1
10
275
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7595716c529b085d0b42506e0fe4270f.pdf
7f579d78a1203bbc02aa2a390924a923
PDF Text
Text
INTERNATIONAL BURCH UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
PERCEPTIONS AND EFFECTIVENESS OF BEING A NON-NATIVE
ENGLISH SPEAKER TEACHER (NNEST) AS A FOREIGNER IN BOSNIA
AND HERZEGOVINA
GRADUATE PROJECT
by
Harun BAŞTUĞ
Project Supervisor
Assist. Prof. Dr. Azamat AKBAROV
SARAJEVO
December, 2010
�PERCEPTIONS AND EFFECTIVENESS OF BEING A NON-NATIVE
ENGLISH SPEAKER TEACHER (NNEST) AS A FOREIGNER IN BOSNIA
AND HERZEGOVINA
Harun BAŞTUĞ
MA, ELT, 2010
Submitted to the Graduate Study Unit in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of Master of Arts in
ELT
INTERNATIONAL BURCH UNIVERSITY
2010
�1
APPROVAL PAGE
Student
: Harun BAŞTUĞ
Faculty
: Faculty of Education
Department
: English Language and Literature
Thesis Subject
: Perceptions and effectiveness of being a non-native
English speaker teacher (NNEST) as a foreigner in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Date of Defense
: 15.12.2010
I certify that this final work satisfies all the requirements as a graduate project for the degree
of Master of Arts.
Asst.Prof.Dr. Azamat AKBAROV
Head of Department
This is to certify that I have read this final work and that in my opinion it is fully adequate, in
scope and quality, as a graduate project for the degree of Master of Arts.
Asst.Prof.Dr. Azamat AKBAROV
Supervisor
Examining Committee Members
Asst.Prof.Dr. Azamat AKBAROVInternational Burch University …………...
…………...
Prof. Dr. Srebren DIZDAR
Sarajevo University
Asst.Prof.Dr. Melih Karakuzu
International Burch University …………...
It is approved that this final work has been written in compliance with the formatting rules
laid down by the Graduate Study Unit.
Asst.Prof.Dr. Azamat AKBAROV
Head of Graduate Study Unit
�PERCEPTIONS AND EFFECTIVENESS OF BEING A NON-NATIVE ENGLISH
SPEAKER TEACHER (NNEST) AS A FOREIGNER IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
1
Abstract
In the field of English language teaching (ELT), a growing number of teachers are not native
speakers of English. According to current estimates, about eighty percent of English teachers
worldwide are non-native speakers of the language. The term non-native English speaking
teacher (NNEST) has created a division among professionals in the ELT profession. English
is taught commonly in many countries where English is spoken as a second language or
spoken widely. Therefore, being a non-native English speaking teacher in your own country,
where English is the target language between you and your own local learners and inevitably
your mother tongue is used partly during the classes, is different from in a foreign country
where English is mutual language between you and your learners. In that case, English is the
only way for you and your learners in order to communicate in every part of school life, in
school activities or even in your daily life. Learners feel like talking just the target language
before, during, and after the classes unavoidably. We can see the differences of learning
English through a local non-native English speaking teacher.
Key words: English language teaching, NNEST
�Acknowledgements
There are many people who helped to make my years at the graduate school most valuable.
First, I thank Mr. Assist. Prof. Dr. Azamat AKBAROV, my major professor and dissertation
supervisor. Having the opportunity to work with him over the years was intellectually
rewarding and fulfilling. I also thank Mr. Assist. Prof. Dr. Melih KARAKUZU contributing
much to the development of this research starting from the early stages of my dissertation
work.
Many thanks to Computer Department Staff, who patiently answered my questions and
problems on word processing. I would also like to thank to my graduate student colleagues
who helped me all through the years full of class work and exams.
The last words of thanks go to my lovely wife, Mine BAŞTUĞ who is also an English teacher
for her patience, encouragement and her endless support through this long journey.
�To my lovely wife, Mine BAŞTUĞ
�Table of Contents
1. ....................................................................................................................... Abstrac
t..................................................................................................................................... ii
2. ....................................................................................................................... Table
of Contents ................................................................................................................ iii
3. .......................................................................................................................
1. Inroduction ........................................................................................................... 1
2. Status Of The Non-Native English Teachers .................................................... 3
3. Perceptions of being a Non-native Teacher (NNT) ........................................... 5
3.1 NNS Teachers‟ Self-perceptions ................................................................... 6
3.2 NNS Teachers in The Classroom .................................................................... 6
3.3 Students‟ Perceptions of NNS Teachers ......................................................... 7
4. Effectiveness of being a Non-native Teacher (NNT) ......................................... 8
5. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 10
References ................................................................................................................. 11
Curriculum Vitae ..................................................................................................... 13
4. .......................................................................................................................
�1
2
3
4
5
6
Chapter 1
Introduction
Initially, we should mention the difference between Native Speaker and Non-Native Speaker
in terms of Language Pedagogy. In an article on the differences between NTs and NNTs,
Nayar (1994) states that non native speakers are often regarded as language deprived,
unreliable speakers in terms of language competence when compared to native speakers, who
have phonological, linguistic, and communicative competence as well as linguistic identity.
On the other hand, it is considered that non-native speaking teachers have a „bright‟ side. It
could be also pointed out that, even if non-native-speakers normally use bookish language and
speak in a less confident way, they are more empathetic, attend to the students` real needs,
show more commitment, have realistic expectations of the students and are more insightful.
According to Medgyes (1994), we should analyze the different areas of difficulty.
Vocabulary:
There are some problems with the English lexicon as well as with any other language: many
words have different meanings according to the context, idioms, synonyms, etc. In short,
vocabulary resists mastery.
Fluency:
Oral fluency requires many qualities, such as readiness to speak, speech rate, etc, in which
non-native-speakers are in a disadvantage. Non-native-speakers' speech tends to be redundant
due to the difficulty in finding the right structures at the right time.
�Pronunciation:
It is obvious that non-native-speakers are marked by a foreign accent that in the worst cases
interferes with other people's understanding.
Grammar:
Grammar is the favorite field for non-native-speakers It is said to be more concrete and more
learnable than vocabulary.
The increasing demand for English all over the world and the ever-increasing number of
NNTs in the field -about eighty percent of English teachers worldwide- (Samimy & BruttGriffler, 1999) has led to debates regarding to whether English should be taught by native
(NT) or by non-native teachers (NNT) and whether NTs or NNTs are better in terms of
teaching the language. If you ask anyone to be taught by whether native teacher (NT) or nonnative teachers (NNT), most of the learners would say that by native teacher (NT) due to the
fact that NTs have the advantage of having the cultural, phonetic and lexical knowledge of the
target language.
According to the one study aiming to present the attitudes of EFL learners towards NTs and
NNTs, interview results were not surprising (Gorsev, 2008). That is, the majority of the
students (13/18) in the English prep school of a private university in Istanbul in 2007-08
academic years chose natives as better English teachers when asked whether they preferred to
have NTs or NNTs. The rest thought it would be more “suitable to have NNTs during the
early stages of L2 learning process” as they “benefit from Turkish explanations a lot. We
assume that that result would be nearly same in other countries in the same conditions.
There is no doubt that there is inevitable difference between native teacher (NT) and nonnative teacher (NNT) as mentioned above. However, I will try to show the differences
�between the non-native English speaking teachers who are local teachers and foreign teachers.
We will also try to mention foreign teachers` effectiveness as non-native teachers.
7
8
9
10
11
Chapter 2
Status of the non-native English teachers
12
There is no doubt that native speakers of a language have a feel for its nuances, are
comfortable using its idiomatic expressions, and speak it fluently. Unfortunately, native
English speakers without teaching qualifications are more likely to be hired as ESL teachers
than qualified and experienced NNESTs, especially outside the United States (Amin, 2000;
Braine, 1999). But many in the profession argue that teaching qualifications should be
required of all English teachers, regardless of their native language (Nayar, 1994; Phillipson,
1996). Phillipson also considers NNESTs to be potentially the ideal ESL teachers because
they have gone through the process of acquiring English as an additional language. They have
first-hand experience in learning and using a second language, and their personal experience
has sensitized them to the linguistic and cultural needs of their students.
The native speaker fallacy has created a number of challenges with which NNTs must
contend in the workplace and in their daily lives. Although the majority of English teachers in
the world are not native speakers of English (Matsuda & Matsuda, 2001), NNTs struggle for
equal treatment in the ELT profession. They face a number of challenges, including those
related to accent and credibility in the workplace.
According to one research, it is shown that considering NS teachers ideal teachers and trying
to prove themselves all the time affect the self-confidence of NNS teachers negatively as well.
For example, in a study with 78 NS and 18 NNS teachers working at different universities in
the United States, Moussu (2006) found that NS teachers were more confident than NNS
�teachers about the strengths of their teaching and language skills. NNS teachers, on the other
hand, were found to have low self esteem because of their limited knowledge of American
culture and foreign accents.
Although NNS teachers constitute 80% of the total ELT
workforce worldwide, they are “typically treated as second class citizens in the world of
language teaching”. Rajagopalan (2006) believes this is due to the fact that native speakers are
usually regarded as the only reliable source of “authentic “ language and that the target
language is considered to be “whatever the native speakers speak”. In the meantime NS
teachers are often hired with little or no teacher education because of an “automatic
extrapolation from competent speaker to competent teacher-based on linguist grounds alone”
(Seidlhofer, 1999). Studies carried out in the US (Mahboob et al., 2004), UK (Clark and
Paran, 2007), and Turkey (Celik, 2006) have all shown that being a native speaker is
important for employers of English teachers, especially in private language schools and
universities.
It might be true that non-native teacher can teach better English than the native speakers. That
is because they have struggled themselves to learn that language. They know exactly where
learners lack and where they make mistakes often. They are also aware of many more
techniques of learning to speak which is not the case with the native speakers. Most nonnative speakers have degrees in language teaching and many years of experience, whereas
many native speakers either have little language teaching qualifications or little experience.
According to Ulku and Derin (2010), the analyses in general revealed a similar picture
regarding Turkish teachers‟ opinions on NS/NNS dichotomy when they start teaching. At first
they feel hostile towards the system of admission, but they accept the superiority of NS
teachers. They also realize that as English language teachers they can be as successful as NS
teachers and this awareness seems to increase their self-esteem. They feel annoyed by the
situation they are in, while accepting is as it is and even feel “lucky” as they are given a
chance to work with NS teachers in the same institution.
�13
14
15
16
17
18
Chapter 3
Perceptions of being a Non-native Teacher (NNT)
Language acquisition is influenced by the complex interactions of a number of variables
including materials, activities, and evaluative feedback. That is why all language teachers
believe that a central characteristic of good language teaching and good language teachers is
the fact that they place a great importance on students‟ needs, interests, likes and dislikes.
Teachers‟ knowledge about the subject matter and pedagogy plays an important role in
responding those needs, and is one of the sources of motivation for further development.
Willingness and a desire for continuous improvement have been considered as some of the
characteristics of autonomous teachers (McGrath, 2000). Language teachers should have a
desire to learn more about their profession. They may look for ways to further develop
professionally, and will be open to new ideas on how to do so on their own or with
colleagues.
Teacher may feel that they have to stick to the curriculum and follow the syllabus more
closely. But they should find extra activities that are appropriate for students. It is better to
keep in mind the aims while trying to motivate the students. Supplementing the course book
by looking for materials and activities may help to respond students‟ problems and needs.
Activities that activate students‟ previous knowledge enhance their learning and motivate
them, and that foster the real use of the language through communication.
�19
3.1 NNS Teachers’ Self-perceptions
It can be claimed that due to their lower language proficiency and different teaching behavior
in comparison with their NS counterparts; research on students‟ perceptions indicates that
they tend to be more supportive of NNS teachers the longer they are taught by them (Enric,
2005).
According to one the study done by Ulku and Atay (2010), it was mentioned that “I‟m-not-anative speaker” syndrome is common among NNS teachers and this has negative
consequences on their confidence as they feel inferior and inadequate when they compare
themselves to their L1 colleagues
Institutions offering English language programs often promote themselves as employing NS
teachers and advertisements for teaching positions often require that applicants are native
speakers implying that NS teachers are preferable in some way. The reason for the
commercial preference for NS teachers appears to be that despite the academic arguments and
evidence there is still a broad social acceptance of the native speaker model (Pacek, 2005;
Thornburry, 2006). Such institutions advertise that all of their teachers are native speakers in
order to attract attention from students and parents, and increase their enrollment rates. Native
speaker teachers are generally paid much more than their non-native speaker counterparts and
get extra benefits, like lodging.
