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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Film Making and Language Learning
Prof. Dr. Visam Mansur
Department of English Language and Literature
Beykent University, Istanbul-Turkey
visammansur@gmail.com
Abstract: Theodosakos in The Director in the Classroom: How Filmmaking
Inspires Learning argues that filmmaking ―enables students to explore any
curriculum subject through the active process of making a film about it‖ (p.
30). Furthermore, while Simkins (2007), David Nunan (2004), emphasize the
tendency to teach language through group based projects, Joyce, etal (2000)
establish the essentiality of such group based projects on developing and
enhancing communication skills. In my paper I will examine the impact of film
making activities on English Language learning in classes of mine over a
period of few years where most students were hesitant to produce language
effectively at the onset of the course. The paper will view the cons and pros of
film making activities with emphasis on the potential advantages it carries for
the leaner in terms of enhancing learner‘s pronunciation, vocabulary
acquisition, awareness of language structures and sound language production.
Key Words: Language acquisition, cinema, scriptwriting
Introduction
The best possible kind of input required for language acquisition and learning has been at the
center of arguments and research by so many scholars (Krashen, 1987; Pinker 1994; Morgan 1986;
Ingram 1989). For instance Stephen Krashen proposes that language "Acquisition requires meaningful
interaction in the target language." (1987: 6) Krashen maintains further that "The best methods are
therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in low anxiety situation." (1988: 7)
Most educators would agree that the following input items enhance both acquisition and
learning:
Input should be comprehensible introduced with simple vocabulary and clear
instructions in standard language
Input should be interesting
Such optimal input helps reduce the so called ―Affective Filter‖ and enhance students‘ ability
at language acquisition and production. Krashen maintains ―Low motivation, low self-esteem, and
debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents
comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes
language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for
acquisition to take place.‖ (1988: 68)
Film Making
The term sounds daunting and interesting at the same time. Daunting because it requires well
prepared teachers and students willing to take the challenge involved in such an activity. Interesting
because it involves plenty of what is needed to learn and produce language in new environments:
collaborativity (teamwork), creativity, art, performance and multimedia usage.
My story with teaching English via movie making started few years ago in a beginner‘s class
in the English department where I was working then. I observed that students were timid and reluctant
to produce English language effectively as they were conscious of the processes of both acquisition and
production. What strikes me about the class is the fact that most of the students were well versed in a
very passive way of the language structure. They all know in theory the various verb forms; they know
the basic sentence structure and know well about the various irregularities that come up with English.
The problem we faced in the class was that students would not talk in English and when they do so
they do it horribly with the basic structural rules violated.
It was then that I decided to resort to the old-new method of using drama in teaching to
simulate a somewhat natural atmosphere for language acquisition and production. In order to make the
activity as natural and spontaneous as possible, I introduced students first to computer software that
helps generate a screen script and guide the students step by step to generate characters‘ descriptions
and needed objects‘ details.
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The software I chose for this task is called CELTX. It is easily available for download online
and is usually offered for free. Introducing the students to the software is not that difficult for both
teacher and student. Furthermore, the activity of introducing the students to the software constitutes a
natural environment for enhancing students‘ acquisition of program related jargon and helping a lot in
lowering the so called affective filter that inhibits language learning and production.
Key Features of CELTX
The software is neither made for English language teaching nor for teaching creative writing.
What it does is simply to guide the students, help organize the student‘s ideas and help leading the
students to include what is needed for a script in a very natural and stimulating environment.
For instance as the students begin to write, the software makes them aware of six basic
elements needed for the script: Scene Heading, Action, Character, Dialogue, Parenthetical, Transition,
It is observed that these elements in the program create the control environment needed by the learners
to help them start and finish their scripts. These also function as subtle and constant instructor
reminding the students and guiding them to accomplish their desired task in the standard format
without them having to waste time thinking of the structure of the script. In this respect the software
spares the students the time needed for structuring the activity in favor of focusing on the creative and
linguistic sides of the activity.
As a professional teacher whose aim is to instruct and lead his students to learning rather than
drilling those in the conventional manner CEKTX through its modules that explore in details aspects of
character and objects included in the script helps students generate the language needed to fulfill the
requirements of their scripts using the maximum language they can afford. The Character Module for
instance requires that the students describe a given character in the following terms: Name, Actor,
Description, Media (image), Age, Hair, Eyes, Height, Weight, Distinguishing Features, Key Character
Traits, Principal Function, Goal, Plan to Achieve Goal, Family Background, Habits, Vices, Education,
Personality, Likes, and Dislikes. Another module that guides the students to detail the Scene Heading
requires students to generate text describing the scene under the following headings: Description, the
central event of the scene, the effect of the event on the plot, the characters in the scene, the setting of
the scene, time of the scene, the mood of the scene, the protagonist, the antagonist, the goal of the
protagonist, the goal of the antagonist, the way the antagonist achieves her goal, the way the
protagonist achieves her goal.
In short such modules by breaking down the process of perceiving a scene, character, or event
into its multiple components help the language learners approach a full scene step at a time, thus
making language production easier and systematic.
