way they reach to water habitats and organisms. On the other hand, this causes to increase organic ratio, eutrophication and for ecological balance to be destroyed. Pathogens are transmitted to surface waters with human and animal wastes and then these contaminated surface waters threat human health. An important amount of pathogens is distributed to receptors through use of wastewaters for irrigation. In order to this negative effects to be removed, in order to save rivers and lakes, wild irrigation must be stopped, the direct approach of wastewaters into the rivers and lakes must be prevented, the usage of fertilizers and pesticides must be controlled, mechanical and biological war must be strengthen. The sustainable ecological living areas can be constructed by taking the water sources and biological kinds under control with these precautions.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5bfc207aa1595e229a3dedcc4a1e2424.pdf
5fd8c19b0c8b463aee0fe52e336a3ad8
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Text
The Sustainability of Agricultural Activities and Its Effects on Inland
Waters and Living Areas
Hasan Kalyoncu
University of Süleyman Demirel, Faculty of Science & Arts,
Department of Biology, Isparta, Turkey
hasankalyoncu@gmail.com
Đsmail Hakkı Kalyoncu
University of Selcuk, Faculty of Agriculture,
Department of Horticultural Science, Konya, Turkey
kalyon@selcuk.edu.tr
Abstract: Residues of some medicals and fertilizers used in agricultural areas can reach to some
receptors through some processes such as irrigation and surface waters. These natural receptors are
rivers, lakes and seas. The materials coming from agricultural areas have more destructive effects
on the lakes and rivers since these are smaller. The most pronounced pollutants coming from
agricultural areas to rivers and lakes are pesticides and fertilizers which are known as a source of
nitrogen and phosphor. Chemicals in some areas where pesticide were used are mixed into rivers
and lakes through that way and reach to water habitats and organisms. On the other hand, this
causes to increase organic ratio, eutrophication and for ecological balance to be destroyed.
Pathogens are transmitted to surface waters with human and animal wastes and then these
contaminated surface waters threat human health. An important amount of pathogens is distributed
to receptors through use of wastewaters for irrigation. In order for this negative effects to be
removed, in order to save rivers and lakes, wild irrigation must be stopped, the direct approach of
wastewaters into the rivers and lakes must be prevented, the use of fertilizers and pesticides must
be controlled, mechanical and biological war must be strengthened. The sustainable ecological
living areas can be constructed by taking the water sources and biological kinds under control with
these precautions.
Key words: Agricultural activities, pollution, inland waters, sustainability
Introduction
Drinking water has been less and less for reasons, such as insufficient environmental awareness, fast
increasing world population, excessive development of industry and technology. Beside these, pollution of water
sources irresponsibly will cause problems unable to be solved (Haviland, 2002; Dağlı, 2005; Akın, 2007 ).
Increasing demand on the food with increasing population makes that the quality and quantity must be
increased. As a result of these demand, the usage of fertilizer and pesticide are increased in time (Huber et al.,
2000; Causape et al., 2004). The chemicals used agricultural areas are classified in two groups to be fertilizers
and pesticides (Alloway, 1995). They are very important issue since they are toxic, decomposition of them is
very difficult, and they can be deposited in living organisms and environment (Egemen, 2006). Pesticides and
chemical fertilizers are mixed into rivers which are one of the ecosystems mostly affected from environmental
pollution (Huber et al., 2000, Causape et al., 2004; Taş, 2006 ).
The pollutions caused by agricultural activities are firstly transferred into the rivers and then goes to
lakes and seas throughout rivers. It can prevent the development of zoo and phytoplankton which have an
important place on the feeding chain of aquatic livings even in the case of the existence of pesticides in trace
level in the water (Aguilar et al., 1997).
This pollution is badly affecting not only livings living in pollution but also it can reach human through
feeding chain (Yılmaz, 2004). It is important to note that the determination of existence of DDT (pesticide) on
the penguins, seal and people living in poles where no pesticides have never been used shows the power of
circulation of chemicals used in agriculture over the world (Egemen, 2006).