20
3.2 NNS Teachers in The Classroom
Having the knowledge of two or more languages in one mind and using another language for
any purpose have implications for language teaching. There might be pros and cons of native
and NNS teachers from the students‟ perspective. NNs teachers may have some problems in
lexical and phonological way. But at the first steps, learners may prefer their local teachers.
Thus they should explain some grammar structures and some words may be translated into
native language.
�The role of the mother tongue in the second language classroom is very important. Ernesto
Macaro (2005) provides answers to questions related to the reasons that make code-switching
(by definition only available to the bilingual teacher) a contentious issue in the L2 classroom
and the purposes and frequency of code switching. He finally advances a pedagogical
proposal based on an interaction between functionally based code switching (the use of the L1
is beneficial because it facilitates classroom interaction or improves the learning of the L2 or
both.
21
3.3 Students’ Perceptions of NNS Teachers
Most schools do not have good facilities for second language learning. In many cases,
teachers use the most convenient textbooks available on the market, without a prior and
proper assessment of their suitability in terms of the very specific needs of the learners. In
addition, the learners themselves are not often aware of the fact that many professions require
particular linguistic skills that they must learn. In terms of language acquisition, students must
be competent in order to learn second language.
Because of the syllabi students have two or three English classes a week. It is not easy for
both NS and NNS teachers to make students be interested in second language. As a foreigner
NNS teacher may lead them use the target language before, during and after the classes. That
is why Bosnian students feel themselves have to talk in English as if they were talking to NS
teachers.
�22
23
24
Chapter 4
Effectiveness of being a Non-native Teacher (NNT)
I am a Turkish who was taught English as a foreign language by local Turkish teachers from
middle to high school. Then, I graduated from one of the Turkish universities. Maybe I should
confess something. While studying in university, we had no chance to use our target language
out of the lessons. We were all Turkish students and we had mostly Turkish professors. Late
90s, we had no opportunity to access the Internet, as well.
Thanks to the technology, there are now a lot of opportunities to reach the sources of English
in order to improve your language. You can keep in touch your friends in worldwide through
the Internet.
I have been teaching English for ten years, and I have had the opportunity of living in a
foreign country for three years. As a non-native speaking English teacher, I can clearly say
that being in Bosnia as a Turkish man makes me happy in my classes and satisfies me that I
am teaching English to my students. I have been working in a private school where the
wealthier parents send their children to. It is similar to public schools, but since parents pay
�more for their child's education, classes are smaller, more teaching resources are available,
and expectations are higher. However, as a foreign teacher you must meet higher
requirements to land a job here. Furthermore, in the classes the only meeting point between
you and your students is the target language - English. I am not going to compare here
effectiveness of native and non-native English teachers. But I can assume that there is
difference between me who is a foreigner and local teacher who is from the same country, as
well.
As it can be seen in the study (Gorsev, 2008) that learners tend to use their mother language
in order to communicate with the teacher during the lesson. It may seem unnatural to talk to a
Turkish man in English. The local teachers, inevitably, response them in native language.
During the class there is no way for me to use only the target language, English. In recess
time, lunch time or in after school activities and field trips students feel like talking or using
English to communicate with me. Thanks to the Internet I can keep in touch with them
through the chat rooms, msn or facebook.
There are also a lot of advantages being in this country. Learning a new language, a new
culture and new customs of people in this country makes me understand how the learners feel
when they are learning English. For example, in Bosnian language -učiti- means both to teach
and to learn. In order to understand what kind of difficulty a Bosnian learner has while
learning those words it is good to experience of learning Bosnian language.
As I am foreigner, the challenges that an English teacher may face may not be so important
for me, especially pronunciation and vocabulary. Somehow I figured out that cultural
differences are very important to teach American or English culture to Bosnian students. For
instance, the word uncle means brother of your mother or your father. On the other hand, both
in Bosnian and Turkish there two different words to address them each amica and dayica,
amca and dayı, respectively.
�Conclusion
As a foreigner, I should consider the advantages of being in this country and I should learn
one more language, so that I can see the difficulties that learners may face to while learning
English. When I started learning Bosnian, I figured out that learning a language wasn‟t easy.
Long time ago I learned English and I had never considered that learners could have had
problems. No matter I am native or non-native teacher, as long as I have interest,
responsibility and willingness to help students I am a suitable teacher of a foreign language.
Finally, it can be claimed that both native and non-native teachers should go through the
process of learning at least one more language.
�References
Amin, N. (2000). Negotiating nativism: Minority immigrant women ESL teachers and the
native speaker construct (Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto, Canada, 2001).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 61, A 4579.
Braine, G. (Ed.) (1999). Non-native educators in English language teaching. Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Celik, S. (2006). A concise examination of the artificial battle between native and nonnative
speaker teachers of English in Turkey J. Kastamonu Educ. Fac. 14:371-376.
Clark, E, Paran, A. (2007). The employability of non native speaker teachers of EFL: A UK
survey. Syst. 35 pp.407-430.
Enric, L. (2005). Non-Native Language Teachers. Perceptions, Challenges and Contributions
to the Profession. New York: Springer. xii + 314 p.
Gorsev, I. (2008). EFL Learners’ Interaction with Native and Non-native EFL Teachers.
Macaro, E. (2005) Codeswitching in the L2 classroom A communication and learning
strategy. In E. Llurda (ed.) Non-Native Language Teachers: Perceptions, Challenges, and
Contributions to the Profession Boston, MA: Springer. pp. 63-84
McGrath, I. (2000). Teacher Autonomy. InSinclair, B., McGrath, I., and T. Lamb
(Eds.)Learner Autonomy, Teacher Autonomy: FutureDirections. Harlow, UK: Longman
pp.100-110.
Mahboob, A, Uhrig K, Newman, KL, Harford, BS. (2004). Children of lesser English: Status
of non-native English speakers as college level English a second language teachers in the
United States. In L. Kamhi-Stein (Ed.) Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press pp. 110120.
Matsuda, A. & Matsuda, P. K. (2001). Autonomy and collaboration in teacher education:
Journal sharing among native and nonnative English-speaking teacher. The CATESOL
Journal, 13(1), pp. 109-121.
�Matsuda, P. (1999). Teacher development through NS/NNS collaboration. TESOL Matters,
9(6), pp. 1-10.
Moussu, L. (2006). Native and non-native English speaking English as a second language
teachers. Doctoral Thesis, Purdue University, West Lafayette.
Medgyes, P. (1994) The Non-Native Teacher London: MacMillan Publishers, Ltd.
Nayar, P.B. (1994). Whose English is it? TESL-EJ, vol.1, April.
Pacek, D. (2005). Personality not nationality: Foreign students’ perceptions of a non-native
speaker lecturer of English at a British University. In E Lurda (ed.), pp. 243-262.
Phillipson, R. (1996). ELT: the native speaker’s burden? ELT Journal, 46(1), pp. 12-18.
Rajagopalan, K. (2006). Nonnative speaker teachers of English and their anxieties.
Ingredients for an experiment in action research. In E Llurda (ed.), (pp. 283-303). New
York: Springer.
Samimy, K, & Brutt-Griffer, J. (1999). To Be a Native or Non-Native Speaker: Perceptions of
“Non-Native” Students in a Graduate TESOL Program. In Non-Native Educators in
English Language Teaching, pp. 127-144.
Seidlhofer, B. (1999). It is and undulating feeling. The importance of being a non-native
teacher of English, VIEWS, 5, pp. 63-80.
Thornburry, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT. Macmillan: Oxford.
Ulku, O. and Derin, A. (2010). Challenges of being a non-native English teacher. Educational
Research Vol. 1(5), pp. 135-139.
�Curriculum Vitae
Harun BAŞTUĞ was born on 21 December 1977, in Kirikkale. He received his BA
degree in English Language Teaching in 2000 from Marmara University. He worked as an
English teacher in Language Schools from 2000 to 2006, in International School from 2007 to
2008, and in a Private School from 2008 to 2010. Since September 2010, he has been a
research assistant at a private university.
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
747
Title
A name given to the resource
PERCEPTIONS AND EFFECTIVENESS OF BEING A NON-NATIVE ENGLISH SPEAKER TEACHER (NNEST) AS A FOREIGNER IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Author
Author
BASTUG, Harun
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In the field of English language teaching (ELT), a growing number of teachers are not native speakers of English. According to current estimates, about eighty percent of English teachers worldwide are non-native speakers of the language. The term non-native English speaking teacher (NNEST) has created a division among professionals in the ELT profession. English is taught commonly in many countries where English is spoken as a second language or spoken widely. Therefore, being a non-native English speaking teacher in your own country, where English is the target language between you and your own local learners and inevitably your mother tongue is used partly during the classes, is different from in a foreign country where English is mutual language between you and your learners. In that case, English is the only way for you and your learners in order to communicate in every part of school life, in school activities or even in your daily life. Learners feel like talking just the target language before, during, and after the classes unavoidably. We can see the differences of learning English through a local non-native English speaking teacher. Key words: English language teaching, NNEST
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-12-15
Keywords
Keywords.
Thesis
NonPeerReviewed
PE English
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0a2579c0e669b4c8925245155b57819c.pdf
400faf19bb39049b6feb94dadcce7c4b
PDF Text
Text
INTERNATIONAL BURCH UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
THE THEME OF FREEDOM AND INDEPENDENCE IN PARADISE
LOST
GRADUATE PROJECT
by
Nedžad Gudić
Project Supervisor
Assist. Prof. Dr. Azamat Akbarov
SARAJEVO
April, 2011
�THE THEME OF FREEDOM AND INDEPENDENCE
IN PARADISE LOST
Nedžad Gudić
MA, English Literature, 2011
Submitted to the Graduate Study Unit in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of Master of Arts in
English Literature
INTERNATIONAL BURCH UNIVERSITY
APRIL, 2011
�1
APPROVAL PAGE
Student
: Nedžad Gudić
Faculty
: Faculty of Education
Department
: English Language and Literature
Thesis Subject
: The Theme of Freedom and Independence in Paradise Lost
Date of Defense
:
I certify that this final work satisfies all the requirements as a graduate project for the degree of Master
of Arts.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Azamat Akbarov
Head of Department
This is to certify that I have read this final work and that in my opinion it is fully adequate, in scope
and quality, as a graduate project for the degree of Master of Arts.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Shahab Yar Khan
Supervisor
Examining Committee Members
Assoc. Prof. Dr.
International Burch University
…………...
Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Sarajevo University
…………...
Assist. Prof. Dr.
International Burch University
…………...
It is approved that this final work has been written in compliance with the formatting rules laid down
by the Graduate Study Unit.
Assist. Prof. Dr.
Head of Graduate Study Unit
�THE THEME OF FREEDOM AND INDEPENDENCE IN PARADISE LOST
1
Abstract
In the Paradise Lost, John Milton tried to explain how evil is seductive. It is one of the
reasons why he portrayed Satan with ultra human dimensions in Book I and II. And what
makes Satan so heroic is not the particular situation he is in or any facts about him: his
magnificence comes from the inspired verse which Milton puts into his speeches. No one
reading these speeches can miss their power and eloquence. It is no accident that when
Winston Churchill was looking for something to rally the British people after the military
disaster of Dunkirk, he used these lines on the radio. There is nothing in English literature to
match the heroic determination, power, courage, and energy manifested here and throughout
Satan's early speeches. And his followers are appropriately energized.At very end Paradise
Lost was more than a work of art. Indeed, it was a moral and political treatise, a poetic
explanation for the course that English history and Human kind had taken.
Key words: John Milton, Independence, Freedom, Evil
�Acknowledgements
There are many people who helped to make my years at the graduate school most valuable.
First of all, I thank to almighty God, my major professor and supervisor. I also thank to
Asst.Prof.Dr.Shahab Yar Khan who contributed much to the development of this research
starting from the early stages of my graduate project. Asst.Prof.Dr. Shahab Yar Khan
provided valuable contributions to this Graduate project and I thank him for his insightful
suggestions and expertise.
Many thanks to Department computer staff, who patiently answered my questions and
problems on word processing. I would also like to thank to my graduate student colleagues
who helped me all through the years full of class work and exams. My special thanks go to
Asst.Prof.Dr. Azamat Akbarov whose friendship I deeply value.
The last words of thanks go to my family. I thank my parents Ibrahim, Suada and my brother
Fedža for their patience and encouragement. Lastly I thank Amra Gekić for her endless
support through this long journey.
�To my family, friends and girlfriend
�Table of Contents
1. ....................................................................................................................... Abstrac
t..................................................................................................................................... ii
2. ....................................................................................................................... Table
of Contents ................................................................................................................ iii
3. .......................................................................................................................