Scenario Writing
Theodosakos in The Director in the Classroom: How Filmmaking Inspires Learning argues
that filmmaking ―enables students to explore any curriculum subject through the active process of
making a film about it‖ (2009:30). As far as language learning is concerned, the first step to film
making lies in writing its script. Making a film involves creating it from an idea and turning the idea
into a producible script. The students are given CELTX and are asked to generate a short script made of
as many scenes needed to tell a simple story. As the students already learnt while experimenting with
the software that the basic components of a script are the scene heading, the action, the character and
the dialogue; each proceeds in generating a script in accordance with the dictates of the software and
the student‘s creative imagination.
It is observed that students receive the activity of creating a script with some reluctance and
fears of failing their teacher and themselves. But like all activities that require multitasking and
collaborative presence, teacher‘s proper instructions and constant encouragement dispel students‘
misgivings and before the elapse of the first few weeks in the course the students get really indulged in
the activity and begin to enjoy it.
The role of the teacher at this junction is to keep checking students‘ projects and provide
feedback in terms of suggestions and language corrections when needed. Also students are encouraged
to edit each others projects as it is a wise practice to split the class into several groups of fives or sixes
as such groups will have to relay on each other when they move from the individual process of writing
scripts to managing and filming them.
Camera and Collaborative Learning
While Simkins (2007), David Nunan (2004), emphasize the tendency among educators to
teach language through group based projects; Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun (2000) establish the
essentiality of such group based projects on developing and enhancing communication skills. Such
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findings come true when students engage each other in performing their and each others scripts. This
part of the activity engages the two basic skills of filming , and language acquisition and production as
the students practice:
what they learnt about simple filming techniques and camera angles
language as they memorize/improvise and act their roles in English
language while negotiating with their partners in the processes of writing,
editing, producing and filming
Once the scripts are written and activities are shared among students involved, the teacher
encourages students to read about the basic techniques of camera shots and angles. It is preferable that
teachers point their students to simple texts in English that elaborate on such activities to make sure
that the students acquire additional jargon related to camera and its manipulation in filming. Terms
such as long shot, establishing shot, medium shot and close up shot among several others will keep
recurring all the time and will become part of the jargon of the students.
In short filming as a multitasked activity provides learners with motivation, self-confidence,
low level of anxiety and contributes more effectively to language acquisition, retention and production.
Computer Editing
To make the film aesthetically presentable it needs editing by computer software. The market
is saturated with such movie editing programs, the simplest and most accessible among which is
Windows Movie Maker. This software is part of Windows with the exception of Windows 7 and can be
downloaded for free form Microsoft Windows site if not available on one‘s computer.
By asking the students to familiarize themselves with the software before coming to edit their
films students will find themselves again learning a computer skill and language, too. Going through
the help files and accessing various additional e-files on how to run and use the program act as a
language teacher in quite a natural condition. The internet is replete with sites like You Tube and Ehow that show help videos in English on almost any conceivable topic.
Such editing programs enable students to add the various shots taken earlier in order or at
random and place them in the time sequence they should be in. The program enables the student to edit
and cut unwanted scenes, add and delete music and sound effects and furthermore add titles, captions
and subtitles.
By asking the students to include as many effects as the program and the capacity of the
students‘ permit, the students are likely to get more engaged in the film, its language and its metalanguage in real and natural environment. After all Krashen rightly maintains that ―language
acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious
drill.‖ (1987:6)
Conclusion
A lot has been said about the effectiveness of media and multimedia in language acquisition
and learning. While Clark (1983) contends that there is little or no evidence to show the positive effects
of multimedia on language acquisition and production, educators such as Liu (1995), Johnston (1995),
Borras (1994), Garza (1991), Vanderplank (1988), Salomon (1979) among others accentuated the
various functionality of multimedia in helping learners cope with language learning and language
production. Though most of those educators worked on the effect of watching films with or without
subtitling in the target language, very little has been said on the advantages of utilizing film making
and script editing software in enhancing language acquisition and production. Theodosakos (2009), for
instance, advocated the potentiality of teaching any subject matter in the curricula via simulating film
making and direction in the classroom. The over all observation of educators and language teachers
who wrote on collaborative learning is that film and multimedia usage in the language classroom show
increased percentage of language acquisition and production in comparison to classroom practices
where conventional methods persisted in teaching.
My empirical observations over the years showed me reluctant and timid students with poor
performance records in previous courses and classes taught in less interactive ways produce promising
scripts coupled with eloquent and impressing dialogues and performances. Naturally, for the activity to
yield effective results, it always requires a dedicated student equipped with perseverance and desire to
learn. From my observation, the activities of script writing, filming, and film editing have always
triggered the learner‘s desire for language acquisition and production.
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References
Borras, I. and Lafayette, R. (1994). Effects of multimedia courseware subtitling in the speaking
performance of college students of French. The Modern Language Journal ,78 (1): 61-75.
Clark, R. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research, 53
(4): 445-59.
Garza, T. (1991). Evaluating the use of captioned video materials in advanced foreign language
learning. Foreign Language Annals, 24, 239-48.