The harm given by the improper use with the increase of this improper use of pesticides and chemical
477
�fertilizers will have reached to high levels (Öztürk and Tosun, 2004). The production and use of pesticides and
chemical fertilizers continue to in crease at present, and it must be taken under control in order to decrease the
health and environmental problems (Atasoy and Rastgeldi, 2006).
Agricultural Activities And Pesticide
Since pesticides remain in nature for so long time without decomposition, they have no selectivity on
the selected organisms and collected in some parts of food chain, they can cause destructions of some beneficial
kinds and ecological balance and appearing of new kinds presenting resistance to these kind of products
(Kambur et al., 2005).
It has been well known that pesticides can reach ecosystem of water in several ways. For example, some
several medicines can contaminate into water with direct application of pesticides to the buggies during fighting
against wild grass in or around the canals of drainage and irrigation or vector insects such as mosquitoes. Some
pesticides reach to aquatic plants and insects through the fact that the medicines in some places where pesticides
were used mix into to river or ground water by rain water. The pesticides mixture into ground or surface waters
have limit values for livings according to some structural properties presented in some receptors. The
concentrations exceeding these limit values badly effect the life of livings. The first step of bio concentration
mechanisms in aquatic systems is consisted of plankton. An important part of plankton in aquatic habitats
consists of algae. Since algae are primary producer, they play a functional role in habitats on which algae exist.
Algae which are primary produces in aquatic environment form the base of organic production and they are quite
sensitive organisms for physical and chemical changes in an environment where they exist. Algae are key targets
for pesticide contaminations since they haw echo physiological similarities (Kambur et al., 2005). The primary
production presented by algae forms foundations of whole organic production in aquatic environment. Algae
forming the first circle of chain of feeding in waters are organisms which are quite sensitive to the physical and
chemical changes in environment where they exist (Round, 1984; Hutchinson, 1967).
Sensitivity of algae, which is an important group in either plankton or benthic organisms in fresh water,
is different toxic materials are different. Algae have an important role in determination and improvement of
water quality and in rehabilitation of waste water. On the other hand, algae remove some elements such as
nitrogen and phosphors, existing in quite large amount in aquatic environment, from environment using them as
materials of feeding. Because of this, a change in quality and quantity of algae which is primary produces in
aquatic environment cause a whole ecosystem to be destroyed (Turan, 2008).
It has been understood that fishes are harmfully affected from the low level residues of several
pesticides mixed into water in several ways and attitudes of fishes are changed. It has also been reported that
babies of some kind of fishes are too sensitive to pesticides. The residues of pesticides even in minimal level, in
stagnant waters uses up oxygen in water and destroy the feeding environment for fishes (Anonymous, 2004).
The organisms dead by the effects of pesticides are deposited in the bottom of the water by sinking. CO2
or poison gases raised during the decay prevent aquatic organisms coming near to these areas (Anonymous,
2004). Pesticides transferred to aquatic ecosystems presents some different effects on organisms in receptor
environments. These effects cause death of fishes, other vertebrates and in invertebrates and algae to be harmed,
and also cause disappear from environment. In addition to this, pesticide residues cause chronic toxicity to be
developed by food chain and drinking contaminated water (Turan, 2008). As a result of this, biological variety in
ecosystems has been affected. Some increases in the pollutants cause some organisms to be increased too much
while cause some organisms to be removed from environment or to be annihilated. Only the types which can
tolerate pollution survive. Some damages, which cannot be reversed, appear as a result of destruction of the
ecological balance (Kalyoncu et al., 2009).