1. Inroduction ........................................................................................................... 1
2. Epic ....................................................................................................................... 5
4. ................................................................................................................ 2.1
What is an epic ? ......................................................................................................... 5
5. ................................................................................................................ 2.2 The
Paradise Lost as an epic and Homer's and Virgil infulence on Milton…7
3. The Theme of Freedom and Idenpendence in Paradise Lost ......................... 11
3.1 The significian of English Puritanism ........................................................11
3.2. Civil war in England and Milton's part in it .......................................... 16
3.3. The Theme of Fredoom and Indenpence in Paradise Lost....................17
4. The role of Adam, Eve and the Son of God in the Paradise Lost...................25
4.1 The importance of Obedience to God ........................................................... 25
4.2 The role of Archangels loyal to God ...................................................... 28
4.3. Satan's followers and idea of ―Happy fall‖ .........................................30
�5. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 33
References ................................................................................................................. 35
Curriculum Vitae ..................................................................................................... 36
�Chapter 1
Introduction
One of the greatest poets of the English language, best-known for his epic poem PARADISE
LOST. Milton's powerful, rhetoric prose and the eloquence of his poetry had an immense
influence especially on the 18th-century verse. Besides poems, Milton published pamphlets
defending civil and religious rights.
John Milton was born on december 9, 1608, in London. His mother, Sarah Jeffrey, a very
religious person, was the daughter of a merchant sailor. Milton's father, also named John, had
risen to prosperity as a law writer - he also composed music. The family was wealthy enough
to afford a second house in the country. Milton's first teachers were his father, from whom he
inherited love for art and music, and the writer Thomas Young, a graduate of St Andrews
University.
His father had left Roman Catholicism and Milton was raised Protestant, with a heavy
tendency toward Puritanism. As a student, he wanted to go into the ministry, but was
disillusioned with the scholastic elements of the clergy at Cambridge. Cambridge, however,
afforded him time to write poetry. After Milton’s graduation, he did not consider the ministry.
Instead, he began a six-year stay at his father’s recently purchased country estate of Horton
with the stated intention of becoming a poet. Milton made his move to Horton, a village of
about 300 people, in 1632, saying that God had called him to be a poet. One of his first great
works, Comus, a Masque, was written around this time. In 1637, Milton’s mother died,
�possibly of the plague. That same year, one of his Cambridge friends, Edward King, a young
minister, was drowned in a boating accident. Classmates at Cambridge decided to create a
memorial volume of poetry for their dead friend. Milton’s poem, untitled in the volume but
later called Lycidas, was the final poem, possibly because the editors recognized it as the
artistic climax of the volume. Whatever the reasoning, the poem, signed simply J. M., has
become one of the most recognized elegiac poems in English. Milton toured the European
continent in 1638-1639 and met many of the great Renaissance minds, including Galileo and
Grotius. The beginning of the Puritan Revolution found Milton back in England, fighting for a
more humanist and reformed church. For more than twenty years, Milton set aside poetry to
write political and religious pamphlets for the cause of Puritanism. At this time, Milton began
writing prose pamphlets on current church controversies. The political climate was charged as
Charles I invaded Scotland, and the Long Parliament was convened. Milton wrote pamphlets
entitled Of Reformation, Of Prelatical Episcopacy, and Animadversions in 1641, and The
Reason for Church Government in 1642. For the young poet, the Puritan aspect of his work,
at least in the public eye, began to take precedence over his poetry. Milton more and more
sided with the idea that the church needed ―purification‖ and that that sort of reform could not
come from a church so closely connected to the king. In 1642, the Civil War began, and its
effects touched Milton directly. That same year, he married Mary Powell, daughter of a
Royalist family from Oxford. A month after the marriage, Mary returned to Oxford to live
with her family. The precise reasons for her leaving Milton are not known. Personal
problems, political differences, or simple safety (Oxford was the headquarters for the Royalist
army) may have motivated her. Milton’s brother, Christopher, also announced as a Royalist at
about this same time.Whatever the reason for Mary Powell’s desertion of Milton, he
published the pamphlet On the Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce in 1643, followed by On
Education and Areopagitica in 1644. Each of these works centered on the need for individual
liberty. The ideas that Milton expressed in these writings are commonplace values today, but
in the 1640s, they were so radical that Milton acquired the nickname, ―Milton the
divorcer.‖Around 1645, Mary Powell returned to Milton. Once again, the reasons for her
return are unclear. Charles I had lost the Battle of Naseby and any hope for military victory.
�The Powell family, avowed Royalists, were now in danger. They were ejected from their
home in Oxford as Charles’ power waned. Within a year of Mary’s return to Milton, her
entire family had moved in with the couple.With the return of Mary and the arrival of her
family, Milton was suddenly the head of a large household. His first collection of poetry,
entitled Poems, was published in 1646. The volume included Lycidas, Comus, and ―On the
Morning of Christ’s Nativity.‖ In July, seven months after Poems was published, Milton’s
first daughter, Anne, was born. The marriage that had begun inauspiciously now seemed, if
not perfect, at least sound. Shortly after the reunion of Milton with his wife and the birth of
his first child, both his father-in-law, Richard Powell, and his own father died. Milton was left
with a moderate estate. He complained at this point that he was surrounded by ―uncongenial
people,‖ a problem that was resolved a few months later when all the Powell relatives moved
back to Oxford. Milton and his wife and daughter then moved into a smaller house in High
Holborn. For the first time, the couple had a reasonably normal life and family. In 1648, a
second daughter, Mary, was born.
The year 1649 marked a decisive change in Milton’s life. Charles I was executed, with Milton
probably in attendance. The murder of a king was shocking to the people of a country that had
always lived under a monarchy and for whom the king had an aura of divinity. Milton
attempted to justify the situation with his Tenure of Kings and Magistrates. This pamphlet,
along with Milton’s other work for the Puritans, resulted in his being offered the position of
Secretary for the Foreign Tongues. For a time, he served as Secretary for Foreign Tongues
under Cromwell. Milton now assumed full-time political office, corresponding with heads of
states or their secretaries in Latin, the lingua franca of the day. Among other duties, he also
responded to political attacks on the new Cromwellian government, particularly those
attacking the philosophy and morality behind the violent overthrow of the monarchy. Milton
was a "passionate fighter" (Šentija, 1979) for freedom of press and mixed product of his time.
On the one hand, as a humanist, he fought for religious tolerance and believed that there was
something inherently valuable in man. As a Puritan, however, he believed that the Bible was
�the answer and the guide to all, even if it went against democracy itself. Where the Bible
didn't afford an answer, Milton would turn to reason.
John Milton ( 1608-1674)
Milton himself was married three times, all of which were rather unhappy affairs. He
defended divorce in "The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce" in 1643. With this and other
treatises, Milton often came in conflict with the Puritanism he advocated. At the end of the
war, Milton was imprisoned for a short time for his views. In 1660, he emerged blind and
disillusioned with the England he saw around him. Nevertheless, he was yet to write his
greatest work. Paradise Lost was published in 1667, followed by Paradise Regained in 1671.
Milton's ability to combine his poetry with his polemics in these and other works, was the key
to his genius. The classical influences in his work can be clearly delineated: Homer, Ovid, but
especially Virgil. Shakespeare was the leading playwright of his day, and there are some
references to his works in Milton's own poetry. The style and structure of the Spencer's "The
Faerie Queen," was another influence on Paradise lost.. Milton died from "gout" in 1674 and
was buried in the Church of St. Giles in London.
�2
Chapter 2
3
Epic
�2.1 What is an epic?
An epic in its most specific sense is a genre of classical poetry originating in Greece. The
conventions of this genre are several:
(a) It is a long narrative about a serious or worthy traditional subject.
(b) Its diction in elevated in style. It employs a formal, dignified, objective tone and many
figures of speech.
(c) The narrative focused on the exploits of a hero or demigod who represents the cultural
values of a race, nation, or religious group.
(d) The hero's success or failure will determine the fate of that people or nation.
(e) The action takes place in a vast setting, and covers a wide geographic area. The setting is
frequently some time in the remote past.
(f) The action contains superhuman feats of strength or military prowess.
(g) Gods or supernatural beings frequently take part in the action to affect the outcome.
(h) The poem begins with the invocation of a muse to inspire the poet, a prayer to an
appropriate supernatural being. The speaker asks that this being provide him the suitable
emotion, creativity, or words to finish the poem.
(i) The narrative starts in medias res, in the middle of the action. Subsequently, the earlier
events leading up to the start of the poem will be recounted in the characters' narratives or in
flashbacks.
(j) The epic contains long catalogs of heroes or important characters, focusing on highborn
kings and great warriors rather than peasants and commoners.
(k) The epic employs extended similes (called epic similes) at appropriate spots ofthe story,
and a traditional scene of extended description in which the hero arms himself.
A long narrative Poem in elevated Style, presenting characters of high position in a series of
adventures which form an organic whole through their relation to a central figure of heroic
proportions and through their development of Episode important to the history of a nation or
�race. According to one theory, the first epics took shape from the scattered work of various
unknown poets, and through accretion these early Episodes were gradually molded into a
unified whole and an ordered sequence.Though held vigorously by some, this theory has
generally given place to one which holds that the materials of the epic may have accumulated
in this fashion but that the epic poem itself is the product of a single genius who gives it
structure and expression. Epics without certain authorship are called Folk epics, whether the
scholar believes in a folk or a single authorship theory of origins, however.
Epics, both Folk and Art epics, share a group of common characteristics:
the hero is a figure of imposing stature, of national or international importance,
and of great historical or legendary significance;
the setting is vast in scope, covering great nations, the world, or the universe;
the action consists of deeds of great valor or requiring superhuman courage;
supernatural forces—gods, angels, and demons--interest themselves in the action and
intervene from time to time;
a style of sustained elevation and grand simplicity is used; and
the epic poet recounts the deeds of his heroes with objectivity.
Some of the most well known, and most important, works of literature in the world are
examples of epic poetry. These heroic adventure tales have often had surprising durability
over time, such as Homer's story of love and heroism, The Illiad, which continues its life in
the modern film Troy. Also Milton's Paradise Lost is called an epic of Christian culture.
Epic poems are more than simply a lengthy story told in poetic form, and their ability to
remain accessible, relevant, and remembered over time owes a significant debt to their roots
in an oral tradition and to their cyclical pattern of events.
�The term applies most directly to classical Greek texts like the Iliad and the Odyssey but it is
clear that Roman authors like Virgil intentionally imitate the genre in works like the
Aeneid.However, some critics have applied the term more loosely. The Anglo-Saxon poem
Beowulf has also been called an epic of Anglo-Saxon culture, Milton's Paradise Lost is called
an epic of Christian culture, El Cid is an epic of Spanish culture, Longfellow's Hiawatha is an
epic of American culture, and Shakespeare's various History Plays have been collectively
called an epic of Renaissance Britain. Contrast with the mock epics of Alexander Pope and
later Enlightenment writers to see its influence in humorous form.
2.2 The paradise lost as an epic and Homer′s and Virgil influence on Milton:
Professor Khan wrote in his book From Renaissance To Classicism "an epic is a long
narrative, adventutous poem. With its embellished, hyperbolic, bombastic language it deals
with the conflict between good and evil. The subject of en epic is normally ancient and
nacional, having its roots in history and legend. Milton′s subject is also ancient, more ancient
�than any other epic- poet. Homer and Virgil and other epic –poets have taken their subjects
from the history and legend of their country.
Milton, on the contrary, has taken his subject from scriptures. His theme belongs to a time
before the nations were born. He deals with the history of man kind itself. He deals with
creation of the universe and fall of Man, a subject of interest not to any one nation, but to all
man kind. Its action moves from heaven to hell and from hell to heaven through chaos in
which lies the newly created world of man. It concerns itself with the fortunes, not of a city
or an empire, but of the whole human race and with that particular event in the history of the
race which has moulded all its destinies. This epic is the history of Heaven and Earth and
Hell". (Khan, 2006)
Paradise Lost is written in blank verse. A long poem constructed throughout in iambic pentametre(each line consisting of five feet and ten syllables, the accent being on the second
syllable), would be infinitely wearisome; and hence Milton introduced endless variation, such
as trochees and spondees, in metre.
Following the invocation and prologue, Milton continues in the epic style by beginning in
medias res, in the middle of things. Satan is first seen lying in the pit of Hell. That a great
religious epic focuses on Satan, presents him first, and in many ways makes him the hero of
the poem is certainly surprising and something of a risk on Milton’s part. Milton does not
want his audience to empathize with Satan, yet Satan is an attractive character, struggling
against great odds. Of course, Milton’s original audience more than his modern one would
have been cognizant of the ironies involved in Satan’s struggles and his comments concerning
power. The power that Satan asserts and thinks he has is illusory. His power to act derives
only from God, and his struggle against God has already been lost. To the modern audience,
Satan may seem heroic as he struggles to make a Heaven of Hell, but the original audience
knew, and Milton’s lines confirm, that Satan’s war with God had been lost absolutely before
�the poem begins. God grants Satan and the other devils the power to act for God’s purposes,
not theirs.