Ingram., D. (1989). First language acquisition: Method, description, and explanation, New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Johnston, J. and Milne, L. (1995). Scaffolding second language communicative discourse with teachercontrolled multimedia. Foreign Language Annals, 28 (3): 315-29.
Joyce, B. etal. (2000) Models of teaching, New York: Plenum Press.
Krashen, D. (1987). Principles and practice in second language acquisition, London: Prentice-Hall
International.
Krashen, D. (1988). Second language acquisition and second language learning, London: Prentice-Hall
International.
Liu, M. and Reed, W. (1995). The effect of hypermedia assisted instruction on second language
learning. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 12 (2): 159-75.
Morgan, L. (1986). From simple input to complex grammar, Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books/MIT
Press.
Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct, New York: Morrow.
Salomon, G. (1979). Interaction of media, cognition and learning, Washington, DC: Jossey-Bass.
Simkins, S. (2007). Encouragıng faculty involvement in the scholarship o teaching and learning. A
cademic Leader, 23 (6):1-26
Theodosakos, N. (2009). The director in the classroom: How filmmaking inspires learning, Penticton:
Tech4learning Publishing.
Vanderplank, R. (1988). The value of teletext sub-titles in language learning. English Language
Teaching Journal, 42 (4): 272-81.
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Film Making and Language Learning
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Abstract
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Theodosakos in The Director in the Classroom: How Filmmaking Inspires Learning argues that filmmaking ―enables students to explore any curriculum subject through the active process of making a film about it‖ (p. 30). Furthermore, while Simkins (2007), David Nunan (2004), emphasize the tendency to teach language through group based projects, Joyce, etal (2000) establish the essentiality of such group based projects on developing and enhancing communication skills. In my paper I will examine the impact of film making activities on English Language learning in classes of mine over a period of few years where most students were hesitant to produce language effectively at the onset of the course. The paper will view the cons and pros of film making activities with emphasis on the potential advantages it carries for the leaner in terms of enhancing learner‘s pronunciation, vocabulary acquisition, awareness of language structures and sound language production.
Date
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P Philology. Linguistics
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Culture-focused learning in the EFL classroom: Materials and approaches
Janet M.D. Higgins
Okinawa University, Japan
jmdth@yahoo.com
Abstract: In this presentation, I introduce approaches and materials that I have developed
with university students studying English as a foreign language in Okinawa Prefecture,
Japan, to focus on cultural diversity and regional identity.
Okinawa is the southernmost Prefecture in Japan. It has a rich cultural tradition that was at
its height in the ‗Golden Age‘ of the 15th century. One of my teaching goals is to help
students identify the special features of this living heritage and to be able to talk about and
explain them to visitors in English. Since we clearly learn about our own culture through
contrasting it with others, my materials are also multicultural. Several sets of materials
are introduced:
Using the vehicle of The Guided Walk to identify, research, and make presentations about
local cultural artifacts. This includes students assuming the role of tour guide.
Looking at what artifacts we can find on the streets in cities outside Japan.
Examples from a government funded CALL project in which our team is compiling
regional-focused lexical materials in a visual dictionary.
Key words: culture-focused learning materials, Okinawa, visual multilingual dictionary
1. Background
In this presentation, I introduce approaches and materials that I have developed with university students
studying English as a foreign language in Okinawa Prefecture, Japan, to focus on cultural diversity and regional
identity.
Okinawa is the southernmost prefecture in Japan. It has a rich cultural tradition that was at its height in
the ‗Golden Age‘ of the 15th century. It was incorporated into Japan from the 17th century. Although sharing
many aspects of mainstream Japanese culture, it still retains many treasures from its earlier identity. It also has a
local language/dialect, but this is disappearing. One of my teaching goals is to help students identify the special
features of this living heritage and to be able to talk about and explain them to visitors in English, or to introduce
them to people they meet when travelling abroad.
The language level of course participants is mixed. They range from 2 - 4th year students with a variety
of language experience. Some have spent one year studying abroad in an English speaking country, some are
overseas students, and some have limited knowledge.
The activities and materials I have chosen to introduce are two closely related practical projects which
involve fieldwork and student presentations, and a multilingual, multimodal CALL dictionary project being
developed at Okinawa University by our 3-person team and funded by the Japanese Ministry of Education. For
the first two, I will explain the activities, and give examples of students‘ work. For the third, I will give several
examples of the materials.
2. Activities
Of the two activities I will introduce, the second, The Guided Walk, is the most complex and was
developed first. The first, Street Life, was the result of my interest in photography and travel, and specifically
developed as a result of a conference trip I made in 2010. I wanted to share my impressions of the city of
Granada in Spain with my students, and searched for a vehicle that would also be a teaching and learning
opportunity. I subsequently found that what I had developed complemented The Guided Walk in a very useful
way.
2.1 Street life
Born then out of working with the photos I brought back from Granada, the Street Life activity can be
conceptualized as a simple but effective way of reflecting on what cultural artifacts are, and recognizing the
distinctiveness of one‘s own cultural artifacts through comparisons with those of other cultures.