The gills of fishes first met pesticides and, therefore, the most series damages are taken place on that
organ (Heath, 1987). On the other hand, it has some harmful effects on haematology depending on kind of fishes
(Shakoori et al., 1991; 1996; Atamanalp and Güneş, 2002a; Atamanalp and Güneş, 2002b; Atamanalp and
Cengiz, 2002; Atamanalp and Yanık, 2003). The specimens taken from liver have shown that some
histopatological effects beside some changes on the colour and size (Atamanalp et al., 2002). The
osmoregulation event which is very important event in either sea or fresh water fishes is badly affected by
changes of permeability of the gills and skin (Heath, 1987). Attitudes of fishes exposed to chemicals present
some differentiations from others. Especially some changes on the some staminal attitudes, such as feeding and
adaptation, may cause the fish to loss health. The problems on the neural system appear to be problems on the
central neural system as well as problems on the working systems of receptors (Heath, 1987). Pollutants have
different effects in the each of different stages of pregnancy biology depending on the groups belonging to,
active material contained, concentration and kind of fishes (Çelikkale, 1991; Heath, 1987; Dhawan and Kaur,
1996; Holcombe et al., 1976). It is well known that the s-triazine compounds, which comprise Atrazine and
Terbuthylazine, are usually termed recalcitrant, and especially the first one, due to its asymmetric substituent
478
�groups, is particularly resistant to biodegradation (Varghaa et al. 2005). These two chemicals are furthermore
herbicides which affects the photosynthetic electronic transport, inhibiting the algal growth in aquatic
environment (Eullaffroy and Vernet, 2003), the primary level of the food web. In addition Atrazine even at low
exposure concentrations (5µg l-1) affected significantly aquatic organisms (Steinbergi et al., 1995).
Agricultural Activities And Chemical Fertilizers
When we have looked the harmful effects of fertilizers on environment, it has been thought that mostly
nitrogen and phosphors containing fertilizers have given harm on the environment; especially it is well known
that it causes the water quality in the watery areas are destroyed as a result of that nitrogen and phosphors
containing pollutant are transferred into rivers in anyway and then it also causes eutrophication with increases on
the amount of nitrogen and phosphors (Ceran, 2001).
The amount of nitrate mixed into drinking water and rivers through washing out process is increased as
a result of usage fertilizers containing nitrogen in high level (Sencar et al., 1993). The compounds containing
nitrogen has several effects in the view of water pollution, and the most harmful effect is known to be that of
changing oxygen compositions, eutrophication, hygiene on the obtaining of drinking water and toxicity problems
(Uslu and Türkmen, 1987).
Approach of phosphor to surface water causes some undesirable effects in aquatic systems as a result of
increase in the primary production. Too much increase in green plants and algae in some rich parts in oxygen of
water (eutrophication), increase in the blurrily of water, increase in the light input of aquatic macrophytes, not
enough oxygen and occurrence of anaerobic conditions as a result of an increase of amount of dead plants in the
bottom of water are important factors affecting the quality (Muslu, 1985).
Phosphor components broken up into orthophosphate by aquatic plants are important compositions of
food materials. If too much phosphor is loaded, pH value of water and tampon systems are changed (Muslu,
1985). A layer on the water is produced by decreasing surface tension of the water. This layer reduces the
transmission of light and oxygen transfer and effect biological activities destructively (Akman et al., 2000). The
load of nitrogen and phosphor existing in the environment put pressure on the aquatic ecosystems. Although
phosphor has some feeding properties for algae, the extremely high existence in the environment cause some
algae to be removed from environment and some of them to be destroyed. This also results with extremely
development of taxa tolerating the increase of feeding salts. This change taken place in aquatic ecosystem is not
only effective on algae but also destructively affects other living groups (Kalyoncu et al., 2009).
Results And Suggestions
The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides unplanned and in extremely high amount in agricultural
areas affect destruction on all ecosystems. Some cases must be considered before the usage of chemical
fertilizers and pesticides in order to completely prevent or minimize the destructive effects.
- It must be note that the pesticides used in agriculture must be easily separable in nature. Beside this,
biological fighting methods must be taken over instead of pesticides produced synthetically.
- If applications of pesticide are un-exceptionally necessary, farmers must be educated and trained to
apply enough and to avoid over use. The technical and sustainable production with plants, which is more
economical and suitable for ecosystems, must be carried out for especially in areas near basins and sources of
water.
-It is well known due to the human health and environment that the chemical fertilizers and pesticides
used in agricultural areas are important source of pollutants and reaches to aquatic system with surface water. In
order for types of kinds in the aquatic systems to be protected, attention must be applied for application of them
in suitable time and dose. The effects of chemical components applied on the aquatic ecosystems must be studied
and sustainable control must be carried out.