"The catalogue of demons that follows Satan’s escape from the burning lake follows an epic
pattern of listing heroes—although here the list is of villains. This particular catalogue seems
almost an intentional parody of Homer’s catalogue of Greek ships and heroes in Book II of
the Iliad" (Lewis, 1961). The catalogue is a means for Milton to list many of the fallen angels
as well as a way to account for many of the gods in pagan religions—they were originally
among the angels who rebelled from God. Consequently, among these fallen angels are names
such as Isis, Osiris, Baal, and others that the reader associates not with Christianity but with
some ancient, pagan belief. Of the devils listed, the two most important are Beelzebub and
Belial. The council of demons that begins Book II recalls the many assemblies of heroes in
both the Iliad and the Aeneid. Further the debates also seem based on the many meetings that
Milton attended in his various official capacities. In his speech, each devil reveals both the
characteristics of his personality and the type of evil he represents. For example, Moloch, the
first to speak, is the unthinking man of action. Like Diomedes in the Iliad, he is not adept in
speech, but he does know how to fight. He is for continued war and unconcerned about the
consequences. But, moreover, the attitude toward violence exhibited by Moloch reveals a
particular type of evil. In the Inferno, Dante had divided evils into three broad categories: sins
of appetite, sins of will, and sins of reason. In the Renaissance, these categories still
dominated much thought concerning the nature of evil. In Moloch, the reader sees a
straightforward example of the evil that comes from the will. Unthinking violence is the result
of lack of control of the will. And for Moloch, the ―furious king‖ (VI, 357), violence defines
his character. In Book VI, Milton presents his description of epic warfare. He follows many of
the conventions of the great classic epics, such as the Iliad and the Aeneid, by giving graphic
descriptions of battles and wounds, highlighting the boasting give and take in individual
battles, and developing massive scenes of chaotic violence. However, Milton goes beyond his
classical models and, in a sense, mocks the nature of the warfare he describes. The reasons
that lie behind this sense of mockery in Book VI have been frequently discussed and disputed
�by critics and commentators. The general sense of those who see a kind of mocking humor in
the battle scenes is that Milton was dealing with two difficulties. First, the combat in Heaven
is between combatants who cannot be killed, and second, there is no doubt as to the outcome
of the battle.
In relating his warfare metaphor, Raphael, either wittingly or unwittingly, creates the feel of a
mock-epic rather than true dramatic epic. The individual encounters have a cartoonish aspect
about them. Abdiel, whose heroism in standing up to Satan receives deserved praise from
God, first confronts Satan and knocks him backwards. Next, Michael splits him down the
middle. In the Iliad, such a wound would be the end of the warrior. But, in Paradise Lost,
Satan cannot be killed so the wound, like wounds in cartoons, heals.
In the prologue to Book IX, Milton says that his work must now take a tragic tone and that
this Christian epic, though different, is nonetheless more heroic than earlier epics like the Iliad
and the Aeneid. Again, he calls on Urania as the muse of Christian inspiration to help him
complete his work and show the true heroism that lies in the Christian idea of sacrifice. Then
Milton returns to his story. Yet for all of these connections to tragedy, Paradise Lost is not a
tragedy; it is a Christian epic with a tragic core. Adam is a noble hero, but as Milton notes in
this prologue, he is not a hero like Achilles, Aeneas, or Odysseus. Satan continue his intention
to struggle against God, saying, ―Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven‖ (263). Homer's
Odysseus says that when he interviewed Achilles in the underworld, Achilles expressed an
attitude opposite to Satan's: "I would rather be a paid servant in a poor man's house and be
above ground than king of kings among the dead" (Odyssey, 11.363-65).
"Paradise lost is a classical epic, having all the common features of the Homer and Virgil. It is
a long narrative poem in XII books, with grandeur and majesty of the classical epic, it is unity
of themeand treatment of every episode lead to the the central theme-"the fall of man" and
"the lose of paradise". Alongwith wars and heroic exploits there is supernatural-God and his
angles, and Satan and his followers. There are only two human characteres, Adam and Eve.
�In fact, unlike a classical epic which deals with a subject of nacional importance, with the
war- like exploits of some hero of nacional stature, the theme of Milton′ s epic is vaster and of
a more universal human intrest. It concerns itself with the fortunes, not of a city or an empire,
but of the whole human race, and with that particular event in the history of the race which
has moduled all its destenies. Around this event, the plucking of an apple, are rage, according
to the strictese rules of the ancient epic, the histories of Heaven and Earth and Hell.
The scene of action is Universal Space. The time represented is eternity. The characters are
God and all his creatures. And all these are exsibited in the clearest and most inevitable
relation with the man and his destiny."
Besides the allusions to classical literature and mythology, to Biblical tradition, and to the
contemporary litertures of europe, Milton has introduced his humanist version of the fall of
man in his greates work.
Every critic admits that Paradise Lost is the biggest epic of English poetry and falls into the
category of the biggest poet achievments in the world. In the end, Milton chose not to copy
Homer and Virgil, but to create a Christian epic. His creation is still a work of great
magnitude in an elevated style. Milton chose not to write in hexameters or in rhyme because
of the natural limitations of English. Instead he wrote in unrhymed iambic pentameter, or
blank verse, the most natural of poetic techniques in English. He also chose a new kind of
heroism to magnify and ultimately created a new sort of epic—a Christian epic that focuses
not on the military actions that create a nation but on the moral actions that create a world.
�5
4
Chapter 3
The Theme of Freedom and Idenpendence in Paradise Lost
3.1 The Significance of English Puritansim
Puritanism seems to have risen out of discontent with the Elizabethan Religious Settlement,
which was felt by the more radical Protestants to be giving in to "Popery" (i.e., the Roman
Catholic Church). While Protestant movements in Europe were driven by issues of theology
and had broken radically with Catholic models of church organization, the English
Reformation had brought the Church under control of the monarchy while leaving many of its
religious practices intact. In the eyes of the Puritans, doctrine had been made unacceptably
subservient to politics. Persecuted under Mary I of England ("Bloody Mary"), Protestants like
Thomas Cartwright, Walter Travers, and Andrew Melville had gone into exile as Puritans in
Europe, where they came into close contact with the magisterial reformers in Calvinist
Geneva and Lutheran Germany. These contacts shaped their position towards Elizabeth's
religious via media (middle way).
Although all influenced by Calvinism, Puritans were not united on every issue. This reflects
the origins of the movement, which developed through several phases. They shared a belief
that all existing churches had become corrupted by practice, by contact with pagan
civilizations (particularly that of Rome), and by the impositions of kings and popes. They all
argued for a restructuring and "purifying" of church practice through biblical supremacy and
shared, to one degree or another, a belief in the priesthood of all believers. However, they
differed from one another on issues of church polity (organization of church power).
By the 1570s, Puritans were arguing for a Presbyterian model or a Congregationalist model,
but all were outspoken in their criticism of the structure and liturgy that the monarchy
required. Attempts by the bishops of the Church of England to enforce uniformity of usage in
the Book of Common Prayer turned the episcopal hierarchy into a specific target of their
�grievances. Tracts such as the Martin Marprelate series lampooned the government and the
church hierarchs.
"These radicals were looked down on by the dominant faction in the Church of England and
were given the name "Puritan", in mockery of the radicals' apparent obsession with "purifying
the Church" (Morton, 1955)
Contemporarily with the English Reformation, the Church of Scotland had been reformed on
a Calvinist Presbyterian model which many Puritans hoped to extend to England. When
James VI of Scotland became James I of England, he appointed several known Puritans to
powerful positions within the Church of England and checked the rise in power of William
Laud. Nevertheless, he was not a Puritan and regarded them with great suspicion, viewing the
Puritan movement as potentially dangerous to the royal control of the Church. He authorized
the King James Bible in part to reinforce Anglican orthodoxy against the Geneva Bible.
Popular among Puritans, the Geneva Bible had anti-royalist translations and interpolated
revolutionary notes. Luther had called for vernacular Bible translations and church services;
for the Puritans, who believed in biblical supremacy, having an English-language Bible was
of paramount importance.
Each new round of political disappointments during this period faced each individual Puritan
and the Puritan congregations with a new crisis. The question was whether they should
continue in outward conformity with a distasteful religious regime, or should they take the
separatist and illegal step of withdrawal from the state church? Each fresh controversy led to a
new round of schisms, and, as such, the groundwork was set for the eventual heirs of
Puritanism, from the "low-church" Protestant and Evangelical wing of the Church of England,
to the various dissenting sects.
1625 to 1660
During the reign of Charles I, a committed High Churchman, relations soured and it is
generally held among historians that religious tensions created by the dominance of the
�Laudian faction during the Personal Rule were a major factor in the outbreak of the English
Civil War. Puritans certainly agitated against the king, and reform of the religion was a
rallying cry for the Parliamentary forces. However, Puritanism by this point had become not
merely a religion, but a cultural entity.
"By this time, Puritans were more often referred to as Dissenters. Since English Dissenters
were barred from any profession that required official religious conformity, Puritans became
instrumental in a number of new industries. They dominated the export/import business and
were eager to colonize the New World. With the flourishing of the trans-Atlantic trade with
America, Puritans in England were growing quite wealthy. Similarly, the artisan classes had
become increasingly Puritan. Therefore, the economic issues of the English Civil War (tax
levies, liberalization of royal charters), the political issues of the English Civil War
(purchasing of peerages, increasing discontent between the House of Lords and the people,
rebellion over the attempt to introduce a Divine right of kings to Charles I), and the religious
tensions were all bound together into a general dispute that pitted Church of England
Cavaliers against Puritan Roundheads" ( Morton, 1955).
Puritan factions played a key role in the Parliamentarian victory and became a majority in
Parliament, while Puritan military leader Oliver Cromwell became head of the English
Commonwealth. In the Commonwealth period, the Church of England was removed from
royal control and reorganized to grant greater authority to local congregations, most of which
developed in a Puritan and semi-Calvinist direction. There was never an official Puritan
denomination; the Commonwealth government tolerated a somewhat broader debate on
doctrinal issues than had previously been possible, and considerable theological and political
conflict between Puritan factions continued throughout this period. The label "Puritan" fell
out of use when their movement became the status quo; it was replaced by the broader term
Nonconformist, which was used after the English Restoration to refer to all Protestant
denominations outside of the official Church. The pejorative name "Dissenter"3 (for nonConforming Protestants, as opposed to Catholics) was also used.
�Many Puritans immigrated to North America in the 1620-1640s because they believed that the
Church of England was beyond reform. However, most Puritans in both England and New
England were non-separatists. They continued to profess their allegiance to the Church of
England despite their dissent from Church leadership and practices.
Emigration resumed under the rule of Cromwell, but not in large numbers as there was no
longer any need to "escape persecution" in England. In fact, many Puritans returned to
England during the war.
From 1660 to present day
The influence of the Puritan movement persisted in England in various forms. All official
discrimination against Puritans in England ended in the 1640s when Puritan forces under
Oliver Cromwell overthrew the monarchy in the English Civil War. With the Restoration of
the monarchy in the 1660s the Church of England attempted to re-assert its authority as the
official English church. However, respect for the Puritan Church's separatism and freedom of
conscience won by them and other English Dissenters under Cromwell, continued despite the
Restoration and the 1662 Act of Uniformity.
The central tenet of Puritanism was God's supreme authority over human affairs, particularly
in the church, and especially as expressed in the Bible. This view led them to seek both
individual and corporate conformance to the teaching of the Bible, and it led them to pursue
both moral purity down to the smallest detail as well as ecclesiastical purity to the highest
level.
On the individual level, the Puritans emphasized that each person should be continually
reformed by the grace of God to fight against indwelling sin and do what is right before God.
A humble and obedient life would arise for every Christian.
�Like the early church fathers, they eliminated the use of musical instruments in their worship
services, for various theological and practical reasons. Outside of church, however, Puritans
were quite fond of music and encouraged it in certain ways.
Another important distinction was the Puritan approach to church-state relations. They
opposed the Anglican idea of the supremacy of the monarch in the church (Erastianism), and,
following Calvin, they argued that the only head of the Church in heaven or earth is Christ
(not the Pope or Archbishop of Canterbury). However, they believed that secular governors
are accountable to God (not through the church, but alongside it) to protect and reward virtue,
including "true religion", and to punish wrongdoers — a policy that is best described as noninterference rather than separation of church and state. The separating Congregationalists, a
segment of the Puritan movement more radical than the Anglican Puritans, believed the
Divine Right of Kings was heresy, a belief that became more pronounced during the reign of
Charles I of England.