We grow up seeing the world around us as the way the world ‗is‘. Exposure through media to other
cultures does not necessarily change our view that ‗our cultural world‘ is ‗the norm‘, and that the others are
‗strange‘, or at least not the norm. We take for granted the cultural artifacts we live among and with which we
operate. By artifacts, I refer to objects, living and non-living, with which we cohabit, as well as ways of acting. It
can often be difficult to recognize what these artifacts are because we are so familiar with them. It may also be
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the case that interpretations of them are imposed on us by authority figures, political and social institutions, and
so forth.
One way of stepping back and discerning the artifacts with which we are so familiar and which create
our cultural world, is to look at those of other cultures. I chose Granada because of its place in the history of
Christian and Muslim interactions in Spain. My students have little familiarity with European life and
institutions and even less with those of the Muslim world. I chose photos of things that were unfamiliar and
things that were familiar but different. While focusing on artifacts and what we can find in the streets, we might
think that we are dealing with superficialities. However, what may appear superficial may have a much deeper
significance, and it such a level that I hope to reach.
Let me introduce examples from the PowerPoint presentation I created for this activity. It begins with
photos of the narrow streets of the old Moorish town and the wide streets of the new European town developed
by the Christian monarchs. We then look at what we can find on the streets, (Figures 1 and 2), and students try to
work out what each photo shows.
Figure 1
What is the purpose of this? ….. And this?
Students recognized the function of the doorknocker in Figure 1, but several of them found the hand
eerie and they were very uncomfortable with the idea of using it.
Figure 2
What are these?
And this?
I was particularly interested in the right hand photo of the street light in Figure 2. Its shape reflects the
mocarabes decorating the niches and arches of many of the rooms in the Alhambra. But what do mocarabes
represent? We talked about this in class.
The next stage of the activity is for the students to choose one of the photos, explain the artifact, and
find an Okinawan equivalent or related example. Figure 3 shows the work of one student. He explained the
significance of the design of the light, found an interesting street light in Okinawa and told us the significance of
the design. Although we needed to expand this further by explaining why this traditional hat is shaped in this
way and with these specific colours, this piece of work shows the type of thought, research, and skills that I am
hoping to encourage and foster.
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Figure 3
Street Light by E-san
The street light in Granada has an interesting shape. It has a long story. Mohammed,
who wrote down in the Koran the message he received from God, hid in a cave to
escape his enemies. When he was hiding, a spider‘s web covered the entrance to the
cave and saved him. That street light‘s motif is taken from the stalactite shapes in
the interior of the cave.
I found interesting street lights in Shin-toshin in Naha. The shape is the Hana-gasa
which is Okinawa‘s traditional hat.
In describing the objects in the photos, students have to grapple with the language used for describing
physical attributes, functions, and significance. This is good training for The Guided Walk activity.
2.2 The Guided Walk
The Guided Walk is a well respected and popular leisure activity. It is not only attractive to tourists, but is a
regular event in many local communities. My version of the Walk consists of a progression of tasks which focus
on the language used to lead a Guided Walk, and involves learning and practising how to describe and explain
cultural artifacts.
2.2.1 Descriptive Language
Since the language level of the course participants is often low, I provide content prompts, example
expressions, and model descriptions for items such as buildings, local flora, local food, local restaurants, a local
activity or job. We intersperse work on descriptive language with the other activities.
Figure 4 An example of content prompts
Describing a building
its name in Japanese and /or Uchinaguchi; the meaning/translation of this in
English
its purpose
its age
what it is built of
other
* Uchinaguchi is local Okinawan dialect
2.2.2 Fieldwork 1
Figure 5 is an excerpt from one the worksheets we use. The map delimits the area we investigate. In
this case it is a small community close to the university. The students are divided into groups and asked to walk
around the area searching out things that they feel are typical of Okinawa or the area, or that they think visitors
will be interested in. They are asked to take photos of them, both close up and in their natural surroundings.
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Figure 5
2.2.3 Post-field work 1
Each group works on descriptions of their artifacts and designs a Guided Walk round the area.
2.2.4 Guiding language
We study expressions we can use for different stages of the Guided Walk. These include: explaining
our tour goal, beginning the tour and getting visitors attention; pointing out features as we walk; asking questions
of the group; answering questions of the group; ending the tour.
2.2.5 Field work 2
The members of each group take turns using the guiding language and escorting us round the area.
Other group members are encouraged to answer questions. Figure 6 provides some examples of what the
students said on one Walk.
Figure 6 Scripts of the guides in action (revised)
1. This is an old house in the Okinawan style. If you look at the roof, you will see two things like lions.
They are called "shisa" in the Okinawan local language. If you look carefully at the ―shisa" you will find
they are different. The mouth is open for the male on the left, and the mouth is closed for the female on
the right.
Q: Does anyone know why they are different?
A: The mouth of the male is open so that he can make evil spirits leave. The mouth of the female is
closed so that she can keep the good things of the family.