- The ecological agriculture together with advanced agricultural techniques must be applied. Technical
and environmentalist agriculture must be carried out for ecological balance to be saved. Some types suitable
against diseases and for dried climate must be produced and mechanical and biological techniques for pest
management must be developed and then suggested for common use.
- Instead of too much water, enough water applications must be desired, wild and surface irrigations
must be left. System must be turned to pressurized irrigation, irrigation time for plants must be determined.
Irrigation policies must be put into the agricultural irrigation programs of governments.
- On the other hand, system must be changed from opened system to closed systems. The usage of
water and fertilizer applied by farmers must be planned, controlled and sustainable.
- Refinery system for wastewater must be constructed legally in cities. Water and wastewater must be
479
�transmitted through different waterworks and leakages from the system must be minimized. Purified water must
be used in green areas and urban agricultural areas.
- Especially the problem of drainage must be solved by completing the foundation of irrigation. The
regulation for price of irrigation must be made in the most suitable manner. Economical and efficient irrigation
must be supplied and direct-indirect encouragement must be applied.
- More advantageous against erosion, desert condition, dried climate, more environmentalists,
sustainable advanced agricultural techniques must be applied.
- As a result, harmful materials reaching to aquatic areas as a result of agricultural activities affect all of
livings from algae to fishes living aquatic areas. The importance of agriculture for humanity is unquestionable.
But, the aquatic systems are as important as agricultural areas. The chemicals reaching to aquatic areas coming
from agricultural areas returns back to people with usage and drinking waters and causes series destructive
effects in health. The fresh and clean water sources have gained more importance because of the changes on the
global climate. The environmental pollution must be stopped by protecting aquatic ecosystems. The ecology
must be kept to be sustainable and carefully followed.
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Göre) ve Fizikokimyasal Parametrelere Göre Đncelenmesi, Organizmaların Su Kalitesi ile Đlişkileri. Türk Bilim
Dergisi, 2(1): 46-57.
Kumbur, H., Özer, Z., Özsoy, H.D., (2005). Tarım Đlaçlarının (Pestisitlerin) Çevresel Etkileri ve Mersin ili'nde Kullanım
Düzeyleri. In: GAP, IV. Tarım Kongresi, 21-23 Eylül 2005, Şanlıurfa, 702-707s.
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Shakoori, A. R., Iqbal, M. J., Mughal, A. L., Ali, S. S., (1991). Drastic biochemical changes following 48 hours of exposure
of Chinese grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella, to sublethal doses of mercuric chloride. Proc 1. Symp. Fish &
Fisheries, Pakistan.81-98.
Shakoori, A. R., Mughal, A. L., Iqbal, M. J., (1996). Effects of sublethal doses of fenvalarate (a synthetic pyrethroid)
administered continuously for four weeks on the blood, liver and muscles of a freshwater fish, Ctenopharyngodon
idella. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 57: 487-494.
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Brachidanio rerio." Water Research 94: 981-985.
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Fakültesi, Biyoloji Bölümü, 52750, Perşembe-Ordu. 15, 61, 6-15s.