Other notable beliefs include:
An emphasis on private study of the Bible
A desire to see education and enlightenment for the masses (especially so they could
read the Bible for themselves)
The priesthood of all believers
Perception of the Pope as an Antichrist
Simplicity in worship, the exclusion of vestments, images, candles, etc.
Did not celebrate traditional holidays that they believed to be in violation of the
regulative principle of worship.
Believed the Sabbath was still obligatory for Christians.
�
Some approved of the church hierarchy, but others sought to reform the episcopal
churches on the presbyterian model. Some separatist Puritans were presbyterian, but
most were congregationalists.
In addition to promoting lay education, it was important to the Puritans to have
knowledgeable, educated pastors, who could read the Bible in its original Greek, Hebrew, and
Aramaic, as well as ancient and modern church tradition and scholarly works, which were
most commonly written in Latin, and so most of their divines undertook rigorous studies at
the University of Oxford or the University of Cambridge before seeking ordination.
Diversions for the educated included discussing the Bible and its practical applications as well
as reading the classics such as Cicero, Virgil, and Ovid. They also encouraged the
composition of poetry that was of a religious nature, though they eschewed religious-erotic
poetry except for the Song of Solomon, which they considered magnificent poetry, without
error, regulative for their sexual pleasure, and, especially, as an allegory of Christ and the
Church.
In modern usage, the word puritan is often used as an informal pejorative for someone who
has strict views on sexual morality, disapproves of recreation, and wishes to impose these
beliefs on others. None of these qualities were unique to Puritanism or universally
characteristic of the Puritans themselves, whose moral views and ascetic tendencies were no
more extreme than many other Protestant reformers of their time, and who were relatively
tolerant of other faiths — at least in England. The popular image is slightly more accurate as a
description of Puritans in colonial America, who were among the most radical Puritans and
whose social experiment took the form of a Calvinist theocracy.
3.2 Civil war in England and Milton′s part in it
John Milton was one of the great poets of England whose life spanned the most turbulent
period of English history. His youth was spent in the dissolving reign of Charles I who
desperately held on to his power by dissolving Parliament. This foolishness could only last so
�long, and civil war broke out in 1642. This war would elevate an intensely religious and
unboundedly ambitious, charismatic, and the man named Oliver Cromwell to the height of
power; in 1649, after overthrowing the monarchy and taking over England, Cromwell
executed Charles I and thus ushered in a new state which he called the Commonwealth and
Protectorate that was, nominally, Puritan. H e was such capable military officer that he
became a high ranking general and great inspiration for his society.Cromwell nominally
subscribed to Calvin's principles of civil government, in which the best form of government
is either an aristocracy (rule by the best) or a combination of aristocracy and democracy (rule
by the people)&emdash;the latter would become the basis of American government.
Cromwell, however, wanted to be king and ruled harshly, calling himself "Protector of
England" and setting up in effect a military government. When Cromwell died in 1658, his
son, Richard, tried to lift the reigns of power and succeed his father as Protector, but did not
have his father's iron heart or charisma. In 1660, Charles II, the son of Charles I, was recalled
from France and put on the throne of England. By then, however, the English Parliament had
gotten used to the power it had gained during the Protectorate, and Charles II and later his
son, James II, would see their power gradually erode away and gather around the English
Parliament.Concerned with the Puritan cause, Milton wrote a series of pamphlets against
episcopacy (1642), on divorce (1643), in defense of the liberty of the press (1644), and in
support of the regicides (1649). He also served as the secretary for foreign languages in
Cromwell's government. After the death of Charles I, Milton published The Tenure of Kings
and Magistrates (1649) supporting the view that the people had the right to depose and punish
tyrants.In 1651 Milton became blind, but like Jorge Luis Borges is our century, blindness
helped to stimulate his verbal richness. "He sacrificed his sight, and then he remembered his
first desire, that of being a poet." (Breda, 1973) After the Restoration of Charles II in 1660, he
was arrested as a noted defender of the Commonwealth, but was soon released. Besides public
burning of Eikonklastes and the first Defensio in Paris and Toulouse, Milton escaped from
more punishment after Restoration, but he became a relatively poor man. In the 1660s Milton
moved with his third wife to what is now Burnhill Row. He spent there the remaining years of
�his life, apart from a brief visit to Chalfont St Giles in 1665, to avoid the plague. His late
poems were dictated to his daughter, nephews, friends, disciples, and paid amanuenses.
The causes of this turbulent, violent century can be easily summed up with a religious
question and a political question: a.) how far should the reformation be taken in the Protestant
church? and b.) how much authority should a king have? As the century progressed and more
and more blood was spilled in England, a.) the answer to the first question was, "as far as any
group wishes to take it," in other words, religious tolerance and freedom for all Protestant
sects, and b.) the answer to the second was, "the king should have no authority."
3.3 The Theme of Freedom and Independence in Paradise Lost
Milton meditated many subjects, from both British and biblical history, before he finally
decided on the Fall as the theme for his great epic.
In the begining there existed according to Milton God and Chaos.
God is:
"Thee Father first they sung Omnipotent,
Immutable, Immortal, Infinite,
Eternal King; thee Author of all being,
Fountain of Light, thy self invisible" (Book III, 372-375)
And Chaos is:
"In the wide womb of uncreated night"(Book II, 150)
"Eternal Anarchie, amidst the noise"(Book II, 896)
"The secrets of the hoarie deep, a dark
Illimitable Ocean without bound,
Without dimension, where length, breadth, & highth"(Book II, 892-894)
and where " Thir embryon Atoms; they around the flag" and where Chance governs all. Into
this wilde Abyss.
�"To the discription of chaos is devoted much of the Book II;from this description we realise
that Chaos is "uncreated night" and "Eternal Anarchie", whereas God created order and light.
But if the chaos is God′s opposer, he is still "His dark materials to create more Worlds"(II916)it is to say his primaray matter from which he create." (Puhalo, 1966)
Why did war in the Haven begin in the first place?
In the book V Raphael says that the rebellion began when God presented his newly
―begotten‖ Son to the angels as their new ruler. Many commentators have been troubled by
Milton’s use of the word ―begotten‖ since it suggests that the Son was ―born‖ to God and thus
denies the doctrine of the Trinity. However, Milton also uses the term ―anointed‖ as a
synonym for ―begotten,‖ and so the generally accepted meaning for the passage is that the
Son is now begotten or anointed as the Messiah or King of Heaven to rule over the angels.The
rest of Raphael’s description of the rebellion gives the lie to Satan’s description of the
rebellion in Book I. Satan was not heroic in his opposition to God; instead he sneaked away in
the night. Further, he convinced other angels to follow him with sophistic arguments and the
magnificence of his appearance in Heaven. The real hero of the last part of Book V is Abdiel
who follows his own beliefs and challenges Satan in front of all the Devils’ hosts. Abdiel
cannot be swayed by Satan’s arguments and taunts and heroically deserts Satan. Abdiel is the
only one of Satan’s hosts who has the fortitude and moral character to oppose the mighty
archangel. Milton here gives the reader a direct contrast between pomp without substance
(Satan) and substance without pomp (Abdiel).The battle lasts two days. On the first day, the
angels easily beat the rebellious angels back; on the second day, under the assault of a cannon
that the demons have built, the angels’ victory is not so easy. In response to the cannon fire,
the Heavenly hosts grab mountains, hills, and boulders and pelt the rebels, literally burying
them and their cannon. The rebels dig out and begin to respond in kind, and the air is soon
filled with the landscape. At this point, God, fearing for the physical safety of Heaven (he
knows that Satan is no real threat to his power, but the rebels are literally uprooting the
landscape), calls forth the Son, who attacks the rebels single-handedly in his chariot and
�easily herds them into a gap that opens into Hell. Afraid to go forward or back, the rebels are
eventually forced through the gap into Hell.Raphael concludes his narrative and tells Adam
that Satan now envies Man’s position and will try to tempt the two humans into disobedience.
Raphael reminds Adam of the fate of the rebellious angels and warns him not to yield to
temptation. Probably the most famous quote about Paradise Lost is William Blake’s
statement that Milton was ―of the Devil’s party without knowing it.‖ While Blake may have
meant something other than what is generally understood from this quotation the idea that
Satan is the hero, or at least a type of hero, in Paradise Lost is widespread. However, the
progression, or, more precisely, regression, of Satan’s character from Book I through Book X
gives a much different and much clearer picture of Milton’s attitude toward Satan. But we
must addmit that we have sympaties for Satan especially in the book I and II.
Gustave Dore′ Depiction Of Satan From John Milton's Paradise Lost
�Milton′s imagery draws a contrast which helps us in understanding the Satan in the Book I.
The Hell is portrayed as closely as possible to the nature of horror portrayed in Inferno.
"A Dungeon horrible, on all sides round
As one great Furnace flam'd, yet from those flames
No light, but rather darkness visible
Serv'd onely to discover sights of woe,
Regions of sorrow, doleful shades, where peace [ 65 ]
And rest can never dwell, hope never comes
That comes to all; but torture without end
Still urges, and a fiery Deluge, fed
With ever-burning Sulphur unconsum'd", (Milton, 1667)
Following the prologue and invocation, Milton begins the epic with a description of Satan,
lying on his back with the other rebellious angels, chained on a lake of fire. The poem thus
commences in the middle of the story, as epics traditionally do. Satan, who had been Lucifer,
the greatest angel, and his compatriots warred against God. They were defeated and cast from
Heaven into the fires of Hell. Lying on the lake, Satan is described as gigantic; he is
compared to a Titan or the Leviathan. Next to Satan lies Beelzebub, Satan’s second in
command. Satan comments on how Beelzebub has been transformed for the worse by the
punishment of God.
With effort, Satan is able to free himself from his chains and rise from the fire. He flies to a
barren plain, followed by Beelzebub. From the plain, Satan calls the other fallen angels to join
him, and one by one they rise from the lake and fly to their leader. As they come, Milton is
able to list the major devils that now occupy Hell: Moloch, Chemos, Baalem, Ashtaroth,
Astarte, Astoreth, Dagon, Rimmon, Osiris, Isis, Orus, Mammon, and Belial. Each devil is
introduced in a formal cataloguing of demons. These fallen angels think that they have
escaped from their chains through their own power, but Milton makes it clear that God alone
has allowed them to do this. In the philosophy of politics, the idea of freedom comes up often.
�Most people say they support most types of freedom. Of course, the word freedom has little
meaning if we do not have a common definition. In this article, I will explain my definition of
freedom. Freedom starts with a principle of self-control, also known as self-ownership. In a
free society, each and every person has legal control (or "ownership") of their own body and
mind. As such, the concept of freedom refers to a certain type of political empowerment. It
refers specifically to equal empowerment. In other words, a free society is one with an equal
distribution of legal rights and in which each and every person has as much legal rights as
possible. Basically, a free person has the legal allowance to do whatever he or she wants
insofar as he or she does not offensively harm or coerce other people against those other
people's wills. Remember, the limitation is a logical requirement. Freedom obviously can not
include the legal right to limit other people's freedom because that would be illogical.
The theme of freedom and independence is perhaps the most controversial one in the poem
because it portrays Satan as the very embodiment of heroic energy. This energy is constantly
expressed in his oppositon to the will of god despite heavy odds. In fact, Milton′s own self
esteem, pride and republicanism, are voiced by satan.
Milton believed in Cromwell and the civil war at first, but would later have second thoughts
about Cromwell (in fact, Satan in Paradise Lost is clearly Oliver Cromwell). Milton would
spend his later years during the reign of Charles II blind and distressed over the social
problems of the seventeenth century, a distress which gave rise to his two great epic poems.
Milton's distaste for the monarchy led directly to his embracing the rule of Oliver Cromwell.
From 1630 through 1658 Milton wrote at least 24 sonnets. Many of these celebrate the rise of
"Lord General Cromwell" and "New Forcers of Conscience." When Cromwell's government
collapsed and Charles II ascended the thrown, Milton was imprisoned, fined, and his property
confiscated. Yet Milton steadfastly accepted his decisions and the consequences.
�Three years after the fall of Cromwell's government, Milton began writing Paradise Lost.
Readers of the epic often find Satan the most compelling character, especially at the
beginning of the poem, which he dominates. Satan has used his free will to choose his role in
the universe. The famous statement by Satan that it is "better to reign in Hell than serve in
Heaven" is an endorsement of individual rights and responsibility, versus serving authority.