[X-san]
2. If you look on the right, you‘ll see an old Okinawa style roof. It is called "Akagawara" which means
"red roof".
Next, on the left, you'll see a big tree. It's a "Gajimaru"or banyan. It is a very famous tree in Okinawa
because a fairy called "Kjimunaa" lives in this tree according to Okinawan legend.
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[K-san]
3. Ladies and Gentleman, please look over here. This is ―utaki‖ in the local Okinawan language. People
believe that the god of the area lives here. They come here to pray for their safety.
[S-san]
2.2.6 Presentations
Each group works together to create a PowerPoint presentation of their Guided Walk. It contains the
photos they took during fieldwork and their descriptions. This activity simulates the actual Walks. Sometimes
the weather or time does not permit us to complete field work 2. As they show their PowerPoints, group
members point the route out on the area map and use guiding language. Figure 7 shows students working
together on their presentations, and Figure 8 shows a moment during a presentation.
Figure 7
Figure 8
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3. A multilingual, multimodal culture-focused dictionary project
For the last 5 years, two colleagues and I have been working on a Japanese Ministry of Education funded project
to create multilingual and multicultural lexical resources for our students. The need was felt by the English, Chinese
and Japanese language teachers at the university for lexical materials that would focus on Okinawan cultural
artifacts. Our textbooks and dictionaries are sadly lacking in such materials. For instance, the English language
textbooks and dictionaries available are British and American English based. They do not provide help to students
who want to talk about and explain their Okinawan life experiences. Our goal was to create a series of units in which
we could introduce locally appropriate lexical items.
Each item is presented in English, Chinese and Japanese, in written and spoken form, and is illustrated by a
photograph or short video. We have tried to use videos for actions (verbs) and photos for objects (nouns). Figure 9 is
of a screen showing a dictionary entry. On the right are the languages in which students can choose to see or listen to
the item. On the left is the menu for the unit. They can click to move between subsections
Figure 9
In addition to an item itself, we have created a number of short example sentences that show the use of the
item in a natural content. This allows us, for example in English, to show a noun being used in the indefinite, definite
or plural forms, with the appropriate articles. Verbs are used in various tenses and forms. We also have a cultural
note section for many items in which we explain cultural points that are specific to the different language users.
These sections are therefore different for the three language versions.
The organization of the units varies according to the topic. Our units on Arriving at and Departing from
Naha Airport, contain both object focused sections (souvenirs, airport amenities) and process focused sections
(checking in, going through immigration). Learning activities include recognizing and using the items in short
conversations, and using the items in sequences. Figure 9 shows a dictation exercise.
Figure 10
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Our unit on the Tsuboya Pottery district of Naha is more complex. The items are first introduced in related
topic sets and collected in photo galleries. They are then used in various activities. One for example is learning about
the pottery making process. Another is interviewing a local potter and a local architect. Another is acting as a tour
guide to the district. We intend the materials to be used for self-study and in the classroom. We would like the items
to be used in extended conversations, in the preparation of speeches, interviews, and guided tours. More details
about this project can be found in my poster presentation at this conference.
4. Final comments
The three sets of materials I have introduced in this presentation are all aimed at encouraging and enabling
students to observe, explain, share, and value their local culture and identities as they challenge themselves to
communicate in English In their various ways, the materials and the methodology are designed to stimulate students
by providing interesting authentic and semi-authentic learning opportunities.
5. References
Higgins, J.M.D. (2009) Sharing our culture with visitors: English for Tour Guides. In
Eds. Dantas-Whitney, M. & Rilling, S., Authenticity in the Adult Classroom.
TESOL Classroom Practice Series. p.19-27. Virginia: TESOL.
Higgins, J.M.D. (2007) Developing regional culture-oriented lexical resources for language learners. In,
Department of Applied English, Ming Chuan University
(Ed.), The Proceedings of 2007 International Conference and Workshop on TEFL
and Applied Linguistics, p. 165-173. Taiwan: Crane Publishing.
6. Acknowledgements
The dictionary project is supported by MEXT research awards 18520471 and 70235802 (2006-08, 2008-11).
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Title
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Culture-focused learning in the EFL classroom: Materials and approaches
Author
Author
Higgins, Janet M.D.