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Chodat’ In
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Danube river sediment." Water Research
481
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
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553
Title
A name given to the resource
The Sustainability of Agricultural Activities and Its Effects on Inland Waters and Living Areas
Author
Author
Kalyoncu, Hasan
Kalyoncu, İsmail Hakkı
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Residues of some medicals and fertilizers used in agricultural areas can reach to some receptors through some processes such as irrigation and surface waters. These natural receptors are rivers, lakes and seas. The materials coming from agricultural areas have more destructive effects on the lakes and rivers since these are smaller. The most pronounced pollutants coming from agricultural areas to rivers and lakes are pesticides and fertilizers which are known as a source of nitrogen and phosphor. Chemicals in some areas where pesticide were used are mixed into rivers and lakes through that way and reach to water habitats and organisms. On the other hand, this causes to increase organic ratio, eutrophication and for ecological balance to be destroyed. Pathogens are transmitted to surface waters with human and animal wastes and then these contaminated surface waters threat human health. An important amount of pathogens is distributed to receptors through use of wastewaters for irrigation. In order for this negative effects to be removed, in order to save rivers and lakes, wild irrigation must be stopped, the direct approach of wastewaters into the rivers and lakes must be prevented, the use of fertilizers and pesticides must be controlled, mechanical and biological war must be strengthened. The sustainable ecological living areas can be constructed by taking the water sources and biological kinds under control with these precautions.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8d4e830a2ab1dc26b6184a416dba1964.pdf
6bb19362bc54cb06b7e48181f3b333ad
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The Role of Mining in Development of Railways in Turkey
Ünal ÖZDEMİR
Atatürk University,
Kazim Karabekir Education Faculty
Erzurum/Turkey
uozdemir@atauni.edu.tr
Abstract: Increase of mass production, which is an important indication of Industrial
Revolution, requires a change in transportation method. Particularly, railways made
it possible to transfer iron and coal ores produced in the central part of Turkey to the
ports and plants on the costal towns and cities. This made railways a strong rival to
the waterways (rivers and sea ways) and roads. This fast and reliable new
transportation also affected the Ottoman Government. The railway transportation,
which had been started with the help of western companies due to the economic
difficulties, has gained acceleration with the start of Republican period. At this
context, together with nationalization of current railways, new railways were also
constructed to improve transportation inside the country with military, political and
economic aims. Reaching to the mine reserves inside the country and transporting
them to the plants were among the aims of constructing railways. The new routes of
railways which were sloganised as reaching coal, reaching iron, reaching copper
were played an important role in development of Turkish railways. In this study, the
role of mining in development of railways in Turkey was investigated with a
geographical perspective.
Keywords: Turkey, transportation, railways, mining
Introduction
Industrial Revolution was not only a processes that lead a new means of production but also brought
about a considerable change in social, economic, and communal life. One of the areas in which these changes
were felt strongest was the transportation sector. The new means of production required a large amount of row
materials to be transported to the production facilities on one hand; and the products to market places on the
other. The main means of transportation were waterways and inland roads. For the first time a new means of
transportation was felt with the mass production of Industrial Revolution and it did not take a long to time for a
new competitor to come about. The new competitor was the railroad.
The railways are of special importance when it comes to long-distance transportation of goods and
products. When the industrial and trade issues are considered, no other means of transportation can carry that
mass amount of goods in a considerable short time with a reasonable price except for the waterways (Barda,
1964: 137). Therefore together with new urban areas, the railway was the external symbol of Industrial
Revolution (Hobsbawm, 1995: 229). The first railways were made of wooden bars, and the cars were made of
wood as well. These were used in Bath mines and coal extraction places in Cornwall in the 17th century
(Braudel, 2004: 508). The first regular railway line was built between Stockton and Darlington in 1825 and used
to transport the coal. The first railroad line in France, the one from St. Etienne to Roan was built in 1832 and
used to carry coal and iron ore (Tümertekin, Özgüç, 1999: 594). This easy transportation of heavy material
through railways lead the construction of railways first in England and the new innovation spread through a
number of other parts of the world notably in Western Europe, the United States and Russia.
The diffusion of this new technology was spread to the Ottoman Empire and the Ottoman bureaucrats
considered the rail roads as the solution to transportation within the large territory of the Empire. The railroads
were considered important for not just transportation of commercial material but also for military and political
reasons (Yıldırım, 2001: 5). However, due to financial difficulties, the construction of railroads was relegated to
Western companies in return for operating rights for a certain period of time. In fact, the underlining motivation
for the Ottomans and for the Western companies was not the same. The railroads were means of reinforcement
of exploitation of the Ottoman economy resource base. That way, especially the agricultural products of fertile
Aegean plains and Cukurova to the east, and other row materials would be carried to the European market. With
that motivation in mind, the first railroad line in the Ottoman Empire was built between Izmir and Aydin in
1856.