Satan describes his enemy as "the tyranny of Heaven."
We can obviously see that Oliwer Cromwell had infulence on John Milton, because Cromwell
proved most capable as a military leader and clothed conservatively , he possessed a Puritan
fervor and a commanding voice, he quickly made a name for himself by serving in both the
Short Parliament (April 1640) and the Long Parliament.
Oliver Cromwell was known by his passionate speeches in the Parliament. And it is the most
obvious that Oliver Cromwell was Satan from Paradise Lost.
Oliver Cromwell 1599-1658
�"Ideology of the Paradise Lost has deep root in social situation of England and with realistic
view mirrors state and political standpoint of its writer and his class of that time."(Puhalo,
1966)
"Satan′s speeches brings out the salient traits of his character, resourcefulness and foresight.
He is not coward; but his courage is not rash and unthinking. Like clever politician, he would
like to think before he leaps". (Khan, 1966)
A mind not to be chang'd by Place or Time.
The mind is its own place, and in it self
Can make a Heav'n of Hell, a Hell of Heav'n.
What matter where, if I be still the same,
And what I should be, all but less then he
Whom Thunder hath made greater? Here at least
We shall be free; th' Almighty hath not built
Here for his envy, will not drive us hence:
Here we may reign secure, and in my choyce
To reign is worth ambition though in Hell:
Better to reign in Hell, then serve in Heav'n. (Milton, 1667)
We must admit how Satan is brilliant leader, he is telling his fallen angels that everything in
our minds that we see in speech above. Satan motivates them to countinue their fight.
Milton portrays the Satan as a rebel and God as a tayrant. It′s the war between an autocrat and
democrates. Seeing Milton′s own literary career and the impact of the civil war on his writing,
it would be far fatched to say that Milton did see a touch of glory in Satan.
And Satan is introduced in this background- not as helpless victim, but as a character of ultra
human dimensions.
�After the fall soon discerns and sees Beelzebub weltering by his side and cries out:
"If thou beest he; But O how fall'n! how chang'd
From him, who in the happy Realms of Light
Cloth'd with transcendent brightness didst out-shine
Myriads though bright: If he Whom mutual league,
United thoughts and counsels, equal hope
And hazard in the Glorious Enterprize,
Joynd with me once, now misery hath joynd
In equal ruin" (Milton, 1667 )
Even in suffering Satan′s concern is about the others and theirs suffering is more important
then his own. This is humantarian impuls. Although aware that he has lost the war Satan′s
heroism is immediately brought to focus in his adress to fallen angles:
"All is not lost; the unconquerable Will,
And study of revenge, immortal hate,
And courage never to submit or yield:
And what is else not to be overcome?" (Milton, 1667)
Milton puts many of these very same arguments in the mouth of his Satan. Satan uses the
Protestant rhetioric of legitimate rebellion by "princes" or inferior magisrates" aganist a king
and transform it into a rallying cry for overthrow of God himself. Satan continually refers to
his compatriots as "Princes and Powers".(Puhalo, 1667)
Satan′s optimsim is heroic. The main couse of his audacity lies in his immortality.
"And this Empyreal substance cannot fail" (Milton, 1667)
�Charles I
We know that God can not kill angels, they are immortal. And this shows Satan′s role of the
leader. As the leader he tries to motivate his fallen angels, trying to tell them that they must
keep fighting.
"Awake, arise, or be for ever fall'n"(Milton, 1667)
Milton devotes much of the poem′s early books to devolping Satan′s character. We can even
see him as an innocent victim, overlooked for an important promotion. The first impression of
the book I leaves us with clear picture of autochracy and democracy. God is autochrat. His
whole world whirles around him. He is the centar of his own world. On the other hand, satan
is democratic. Democratic elements among the devils: they had a council, the unique idea and
army to fight to God.
Satan′s emphasis in his first speech the nature of equality of organization-equal hopes for
everyone. Satan is more closer to Puritans who fought against the autochracy. Using
adjectives as monarch, autocrat, tyrant how Satan desribe God, makes obvious that God is –
Charles I.
�So Milton uses Satan to critisize the tyranny. In the contex Satan′s war is ear for
independence. At the end of Chapter III, I would like say that the speeches of Satan and his
followers in book I and II are magnificient in their way, Miltonic. To see Satan as a hero
because Milton goes out of his way to show the superficial seductiveness of this kind of evil
is to show extraordinary naivete. Many readers and myself have argued that Milton
deliberately makes Satan seem herioc and appealling early in the poem to draw us into
sympathizing with him aganist our will, so that we may see how seducive evil is and learn to
be more vigilant in resisting its appeal. Satan′s character or our perception of his character
changes significantly from Book I to his final appearance in Book II. In Book I he is strong,
imposing figure with great abilities as a leader and public statesman, whereas by the poem′s
end he slinks back to hell in serpent form. Satan′s gradual degradation is dramatized by the
sequence of different shapes he assumes. And then at very end Milton changes Satan from
great wat-leader into smooth-tongued and specious politican.
9
6
7
8
Chapter 4
The role of Adam, Eve and God The Son in the Paradise Lost
4.1 The Importance of Obedience to God
The first words of Paradise Lost state that the poem’s main theme will be ―Man’s first
Disobedience.‖ Milton narrates the story of Adam and Eve’s disobedience, explains how and
�why it happens, and places the story within the larger context of Satan’s rebellion and Jesus’
resurrection. Raphael tells Adam about Satan’s disobedience in an effort to give him a firm
grasp of the threat that Satan and humankind’s disobedience poses. In essence, Paradise Lost
presents two moral paths that one can take after disobedience: the downward spiral of
increasing sin and degradation, represented by Satan, and the road to redemption, represented
by Adam and Eve.
While Adam and Eve are the first humans to disobey God, Satan is the first of all God’s
creation to disobey. His decision to rebel comes only from himself—he was not persuaded or
provoked by others. Also, his decision to continue to disobey God after his fall into Hell
ensures that God will not forgive him. Adam and Eve, on the other hand, decide to repent for
their sins and seek forgiveness. Unlike Satan, Adam and Eve understand that their
disobedience to God does not know that their disobedience will be corrected through
generations of toil on Earth. This path is obviously the correct one to take: the visions in
Books XI and XII demonstrate that obedience to God, even after repeated falls, can lead to
humankind’s salvation.
Significant aspect of Milton’s description of the Garden is the role that Adam and Eve have
there. Their duty is to tend Eden, to keep nature from running wild. The implication here is
that Man brings order to nature. Nature is beautiful in itself but also without control. Left
alone, the beauty of nature can be lost in weeds, unchecked growth, and decay. Eve mentions
how difficult it is for the two humans to do all that is necessary. Some commentators see the
struggle between Man and nature as one of the basic themes in all literature. Nature represents
the Dionysian side of the universe, emotional, unrestrained, without law, while Man
represents the Apollonian side, moral, restrained, lawfully structured. Nature runs rampant:
Man civilizes. Milton’s description of the Garden and Adam’s and Eve’s duties within it bring
this Dionysian / Apollonian contrast into play. Satan’s entrance into the Garden shows that
both the natural and civilized aspects of the world can be corrupted by evil.
�Adam
Adam is a strong, intelligent, and rational character possessed of a remarkable relationship
with God. In fact, before the fall, he is as perfect as a human being can be. He has an
enormous capacity for reason, and can understand the most sophisticated ideas instantly. He
can converse with Raphael as a near-equal, and understand Raphael’s stories readily. But after
the fall, his conversation with Michael during his visions is significantly one-sided. Also, his
self-doubt and anger after the fall demonstrate his new ability to indulge in rash and irrational
attitudes. As a result of the fall, he loses his pure reason and intellect.
Adam’s greatest weakness is his love for Eve. He falls in love with her immediately upon
seeing her, and confides to Raphael that his attraction to her is almost overwhelming. Though
Raphael warns him to keep his affections in check, Adam is powerless to prevent his love
from overwhelming his reason. After Eve eats from the Tree of Knowledge, he quickly does
the same, realizing that if she is doomed, he must follow her into doom as well if he wants to
avoid losing her. Eve has become his companion for life, and he is unwilling to part with her
even if that means disobeying God.
Adam’s curiosity and hunger for knowledge is another weakness. The questions he asks of
Raphael about creation and the universe may suggest a growing temptation to eat from the
Tree of Knowledge. But like his physical attraction to Eve, Adam is able to partly avoid this
temptation. It is only through Eve that his temptations become unavoidable.
Eve
Created to be Adam’s mate, Eve is inferior to Adam, but only slightly. She surpasses Adam
only in her beauty. She falls in love with her own image when she sees her reflection in a
body of water. Ironically, her greatest asset produces her most serious weakness, vanity. After
Satan compliments her on her beauty and godliness, he easily persuades her to eat from the
�Tree of Knowledge.
The introduction of Eve even more obviously reveals her character and points to the future.
Eve describes how she fell in love with her own image when she first awoke and looked in the
water. Only the voice of God prevented this narcissistic event from happening. God turned
Eve from herself and toward Adam. The suggestion here is that Eve’s vanity can easily get
her into trouble. Eve’s weakness is further indicated in her relationship with Adam. Adam is
superior in strength and intellect while Eve is the ideal companion in her perfect femininity.
This relationship is sexist by modern standards but reflects the beliefs of Puritan England as
well as most of the rest of the world at the time. Even so, Eve’s dependence on Adam
suggests that she could be in trouble if she has to make serious decisions without Adam’s aid.
Eve’s vanity and feminine weakness in conjunction with Adam’s warning about the Tree of
Knowledge are a clear foreshadowing that Eve will eventually yield to temptation.
Aside from her beauty, Eve’s intelligence and spiritual purity is constantly tested. She is not
unintelligent, but she is not ambitious to learn, content to be guided by Adam as God
intended. As a result, she does not become more intelligent or learned as the story progresses,
though she does attain the beginning of wisdom by the end of the poem. Her lack of learning
is partly due to her absence for most of Raphael’s discussions with Adam in Books V, VI, and
VII, and she also does not see the visions Michael shows Adam in Books XI and XII. Her
absence from these important exchanges shows that she feels it is not her place to seek
knowledge independently; she wants to hear Raphael’s stories through Adam later. The one
instance in which she deviates from her passive role, telling Adam to trust her on her own and
then seizing the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge, is disastrous.
Eve’s strengths are her capacity for love, emotion, and forebearance. She persuades Adam to
stay with her after the fall, and Adam in turn dissuades her from committing suicide, as they
begin to work together as a powerful unit. Eve complements Adam’s strengths and corrects
his weaknesses. Thus, Milton does not denigrate all women through his depiction of Eve.
�Rather he explores the role of women in his society and the positive and important role he felt
they could offer in the divine union of marriage.
God The Son
The merciful, compassionate side of God is presented in the Son, not referred to as Jesus
because Jesus had not been born at this time in theological history. In Book III, God says that
Adam and Eve will fall and must suffer death. However, death can be overcome for humans if
someone in Heaven will sacrifice himself to death for Man. The Son says that he will become
human and die in order to defeat death. This act clearly defines the Son. He is powerful and
brave, merciful, and willing to act to help Mankind. God’s duty is to provide justice—the law
has been declared. It is the Son who provides mercy to temper justice—the natural law.
The Son’s power is also further revealed in Book VI when God decides to end the rebellion of
the angels. God sends only the Son in a chariot against Satan and his hosts. The Son by
himself is able to defeat the rebellious angels and cast them into Hell. Milton uses the Son as
the acting hand of God’s decisions. God also uses the Son as the creator of Earth and the
universe around it. Milton connects the Son closely to Mankind by making the Son the creator
of the biblical account. Even though Milton refers to the Son as God in Book VII, it is,
nonetheless, the Son who, with golden compasses, lays out the universe and creates Earth and
Mankind. Once again, the Son carries out God’s plan. Finally, after the fall of Adam and Eve,
the Son goes to Earth at God’s request and passes judgment on the serpent, Adam, and Eve.
Beyond telling the humans what their punishment will be, the Son also pities them and clothes
them in skins. God seems to be almost the embodiment of ideas while the Son converts those
ideas to actions.At the end of Paradise Lost, Michael shows Adam a vision of Jesus, who is
the Seed that will ultimately destroy Satan. This scene is the obvious close of the story. The
Son, becoming human through Jesus, will live and die. Through resurrection from death, he
will finally overcome Satan and save man from the results of the fall. If the reader finds God
�difficult to comprehend, he finds the Son more compassionate and merciful. Through both
characters combined, Milton presents a complete picture of God.