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In this presentation, I introduce approaches and materials that I have developed with university students studying English as a foreign language in Okinawa Prefecture, Japan, to focus on cultural diversity and regional identity. Okinawa is the southernmost Prefecture in Japan. It has a rich cultural tradition that was at its height in the ‗Golden Age‘ of the 15th century. One of my teaching goals is to help students identify the special features of this living heritage and to be able to talk about and explain them to visitors in English. Since we clearly learn about our own culture through contrasting it with others, my materials are also multicultural. Several sets of materials are introduced: Using the vehicle of The Guided Walk to identify, research, and make presentations about local cultural artifacts. This includes students assuming the role of tour guide. Looking at what artifacts we can find on the streets in cities outside Japan. Examples from a government funded CALL project in which our team is compiling regional-focused lexical materials in a visual dictionary.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f4fd38a293f086da6350b6c8efc5aeda.pdf
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Women Poets in Romanticism
Alma Ţero
English Department, Faculty of Philosophy
University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
alma.zero@gmail.com
Abstract: In Bosnia, modern university literary courses usually do not even include Romantic
women poets into their syllabuses, which is a huge shortcoming for every student interested in
gender studies as such. That is why this paper focuses on the Romantic Era 1790s-1840s and
those women who had broken out of their prisons and into the literary world of poetry. Many
events, such as the French Revolution, political and social turbulences in Britain, rising
female reading audiences, and public coteries have influenced the scope of women poets‘
development and reach. Due to great tensions, male and female Romantic poetry progressed
in two contrary currents with opposite ideas regarding many a problem and issue. However,
almost every Romantic artist at that time produced works of approval regarding social
reforms. Women continued writing, which gained them greater acknowledgment and
economic success after all. Poets such as Charlotte Smith and Anna Barbauld were true
Romantic representatives of female poets and this is why we shall mostly focus on specific
display of their poetic works, language, and lives.
Key Words: Romantic poetry, Women poets, Charlotte Smith, Anna Barbauld
Introduction
The canon of British Romantic writing has traditionally been focused on the main male representatives
of the era, which highly contributed to the distortion of our understanding of its literary culture. In order to reveal
a different Romanticism from the one depicted in earlier histories of British literature, one has to bear in mind
both the sex of the author and the overall ideology of that time regarding gender. The period of history that has
become associated with ―Romanticism‖ in English literature was a dynamic and decisive one. Apart from the
―political‖ revolutions in France and America, the ―social‖ upheaval of the Industrial Revolution was having
significant effect, leading to a shift in attitude towards Nature, a renewed belief in Nature and the link with God,
as well as a rising female contribution in arts. Although theoretically, women were supposed to be incapable of
experiencing, embodying, or articulating their emotions and thoughts, more women were writing poetry in the
Romantic period than ever before, and they did not want to be perceived only as female/women writers but as
women who contributed to the mainstream of that time.
The canonical representatives of Romanticism are usually referred to as the Big Six, and include
William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord George Gordon Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats,
and later William Blake; not involving a single female poet until recently. Modern critics purposely started to
refer to the main female Romantic representatives as the Big Six as well, thus equalizing their statuses in
seemingly every possible way. This may seem to be a huge progress in the general overview of female literary
successes, but what we usually ignore is the still undermining equal but separate doctrine, which on the surface
equals female to male literature but deep down separates them, never truly erasing the gender-line and thus never
actually joining them into a single classification of the main male and female representatives of the Romantic
literary era. The female poets mostly referred to as the Big Six are Anna Barbauld, Charlotte Smith, Mary
Robinson, Hannah More, Anna Seward, and Helen Maria Williams; of which the first two we are going to
elaborate on further in the paper. Since, although having as much differences as similarities, Smith and Barbauld
are still true representatives of the ―missing [female] link‖ in the history of Romanticism.
Nevertheless, it was still a long way to go for female writers of all genres in such a defined male world
with so many headstrong ―men of letters‖. The whole sexual ideology of that time was particularly oppressive,
containing women, as Virginia Woolf later noted even in the 20th century, to the ―Private House‖, with all its
deprivations and discontents. And yet, this position of ―the angel of the hose‖ was also especially inspiring, and
triggered some of the richest productions of the female imagination. Some of the most important historical
events too strongly influenced the rise of a literary landscape dominated by women intellectuals, events such as
the Napoleonic Wars, the turbulent political situation, riots and famine, but also smaller ones, such as the
appearance of circulating libraries or the development of the ―bluestockings‖, which lead to a literate female
public, and the development of the woman‘s self and individual approach to poetical works.
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Method of the Study
The paper was accomplished by using the qualitative approach, since the study focuses on a more indepth analysis and understanding of the overall ideology, situation and experiences of women poets in the
Romantic period and not on specific results of an experimental research. The techniques and procedures that we
used are analysis of bibliography, email and internet surveys, as well as observation of students' reaction
regarding the lack of female poets in literary courses. Apart from that, we used the comparative method so as to
gain insight into the opposite positions, as well as similarities of male and female poets during Romanticism.
On top of that, we used theoretical sampling (Glaser and Strauss, 1067) which is defined as the process
of selecting "incidents, slices of life, time periods, or people on the basis of their potential manifestation or
representation of important theoretical constructs" (Patton, 2001). Thus, the lives and works of Charlotte Smith
and Anna Barbauld were used to portray some of the findings regarding the Romantic period and its
characteristics.
Findings and Discussion
Female Readers
In the 1780s British booksellers had started lending books in available libraries, thus for the first time
enabling the literate middle classes (women as well as men) to purchase books. But since the middle and upper
class women seemed to have had more leisure time to read, it is they who became by 1800 the primary market
for works of literature. Most popular women poets published their works in magazines, gift-books, and annuals
read by an ascending female critical mass. One of the main disadvantages of contributing to such literary sources
was the limitation set by ―a circumscribed domain of acceptable literary femininity, writing from the heart about
heart‘s concerns‖ (Gilroy, ―Women Poets 1780-1830‖, Romantic Writings, ed. Bygrave, 1996) which certainly
influenced the quality of writing.