Although the colonialist intensions of Western countries were mentioned about the first railroads in
Ottoman Empire, these railroads, no doubt that, helped to make a radical change in the traditional production
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�methods and helped the economical development in a considerable manner (Gürbüz, 1999: 180-181). It was
only after the establishment of these new railroads that the large geographical regions in Anatolia besides the
Aegean and Marmara Regions that have the advantage of using marine transportation got the opportunity of
cheap transportation of goods and this had changed the means of transportation in a fundamental way (Zarakolu,
1950: 573).
These first initiatives by investment of the British, German, and French companies provided a railroad
web of 4 100 kms for the young Republic. This was an important infrastructure and experience for the Republic.
The Republic of Turkey, lead by Atatürk, had a number of projects with a purpose much different than the
previous period: The priority would be given to railroads that would encourage the extraction of mines in
different part of the country.
Railways in the Republican Period
With the aim of developing the country, the Republican government decided in the Izmir Economic
Congress that as the most reliable and secure transportation method, the construction of railroads would be given
priority (Ünsal, 1983:187). Different form the previous period, all railways construction was undertaken by the
government as opposed to foreign companies. This is the most notable difference between the republican
railways and the Ottoman railways (Barda, 1964: 188).
The railway construction policy of the Republic developed in two different ways. The first one was to
construct new railways that would support the development of other sectors in the newly established country; the
second one was to buy the railroads built and managed by the foreign companies (Yıldırım, 2001: 40).
The first Republican governments put a special emphasis on developing the coal and mine industry and
this was emphasized in the first and second Industrial plans that covered a five year period each starting from
1933. The government officials thought that developing these kinds of industry was dependent upon a well
established railway network because it was the most reliable and cheap means of carrying goods and products to
and from markets. The officials developed slogans like reaching to coal (Zonguldak-Irmak), reaching to copper
(Adana-Fevzipaşa-Ergani), reaching to iron (Sivas-Malatya), reaching to chrome (Kütahya-Balıkesir). These
slogans helped to construct new railway networks in different parts of the country. These railways were not
planned as a network covering the whole country but planned as connecting lines of important mining areas.
This is in fact an indication of the importance of mining activities in developing the railway network in Turkey.
In this research we will look at the development of Republican railways in two different periods: pre1950 period and after 1950 period. The reason for distinction is that the government decided to employ a policy
that favoured to motorways over railroads under the Marshall Plan.
In the Republican Period a network of 5 515 kms of railways was built. Almost 70 % (3877 kms) of
them was built between the 1925-1950 periods, 29 % (1638 kms) was built between 1950- 2000 period. The
length of the railways built in the first period more than doubled the railways built in the second period (see
figure 1 and 2). The main reason in explaining that difference is the fact that the transportation policy changed
radically to prioritize roads over railroads. Only a limited amount of railroads were built in the second period
even for mining activities. This number was over 1 000 kms in the first period and it declined ever below 50 kms
in the second period.
Period
Railroad built (km)
Mining lines built (km)
Percent
1925-1950
3 877
1 093
28.2
1951-2000
1 638
42
2.5
TOTAL
5 515
1 135
20.5
Table 1: Railroad construction in the republican period (1925-2000). Source. Republic of Turkey, State
Railroads Company Statistics.
When we continue analysing the railroads built with the purpose of mining, we notice that almost all
lines with a mining purpose were either built or were in construction phase in 1932-1933. When we look at the
Figure 1, we notice that a good proportion of coal line (Irmak-Filyos), copper line (Fevzipaşa-Malatya-Ergani)
and chrome line (Kütahya-Balıkesir) were constructed. Despite this early undertaking, the iron line between
Malatya and Sivas was not built yet at that time.
17
�Figure 1: Railroad network in Turkey, 1931. (Source: İsveç-Danimarka Grubu, 1931).
Figure 2: Railroad network in Turkey, 2008. (Source: TCDD).
From the establishment of the Republic up until 1932, with the purpose of extracting mines 493 kms of
railroad was built. This was the 28 % of the whole railroads which was 1751 kms built in the same period (Table
2). This means that 850 meters of every 3 000 meters of railroads was built for mine extracting.