4.2 The role of Archangels loyal to God
Michael an archangel, one of the fiercest fighters in the battle between the rebellious angels
and those loyal to God. Michael’s name was a war cry of the good angels. In Paradise Lost,
the fallen angels remember particularly the pain of Michael’s sword. At the end of the epic,
Michael reveals to Adam the biblical history of the world through the birth of Jesus. Michael
also leads Adam and Eve out of Eden.
Raphael
one of the archangels. According to tradition Raphael was the angel of Man and
was supposed to deal with Earth. Milton seems to follow that tradition since Raphael, often
called the ―affable archangel,‖ is sent to Earth to warn Adam and to answer any questions
Adam has. Many scholars fault Raphael’s advice and find him complicit in the Fall of Man.
The conversation between Raphael and Adam takes place in Books V—VIII.
An interesting sidebar to Raphael’s visit to Adam is the fact that the angel can eat, in fact
needs to eat, although human food is not his normal fare. The point of the scene is to show
Adam that through obedience to God, he may rise to a higher spiritual level and become like
the angels. However, the force of the scene comes from the gusto with which Raphael
partakes of Eve’s meal. For a modern reader, Raphael is reminiscent of John Travolta’s
portrayal of the angel Michael in the movie Michael. Raphael seems to enjoy human food a
little too much. Beyond this unintentional humor though, Milton uses Raphael’s appetite for a
brief discourse on how all the elements of the universe pass from one to the other in a large
circle. The food that Man eats nourishes not only his physical body but also sustains his
reason, Man’s highest faculty. In angels, a more sublime food produces the even higher
faculty of intuition so that angels know with an immediacy that Man, relying on reason,
cannot.
�Gabriel
In the Bible, the archangel Gabriel is the angel of mercy in contrast to Michael, the
angel of justice. In the New Testament, Gabriel announces the coming of Jesus to Mary. In
Paradise Lost, he is the angel who guards the gate of Eden. He captures Satan on his first
attempt at corrupting Adam and Eve and sends him away.
Abdiel
Angel in Satan’s host who opposes Satan’s plan to rebel and returns to God. In the
battle with the rebellious angels, Abdiel confronts Satan and pushes him backwards.
Abdiel also stands as an example for both Satan and for Adam and Eve. That is, Abdiel
responds appropriately when confronted with temptation. Had Satan resisted his own envious
thoughts, he would not have rebelled. Had the other angels been like Abdiel, they would not
have followed Satan; they would have remained true to God. If Adam and Eve had been like
Abdiel, they would not have eaten from the Tree of Knowledge Disobey.
4.3 Satan′s followers and idea of "Happy fall"
The council of demons that begins Book II recalls the many assemblies of heroes in both the
Iliad and the Aeneid. Further the debates also seem based on the many meetings that Milton
attended in his various official capacities. In his speech, each devil reveals both the
characteristics of his personality and the type of evil he represents. For example, Moloch, the
first to speak, is the unthinking man of action. Like Diomedes in the Iliad, he is not adept in
speech, but he does know how to fight. He is for continued war and unconcerned about the
consequences. But, moreover, the attitude toward violence exhibited by Moloch reveals a
particular type of evil. In the Inferno, Dante had divided evils into three broad categories: sins
of appetite, sins of will, and sins of reason. In the Renaissance, these categories still
dominated much thought concerning the nature of evil. In Moloch, the reader sees a
straightforward example of the evil that comes from the will. Unthinking violence is the result
�of lack of control of the will. And for Moloch, the ―furious king‖ (VI, 357), violence defines
his character.
In contrast to Moloch, Belial as a character type is a sophist, a man skilled in language, an
intellectual who uses his powers to deceive and confuse. His basic argument is that the devils
should do nothing. Belial wishes to avoid war and action, but he couches his arguments so
skillfully that he answers possible objections from Moloch before those objections can be
raised. He, in fact, rises to speak so quickly that the assembly is not able to respond to
Moloch’s idea. Belial also suggests the possibility that at some point God might allow the
fallen angels back into Heaven, though these arguments seem specious at best and simply an
excuse for cowardly inactivity. In terms of evil, Moloch uses reason for corrupt purposes. The
use of reason for evil was theologically the greatest sin because reason separates man from
animals. Belial’s sophistry is not as corrupting as Beelzebub’s and Satan’s fraud will be, but it
is still a sin of reason. Milton, in fact, introduces Belial as fair and handsome on the outside
but ―false and hollow‖ within (112). Milton makes the point about reason straightforwardly at
the end of Belial’s speech by referring to it as ―words cloth’d in reason’s garb‖8 (226), as
opposed to simply words of reason.
Belial’s persuasive speech for nothing is followed by the practical, materialistic assessment of
Mammon. Mammon sees the little picture. He finds no profit in war with God or in doing
nothing. Hell, he argues can be made into a livable, even pleasurable place. In Heaven,
Mammon always looked down at the streets of gold. In Hell, he sees the gem and mineral
wealth and thinks that Hell can be improved. In terms of sin, Mammon exhibits the sin of the
appetite. Here the basic instinct of appetite controls the person. Mammon’s desire for
individual wealth controls his assessment of everything. The proverb that one cannot serve
God and Mammon both easily translates to the idea that one cannot serve both God and one’s
appetite.
Finally, Beelzebub rises to speak—and he speaks for Satan. His argument to attack God by
corrupting Man is Satan’s argument. Satan has intended this plan all along and simply uses
�Beelzebub to present it. The entire council has been a sham, designed to rubber stamp Satan’s
design, a design that also allows Satan to leave Hell. Beelzebub’s speech and actions are like
those of Belial in that they pervert reason. But unlike Belial’s arguments, Beelzebub’s involve
treachery against his fellow demons. All of the devils have involved themselves in treachery
against God, but now Beelzebub and Satan compound this treachery by defrauding their own
companions. The devils have seemingly been given a choice within a council, but in fact this
seeming choice was illusion. They have been set up to do Satan’s bidding. For many
Renaissance thinkers, this type of treachery would have been considered Compound Fraud,
the worst sin of all.Milton’s stated purpose in the poem is to justify God’s ways to Man. By
the end of Book X, Milton has been able to explain his concept of what God did and why, but
he has offered little in the way of justification. Can the single instance of disobedience by Eve
and then Adam justify death, war, plague, famine—an endless list of evil? To truly
accomplish his goal, Milton needs to show the effects of the fall on Adam and Eve over a
longer period and at the same time develop the notion that some greater good than innocence
and immortality in Paradise could result from the fall. Books XI and XII represent Milton’s
attempt at justification.
The justification of God’s ways is developed in two ways. First, the justification of God’s acts
is presented to Adam as a part of the plot structure. That is, through the visions Michael
shows Adam, Adam gains a greater individual understanding of what he did, why it was
wrong, what the consequences are for him and for all Mankind, and why those consequences
are truly better than what would have happened if Adam and Eve had remained sinless in the
Garden. Second, the justification for God’s ways is developed in a broader scope for the
reader as a representative for all Mankind. Through Adam’s actions and consequences, the
reader gets Milton’s explanation of why Man fell and why sin, death, and the myriad of other
evils exist on Earth. Through Adam’s vision, the reader also sees how Adam’s sin will be
repeated in various ways and various times throughout history. It is in these final two books
that Milton completes his argument for his audience and either does or does not achieve the
justification he set as his goal. The idea of the ―happy fall‖ stands in contrast to the more
�common notion that Adam’s action simply created sin and death and destroyed Man’s chance
for blissful, paradisiacal immortality. Both concepts of the fall existed in seventeenth-century
theology, and Milton chooses to accentuate the felix culpa as part of his justification of God’s
ways to Man. By emphasizing the good that will emerge from the fall of Man, Milton makes
the end of Paradise Lost, if not triumphant, at least optimistic. Adam and Eve are no longer
the beautiful, but strangely aloof, innocents of Books I through VIII. At the end of the epic, as
they leave Eden, Adam and Eve are truly human. Their innocence has been transformed by
experience, and they now approach the world with a greater knowledge of what can happen
and what consequences can follow evil actions. The pride they had in their inability to do evil
has been replaced with the knowledge of what evil is and how easy it is to give in to both
pride and evil.
�Conclusion
Paradise Lost the greatest book of John Milton give me incredible pleasure of reading it that I
have never felt it before. The powerful senteces that Milton provides give us unexplainable
pleasure of reading of this Masterpiece. I must say that have enjoyed in every minute of
writing and reading this finale work. We are dealing in the Paradise Lost with the begining of
evil, and how to fight it. The begining of the "man′s first disobedience" and expulsion from
Eden. In my opinion John Milton is trying show us how evil is seducive. It is one of the
reason why he portrayed Satan with ultra human dimensions in Book I and II and it is the
reason why I have choosen freedom and idenpendence to write about it. We are actually
talking about the begining of the world and issues related with freedom of speech. In my
opinion, this is the root of the begining for freedom and independence in the human history.
These opening questions we have raised above are enormously emphasized by the
extraordinarily powerful depiction of Satan himself. And what makes Satan so heroic is not
the particular situation he is in or any facts about him: his magnificence comes from the
inspired verse which Milton puts into his speeches. No one reading these speeches can miss
their power and eloquence.
What though the field be lost?
All is not lost: the unconquerable will,
And study of revenge, immortal hate,
And courage never to submit or yield:
And what is else not to be overcome?
�It is no accident that when Winston Churchill was looking for something to rally the British
people after the military disaster of Dunkirk, he used these lines on the radio. There is nothing
in English literature to match the heroic determination, power, courage, and energy
manifested here and throughout Satan's early speeches. And his followers are appropriately
energized:
He spake, and, to confirm his words, out flew
Millions of flaming swords, drawn from the thighs
Of mighty cherubim, the sudden blaze
Far round illumined Hell. Highly they raged
Against the Highest, and fierce with grasped arms,
Clashed on their sounding shields the din of war.
Hurling defiance toward the vault of Heaven. (1.663-669)
At very end Paradise Lost was more than a work of art. Indeed, it was a moral and political
treatise, a poetic explanation for the course that English history and Human kind had taken.
�References
Breda, Kogoj-Kapetanović (1973), Povijest Svjetske Književnosti, Mladost, pp. 84, Zagreb.
Khan, Shahab Yar Khan (2006), From Renaissance to Classicism,Fakultet humanističkih
nauka, pp. 136-155. Mostar.
Lewis, C.S (1961), A Preface to Paradise Lost, Lectures Delivered at University College, pp.
12-14 North Wales
Milton, John (1667), Paradise Lost, Line 1-796 Book I, London
Morton, A.L (1955), Istorija Engleske, Veselin Masleša, pp. 116-214 Sarajevo
Puhalo, Dušan (1966), Milon i njegovi tragovi u Jugoslovenskim književnostima, Mladost,
pp. 198, Beograd.
Šentija, Josip (1979), Opća enciklopedija, Jugoslovenski Leksikografski Zavod, pp.92,
Zagreb.
�Curriculum Vitae
Nedžad Gudić was born on 9 October 1980, in Travnik. Primary school he finished in Gornji
Vakuf and after that he finished ―Turkish Bosnian Sarajevo College‖ in Sarajevo. He received
his BS degree in English Language and Literature in 2007 at the ―Džemal Bijedić― University
in Mostar.He works as an English Teacher in High School Gornji Vakuf . As an interpreter he
worked for OSCE (organization for security and cooperation in europe) and for company
Saraj-komerc d.o.o He was official interpreter at international leading trade fair for
automotive industry in Frankfurt am Main(part time job). He is also an official interpreter of
Gornji Vakuf – Uskoplje Municipality.
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
755
Title
A name given to the resource
THE THEME OF FREEDOM AND INDEPENDENCE IN PARADISE LOST
Author
Author
Gudić, Nedžad
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In the Paradise Lost, John Milton tried to explain how evil is seductive. It is one of the reasons why he portrayed Satan with ultra human dimensions in Book I and II. And what makes Satan so heroic is not the particular situation he is in or any facts about him: his magnificence comes from the inspired verse which Milton puts into his speeches. No one reading these speeches can miss their power and eloquence. It is no accident that when Winston Churchill was looking for something to rally the British people after the military disaster of Dunkirk, he used these lines on the radio. There is nothing in English literature to match the heroic determination, power, courage, and energy manifested here and throughout Satan's early speeches. And his followers are appropriately energized.At very end Paradise Lost was more than a work of art. Indeed, it was a moral and political treatise, a poetic explanation for the course that English history and Human kind had taken. Key words: John Milton, Independence, Freedom, Evil
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-04-22
Keywords
Keywords.