However, the forming of a new (female) reading audience was seen by many male critics and writers as
a cultural threat on several accounts. First, female readers might trivialize literature, which basically
underestimates the intellectual capacity of women and contrasts the general notion about a woman‘s ―vulgar
taste‖ with a (gentle) man‘s highly educated sense for aesthetics. Second, ―female reading was increasingly
regarded as a dangerous recreation‖ (Mellor, 2005) during the Romantic period, to put it in the words of
Jacqueline Pearson who wrote about it in her book Women‘s Reading in Britain 1750-1835 (1999). A dangerous
recreation that could probably lead to increased rationality while exposing women to ―unfeminine‖ new ideas
and forbidden sexual desires. Apart from that, a woman was never to be distracted from her usual domestic
duties, which reading certainly did in the strict eyes of those advocating the whole oppressive sexual ideology of
that time. Third, and perhaps the most important fact is that, since women preferred to read works of general
information written by other women, they, as the leading audience, provided a large market for women writers.
Thus, every female reader supported female writers, consciously or not, which leads us to a cultural and
intellectual phenomenon that we mentioned at the beginning of the paper – the bluestocking circle.
The Bluestocking vs. the Poetess
By the late eighteenth century, there were many circles of learned women supporting and educating
other females in order to improve the general opinion, as well as to come to terms with different occupations
apart from the well-known ―motherly housewife‖. Those educated women were known as the ―bluestockings‖,
which is a reference to informal blue woolen stockings as compared to formal black silk ones. Thus, the
emphasis was greatly put on the informal quality of the gatherings and on conversation over fashion, which was
generally unthinkable of in any female circle until then. Nevertheless, the Bluestocking Society certainly set
itself no intellectual limitations: they debated moral questions, translated the classics, and engaged in influential
literary criticism. It was founded by Elizabeth Montagu, a British literary critic and writer, in the early 1750s,
and it had a huge impact on the works and reception of women poets, since the Society gave emotional and
intellectual support and, what was of even greater importance, an economic one as well. Nevertheless, one of the
main drawbacks for these women was the male portrayal of their disturbing unfeminine existence, which is most
impressively depicted in an essay by the Scottish author and poet George Gilfillan on Felicia Hemans in Tait‘s
Edinburgh Magazine (thus available to any man, woman, or child, imposing its negative connotations and
spreading the ideology).
The bluestocking observed and portrayed in this excerpt is, not only improperly dressed and ―ludicrous‖
(Gilroy, 1996), because she attempts to transcend into spheres not ―proper‖ (Gilroy, 1996) for her, but she is also
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extremely unfeminine. The belittling depiction of her with all the papers (referring to hair curlers, rather than
literary works) and sweat that she spills over her work, for which she obviously does not need a lot of time
(―from morn to noon‖) (Gilroy, 1996) and which is thus not nearly as qualified as literature written by men, puts
a strong emphasis on a woman‘s femininity. Many of the concerns that Gilfillan points out in this mockhumiliating essay of his, were the actual issues early women poets had to fight.
As might be expected in this age, ―the more conservative the viewpoint, the more likelihood that the
writer would be lavishly praised, widely read, and therefore all the more capable of attaining independence‖
(Curran, 2000), independence that women writers eagerly expected. And yet, the more a woman sought
independence, the more she was criticized, and the more a woman tried to submit, the more she was ridiculed.
Gilfillan underlines the importance of propriety of women‘s poetry, her femininity, and her heart, meaning her
psychological and emotional state of mind, not the intellectual and educative one. These characteristics were
widely used to describe the poetess, the woman confining her works to the feminine spheres, the caretaker of
morality and religious responsibility, ―the good housewife of literature‖ (Gilroy, 1996). Those women poets
were not generally perceived as an actual threat to the man‘s spheres of literature, since their writings are
―unstudied‖, as Gilfillan observed, thus highlighting the limits of both female intellectual capacities and
feminine inspiration. The role of the poetess is viewed as simply another role that the housewife takes on while
happily managing the household, and, although bluestockings never agreed with poetesses on several accounts, it
was still publicly ―better‖ for a woman to live up to such expected ideals. Since Felicia Hemans certainly was a
perfect example of a poetess, Gilfillan chose her as the image to emulate for other female poets, what many
actually did, such as Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L.E.L.) or Elizabeth Barrett Browning, who were above all clever
businesswomen as well.
Contrary Currents
The canonical male poets of the Romantic period were concerned with the capacities of creative
imagination, with the development of an autonomous self, capable of transcendental thoughts and quality of life,
and, later in the same period, with the individual approach and critique to social and political institutions, as well
as with revolution as a conceptual idea or practical realization. Although merely an overview of the main issues,
it certainly does help us in underlining the few similarities and many differences between Romantic male and
female poets.