One of the lines built in that period was Irmak-Filyos Railroads. Called the coal line, this railroad would
connect by following the Filyos valley the Zongludak-Ereğli coal basin to Karabük Iron-Steel Factory and to
Ankara. The traffic got busy in this line when the line was connected to the iron line. The iron line following the
city centers of Malatya, Sivas, and Kayseri, connected the iron ore located in Malatya and Sivas provinces in the
central and east Anatolia to the Irmak-Filyos coal line. With these connections it was possible to transport and
process the coal of Zonguldak and iron of Malatya and Sivas to the iron-steel factories in Karabük.
The Irmak-Filyos line was built by a Sweden-Denmark joint group and the group was working on
another project at the same time. This new line was Fevzipaşa-Malatya-Ergani. Ergani has one of the oldest
copper processing factories in Turkey. With the construction of this line it was possible to connect the copper
valley the Mediterranean ports of Mersin and Iskenderun. Another line built at that time was Kütahya-Balıkesir
Line. With the construction of this Chrome line, the chrome extraction of Turkey, which has a considerable
proportion of the chrome reserves, reached an important level.
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�Mine
Chrome
Copper
Chrome
Coal
Chrome
Copper
Copper
Coal
Copper
Coal
Coal
Iron
Iron
Iron
Coal
Lignite
Coal
Coal (closed)
Lignite
Total
Name of the Line
Kütahya-Emirler
Fevzipaşa-Gölbaşı
Emirler-Balıköy
Irmak-Çankırı
Balıköy-Balıkesir
Fırat-Yolçatı-Elazığ
Yolçatı- Maden
Atkaracalar - Ortaköy
Maden - Diyarbakır
Bolkuş-Hisarönü
Hisarönü-Çatalağzı
Yazıhan-Hekimhan
Çetinkaya-Divriği
Hekimhan-Çetinkaya
Çatalağzı-Zonguldak
Tavşanlı-Tunçbilek
Zonguldak - Kozlu
Kozlu-Ereğli-Armutçuk
Kütahya-Seyitömer
Opening date
1929
1929
1930
1931
1932
1934
1935
1935
1935
1936
1936
1936
1937
1937
1937
1944
1945
1953
1962
Length (kms)
64
138
36
102
153
86
76
56
83
86
15
37
65
70
10
13
4
15
26
1 135
Table 2: The Mining railroads built during the republican period. (Source. Republic of Turkey, State Railroads
Company Statistics, 2008).
Eregli Iron and Steel Factory was established with the aim of producing the steel need for industry
domestically in 1965. The steel was imported before that time. However, because the railway line reaching
Kozlu could not be connected to Eregli because of geographical obstacles, the iron ore could not be able to be
carried with through same line. Since the 26 kms long Kozlu-Armutcuk line could not be constructed, a new
project called train ferry was developed. With this new project, the iron ore used in Eregli Iron and Steel Factory
was carried with ferries through the sea from Zonguldak to Eregli.
We need to note here that although mining related activities did not play an important role in the
establishment of some early railway lines, some of these lines demonstrated an increased traffic in the following
years. Examples for these lines are: iron ore in Sivas-Kayseri-Irmak line; boron in Balikesir-Bandirma line;
chrome in Erzurum-Erzincan-Kayseri line; manganese and chrome in Irmak-Filyos line; lignite in Sivas-Samsun
line. The point I want to emphasize here is that there were enough goods to manage these lines economically and
without the mine transportation that would not have been possible at all.
According to State Railroads Company’s Statistics, only some 5 percent of all goods were carried by
railroads in Turkey in 2005. This percentage was 3 in Bosnia &Herzegovina, 11 in England, 12 in Italy, 18 in
France, and 20 in Germany. Some other countries carry most of their goods through railroads and Slovakia with
a percentage of 61, Switzerland with a percentage of 98 lead these countries (Table 3). It is important to note
here that mines constitute 46 percent of all goods carried by railroads in Turkey (www.tcdd.org.tr/2005). This
percent does not include metallurgic products. This point demonstrates clearly how important is the
mining sector for the management of the railroad network.
Country
Percent carried by railroad
Switzerland
Slovakia
Bulgaria
Czech Rep.