Thesis
NonPeerReviewed
PE English
-
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
3581
Title
A name given to the resource
The Linguistic Impact of Internet on Language Usage
Author
Author
Tunçdemir, Enes
Akbarov, Azamat
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Over the past a few decades, we have started to experience the linguistic impacts of the latest communication technology which was, most specifically, the Internet and with its different domains. The Internet has become a main free resource which is increasingly being used in almost every faces of our life by different age groups. It includes many domains such as chat rooms, e-mails; broadcasting and so on and every single mean of these communication domains have a clear effect on the future of all languages. Even though using these facilities has enabled us to reach any possible information, it also has brought some disadvantages to the language in use.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2013
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
PE English
-
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
3573
Title
A name given to the resource
Investigating Intersubjectivity asa Discursive Achievement in Interpreter-Mediated Encounters: Building a Conceptual Framework
Author
Author
TIPTON, Rebecca
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This paper relates to a wider research project on the ways in which intersubjective understanding is accomplished, sustained and enhanced in encounters involving interpreter-mediation. It is underpinned by an assumption that the general lack of attention to the existence of a professional interculture and its inner workings by service providers and interpreters has implications, inter alia, for the quality of service and ability of service providers to adapt to interpreter mediation in the workplace. Investigating intersubjectivity is a multilayered process that appeals to a range of research traditions in building a picture of intersubjective understanding in interpreter-mediated encounters. My wider project concerns three strands of investigation: perceptual frames of the occupational other that are ‘brought to’ the interaction; discursive accomplishment of intersubjective understanding in interaction, and the self-reflexivity of the actor in responding to his/her context both during interaction and as a post-hoc activity. This paper focuses on the second strand mentioned above, namely the discursive accomplishment of intersubjective understanding, and considers in particular the extent to which service providers and interpreters orient to each other’s ‘occupational otherness’ during interaction to form shared understandings, and the extent to which the interculture is recognised and (re)constructed discursively during the interaction. The discussion is premised on an assumption that the lack of scope for the interpreter to ‘display’ his/her occupational otherness during interaction precludes the service provider from BOOK OF ABSTRACTS | 11 developing a deep understanding of the professional interculture and potentially limits the self reflexivity required to adapt to service delivery in this mode. The paper draws on research on workplace discourse practices from the conversation analytic tradition and sociocultural approaches to mind, in building a conceptual framework to analyse the discursive accomplishment of intersubjective understanding. Particular attention is given to the discussion of concepts such as the multivoicedness of meaning and the heterogeneity of voices (following Wertsch, 1991) and modes of talk in the workplace (following Roberts and Sarangi, 1999).
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2013
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
PE English
-
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
3578
Title
A name given to the resource
Field-Dependent and Field-Independent Learners SelfEfficacy Beliefs
Author
Author
Saricoban, Arif
SERBEZ, Tugce
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Human beings live in an environment in which they encounter and learn new things in every second.They all learn but even if they look at the same thing, can they interpret it in the same way? The answer is certainly NO.All the people in the world think differently because they do not see the things from the same window so they all have different perspectives of thinking.It is certainly known that each person has a learning style .There are numberless kinds of styles but among the most researched styles, there are fielddependence and field-independence. The field dependent individual’s perception is strongly dominated by the prevailing field. They are likely to use the structure or organization of the provided field.Field dependent individuals are drawn to people and liked to be with people(Kroutter,ND).Kroutter also mentioned that ‘Field independent individuals perceive items as more or less separate from the surrounding field.They are more likely to overcome the organization of the field or restructure it, when presented with a field having a dominant organization.Moreover Hall stated that Field-independent learners have been referred to as “analytical, competitive, individualistic, task oriented, internally referent, intrinsically motivated, hypothesis testing, selfstructuring and visually perceptive” (Hall, 2000, p. 5).Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation. Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of how people think, behave, and feel (Bandura, 1994).In this paper,there will be literature review to grasp the topic deeply.Then,steps of developing methodology are given.Later, the data collection and the analysis of the data are discussed.The purpose of this research is to find whether there is a relationship between field-dependent (FD) and field independent (FI) learners’ self-efficacy.In this research there will be a questionnaire which helps the researcher to find the learners whether they are field dependent or field independent learners.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2013
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
PE English
-
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
3579
Title
A name given to the resource
Vernacular Language Variety in B&H
Author
Author
Salihovic, Dženan
Akbarov, Azamat
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The aim of this paper is to provide the reader with better insight of the vernacular L variety of language in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The paper will try to give some key points on the diglossia and how the diglossic community functions in the different social situations in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Furthermore, paper will try to give some answers on pragmatics, language history, prestige and codification of vernacular variety in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2013
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
PE English
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/59c9823da975fb53ae11ae2cc8920a81.doc
1c780fa7c52830efe1ce4ee465a92c08
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/881476215f9fd7cc2c7552c43f0fff52.pdf
116e8999353967964e4bb12a50305604
PDF Text
Text
1st International Annual Student Symposium
raising constructions of Bulgarian (2009). The aim is to test whether possessor
raising constructions exist in Bosnian and to show how the data from
Bulgarian can be applied to Bosnian, another Slavic language.
The paper first gives an outline of some preliminary facts about the syntax of
Bosnian nominal phrases (noun phrases – NPs or determiner phrases – DPs)
and its (possessive) clitics, which are well-known to occupy the second
position in the clause. The second part of the paper aims to present the nature
of possessor rising as it applies to Bosnian. Although English does not exhibit
instances of true possessor rising, there will be some, though limited,
comparisons between Bosnian and English in this respect. Parallels will also be
drawn between Bulgarian and Bosnian. The final section of the paper offers a
conclusion and a unified account of the phenomenon of possessor rising in
Bosnian. The analysis of possessor rising in Bosnian is done in the framework
of generative grammar.
The differences and similarities between English and German language at
the basic level of translation
Dina Sofović
International Burch University / Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Key words: differences and similarities, Indo-European language family, Loaned
words, linguistics
ABSTRACT
I have aimed to concentrate on the comparative analysis between English and
German language and to investigate the differences and similarities concerning
the major word formation processes in English and German at the basic level
in this paper. Similarity between the two languages stems from the fact that
much vocabulary has common roots, as they, English and German, belong to
28 |
�BOOK OF ABSTRACTS
the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. They are both
Germanic, even though each has borrowed many words from Latin, French
and Greek, that means that many common words are similar in both
languages, for example: house/Haus, man/Mann, here/Hier and good/gut, and
even some words are identical for example: Hand, Arm, Sand and Finger.
Modern English has evolved into one of the dominant world languages, and it
also had a growing influence on other languages. Loaned words cover different
fields such as popular culture, politics, business and the environment, because
of profound changes in the life and language, the influence of English
language worldwide and that many expressions from English appear as loan
words. According to Garrod and Sanford definition of a specific
communicative task such as a description or instruction, the information to be
expressed is not mapped directly from memory into linguistic form. Hence,
speakers generate a temporary conceptual structure which focuses on a specific
set of pragmatics, semantic, and syntactic options and sets guidelines for the
process of mapping information into linguistic form. Translation is often
thought to be primarily about words and their meanings, what the words in
the source text mean, and how words in the target language will convey
meaning. Recent linguistics research has not yet been able to come up with the
actual percentage of Anglicism in German language.
Loanword and its usage
Adela Hasanic
International Burch University / Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
ABSTRACT
In this paper my aim is to explain the use of loanwords as well as their
prevalence in most languages. For foreign language learners understanding the
foreign or second language is much easier if it contains similarities with native
language.
| 29
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
1443
Title
A name given to the resource
The differences and similarities between English and German language at the basic level of translation
Author
Author
SOFOVIC, Dina
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
I have aimed to concentrate on the comparative analysis between English and German language and to investigate the differences and similarities concerning the major word formation processes in English and German at the basic level in this paper. Similarity between the two languages stems from the fact that much vocabulary has common roots, as they, English and German, belong to the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. They are both Germanic, even though each has borrowed many words from Latin, French and Greek, that means that many common words are similar in both languages, for example: house/Haus, man/Mann, here/Hier and good/gut, and even some words are identical for example: Hand, Arm, Sand and Finger. Modern English has evolved into one of the dominant world languages, and it also had a growing influence on other languages. Loaned words cover different fields such as popular culture, politics, business and the environment, because of profound changes in the life and language, the influence of English language worldwide and that many expressions from English appear as loan words. According to Garrod and Sanford definition of a specific communicative task such as a description or instruction, the information to be expressed is not mapped directly from memory into linguistic form. Hence, speakers generate a temporary conceptual structure which focuses on a specific set of pragmatics, semantic, and syntactic options and sets guidelines for the process of mapping information into linguistic form. Translation is often thought to be primarily about words and their meanings, what the words in the source text mean, and how words in the target language will convey meaning. Recent linguistics research has not yet been able to come up with the actual percentage of Anglicism in German language.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2013
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
PE English
-
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
3582
Title
A name given to the resource
Abbreviations and Acronims between Language and Orthography
Author
Author
Ramadanović, Ermina
Kovačević, Barbara
Jozić, Željko
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The fast way of life necessarily has repercussions on all aspects of life, including the language, and then, indirectly, the letter. It is understandable that the authors of various texts in print media are trying to save time and space. Therefore, a significant increase of shortening words is evident. Abbreviations and acronims are caused by shortening words or by omitting some letters. There are two types of shortening words: abbreviations, that arise by taking the first letter or the first few letters of one word, and acronyms, that are formed from multiword lexem by taking initial letters or groups of letters. The paper reexamines the descriptions and definitions of abbreviations and acronims in Croatian ortography manuals and reshearches their word formation, morphology, sintactic rules, taking under consideration their lexical status in dictionaries. The research is based on a corpora of Croatian ortography manuals, Croatian monolingual dictionaries and electronic corpus Croatian Language Repository of Institute of Croatian language and linguistics.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2013
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
PE English
-
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
3571
Title
A name given to the resource
Formal and Functional Explanations: New Perspective on an Old Debate
Author
Author
ROBERTS, Ian
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
As discussed by Newmeyer (1998), the debate between “formal” and “functional” approaches to explanation in linguistics has a long pedigree, and in some respects the two perspectives may seem almost irreconcilable. Here I suggest that, taking seriously certain aspects of Chomsky’s Minimalist Programme and, in particular, building on ongoing work proposing non-UGspecified, emergent parameter hierarchies (Roberts 2011, and work collected at http://www.mml.cam.ac.uk/dtal/research/recos), it becomes apparent that the old dichotomy is a false one. There is a small, irreducible formal core to Universal Grammar (Merge and a schema for formal features) which interfaces with aspects of cognition which are related to the functional aspects of language (expression/communication of thought and action). Both aspects of this “broad” design of language are required in order to account for almost any linguistic phenomenon of interest, and so the old debate dissolves simply into the question of which aspect of the overall design (form or function) is of most immediate interest for researcher; no real issue of substance hinges on the issue. I will illustrate this by arguing, following Biberauer, Holmberg, Sheehan & Roberts (2009) and Biberauer, Roberts & Sheehan (2013) that this kind of approach to cross-linguistic variation offers a suitably restrictive theory of the nature and limits of syntactic variation. My focus is one aspect of the proposed parametric hierarchies, the so-called Mafioso Effect by which certain formal parametric options are simply ‘irresistible’ for broadly functional reasons.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2013
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
PE English
-
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
3577
Title
A name given to the resource
It's a Wiki World: Collaboration in Translator Training
Author
Author
Pisanski Peterlin, Agnes
Hirci, Nataša
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In many traditional types of translator training, there is a strong focus on individual work undertaken by trainee translators, while pair work and group work is used less extensively. Such a focus may, to some extent, reflect the contemporary Western perception of translation as a solitary activity, with a single translator working individually, isolated from the rest of the world. This perception, however, is oversimplified since translation often involves some type of collaboration, such as the translator collaborating with an editor, a copyeditor, the client or a disciplinary expert. In addition, some of the emerging trends in translation in the digital age are collaborative in their nature (e.g. crowdsourcing). It seems therefore that collaboration is an aspect of translation that needs to be addressed more carefully in translator training. The present paper reports on a study focusing on collaboration in a translation course. The goal of the study was to examine the types of collaboration that trainee translators use when they are presented with a collaborative assignment. In the study, trainee translators were asked to complete two collaborative translation assignments using a wiki, which enables monitoring the degree of participation for each wiki participant. The first assignment encouraged free collaboration in an attempt to mirror informal collaboration that trainee translators resort to occasionally: trainee translators were asked to collaborate in any way they wished. The second assignment was focused on structured collaboration: trainee translators were given detailed guidelines on the types of collaboration expected of them, and on the extent of the contribution they were expected to make. The findings show that the second assignment resulted in more intensive teamwork and promoted more diverse types of collaboration than the first assignment. This suggests that carefully structured collaboration should be given additional attention within the context of translator training.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2013
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
PE English