Austria
Romania
Hungary
97.9
61.4
48.1
47.0
46.7
40.0
36.1
Country
Belgium
Germany
France
Italy
England
Turkey
Bosnia &Herzegovina
Percent carried by
railroad
22.7
19.9
17.8
12.3
11.1
5.5
3.7
Table 3: Transportation of goods by railroads in some European countries, 2005. (Source: UIC Statistics and
European Union Transportation and Energy Statistics, 2005).
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�Conclusion
Although the first railroads were constructed by foreign company investments in the Ottoman Empire,
the railroads had special meaning for young Republic. Railroads were considered to be a milestone in the
economical and social development of the country that just came out of heavy warfare and faced the heavy
burden brought by the wars. This vision was realized soon and as pointed out in some republican marches, the
country were started to be woven with iron network by the tenth year celebrations of the young Republic. The
newly established railroads, on one hand, helped to develop industry and commerce, and connected the interior
of the Anatolia to the costal cities and towns. However, the new transportation policy put in effect in 1950
adversely affected the railroad construction. The new policy favoured inland motor roads, ignoring the need to
modernize and maintain the old railroad lines. Thus the railroad lines that have been built since the Ottoman
times left clumsy and without maintenance. In this period, no new lines were planned and the transportation of
mines done increasingly by motor roads. In fact the transportation of mines with roads should have been
integrated with railroads. In this case, the 90 percent share of motor roads today would have been kept in a
certain level and a more environment friendly and more economic alternative, railroads, would have maintain its
importance.
References
Barda, S. (1964). Münakale Ekonomisi. Istanbul Üniv. Yay. No: 1089. İktisat Fak. Yay. No: 154. Istanbul.
Braudel, F. (2004). (Çev: Kılıçbay, M.A), Maddi Uygarlık. Dünyanın Zamanı. İmge Kitabevi, Ankara.
Gürbüz, A.K. (1999). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Demiryollarının Rolü. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler
Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2 (3), 169-193.
Hobsbawm, E. (1995). Sermaye Çağı 1848-1875. Dost Kitabevi. Ankara.
İsveç-Danimarka Grubu, (1931). Fevzipaşa-Malatya-Diyarbakır ve Irmak-Çankırı-Filyos Demiryolları İnşaatı.
Tümertekin, E.,
& Özgüç, N. (1999). Ekonomik Coğrafya. Çantay Kitabevi, İstanbul.
Ünsal, Y. (1983). Askeri Strateji Açısından Türkiye’deki Demiryolları (1856-1923). Birinci Askeri Tarih
Semineri Bildiriler II.,1983, VA:179-187.
Yıldırım, İ. (2001). Cumhuriyet Döneminde Demiryolları (1923-1950). Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek
Kurumu. Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Yay. Ankara.
Zarakolu, A. (1950). Memleketimizde Demiryolu Politikası. Ankara Üniv. Hukuk Fak. Dergisi, 573-589.
http//www.mta.gov.tr (25 April 2009)
http// www.tcdd.org.tr/2005 (01 May 2009)
http// www.tcdd.org.tr/2008 (01 May 2009)
20
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The Role of Mining in Development of Railways in Turkey
Author
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ÖZDEMİR, Ünal
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Increase of mass production, which is an important indication of Industrial Revolution, requires a change in transportation method. Particularly, railways made it possible to transfer iron and coal ores produced in the central part of Turkey to the ports and plants on the costal towns and cities. This made railways a strong rival to the waterways (rivers and sea ways) and roads. This fast and reliable new transportation also affected the Ottoman Government. The railway transportation, which had been started with the help of western companies due to the economic difficulties, has gained acceleration with the start of Republican period. At this context, together with nationalization of current railways, new railways were also constructed to improve transportation inside the country with military, political and economic aims. Reaching to the mine reserves inside the country and transporting them to the plants were among the aims of constructing railways. The new routes of railways which were sloganised as reaching coal, reaching iron, reaching copper were played an important role in development of Turkish railways. In this study, the role of mining in development of railways in Turkey was investigated with a geographical perspective.
Date
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2009-06
Keywords
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PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)