Women poets, such as Charlotte Smith, Anna Barbauld, Mary Robinson, or Hannah More, strongly
defended their position on the use of the, in Wordsworth‘s words, ―language of men‖ (Dizdar, 1999), since, as
they claimed, it was the language that women usually used while concerned with the vernacular, with the
ordinary, i.e. with the quotidian qualities of that time. The very word quotidian basically means ―the daily,
ordinary, common‖ (The Free Dictionary, 2009), and was used as a reference to the daily domestic and social
involvements. Women poets wrote the so called sentimental poems, back then a very fashionable style, on
personal occasions such as the birth of a child and argued that in commenting on the small occurrences of daily
life, they would establish a moral foundation for the nation.
Another difference between the female and male Romantics is their position on, or better to say, their
portrayal of the French Revolution, since both male and female writers never accepted war as a beneficial
solution in general. While men involved themselves into writing elaborate poems and papers on the lost heroic
portrayals of battles and warfare, such as Byron in his ―Childe Harold‘s Pilgrimage‖ (1812-1818) does (―And
Harold stands upon this place of skulls, / The grave of France, the deadly Waterloo!‖) (Dizdar, 1999), women
wrote about its uselessness and the despair in domestic areas, heavily relying on the above mentioned
sentimentalism. They highlighted some of the most important issues that evolved out of the whole turbulent
period, issues that concerned the society as such, but mostly emphasizing the state in which women were forced
to change their minds or states. One of the most vivid depictions is written by Mary Robinson in her remarkable
poem ―Winkfield Plain; or, a Description of a Camp in the Year 1800‖ (1804): ―Drums and trumpets, singing,
firing / Girls seducing, beaux admiring… / Public-houses, booths, and castles… / Perfum‘d, painted, patch‘d,
and blooming / Ladies – manly airs assuming! ... / Dames heart sick of wedded sameness… / All confusion, din,
and riot, / Nothing clean – and nothing quiet. ‖ (Curran, 2000)
Robinson employs to full effect both the feminine rhyme and present participle (―firing‖, ―admiring‖,
―blooming‖, ―assuming‖), a device generally used by her, so that the diversity and the restless energy of this
temporary city (a camp) are strongly suggested. Curran (2000) states that the quotidian is absolute, since
Robinson engaged herself into the ordinary and actual daily lives of lower and upper classes, never posing
categorizations of any kind. She is one of the many women who have written about the place of a woman in
wartime, about her domestic hardships (―public-houses‖, ―heart sick‖, ―wedded sameness‖), as well as about the
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prejudices and judgments she had to face (―manly airs assuming‖) by occupying herself with what were
supposed to be male spheres, including writing poetry (such as she herself did by writing this very poem using
such controversial topics). Apart from the portrayals of wartime situations, men and women poets slightly
contrasted in that the men embraced the call for the overthrow of the British monarchy and the creation of a
democratic republic, such as Shelley did in ―Prometheus Unbound‖ (1820) (―The loathsome mask has fallen, the
man remains/ Sceptreless, free, uncircumscribed, but man/ Equal, unclassed, tribeless, and nationless,/ Exempt
from awe, worship, degree, the king/ Over himself‖) (Dizdar, 1999), while women disagreed on how this social
change is to be achieved. Women poets argued, publicly as well as through their works that a sudden and violent
political revolution takes too many casualties. They thought that a social reform is a process, ―not of revolution
but of gradual evolution, a process that is furthered by educating the populace‖ (Mellor, ―Feminism‖,
Romanticism, ed. Roe, 2005)
In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), Mary Wollstonecraft argued that women were not to
be observed only as passive objects of literary works, since every woman has the capability to think for herself,
as well as to write what she thinks (and not only what she feels); concluding with a demand for improved
education of women. She emphasized the importance of women being educated in the same schools in which
men were educated, and for the same purposes – to legally participate in the nation‘s improvement. Many
women writers insisted on the motherly role that they were given much earlier by their male counterparts,
arguing that they were better suited to rule the nation than men because of these natural instincts to protect and
care for the family (nation in this case). In that way, women started to use the sexual ideology of the time for
their own individual or collective purposes; a true ―act of liberation through, not from, femininity‖ (Curran,
1996). Apart from that, women gain a quite opposite perspective of nature in relation to that of male poets.
While men perceive nature as the source of divine creative power, the power of God (or the universe), the source
of a ―spontaneous overflow of feelings‖, which he speaks for and understands; women poets denounce this
concept of the sublime, the mental empowerment, and see her as Mother Nature, a female friend who provides
support but needs cultivation.
The woman poet either merges with her relational self, as opposite to the autonomous self of the male
Romantic poet, and she focuses on the ways in which that self interacts with her surroundings and the wider
community; or, she retreats into a desolate state of mind, reinforcing the rising cult of sensibility. This very cult
is strongly related to Sentimentalism from the 18th century, which puts an emphasis on feelings and emotions, a
physical appreciation of God, nature, and other people, as well as on the ability to project those thoughts and
ideas onto the reader by evoking sympathy, self-awareness, or sensitivity. The above mentioned relational self is
related to one of the main traits of Sentimentalism itself, thus being an extension on what sentimentalists used to
call the ―sentimental female persona‖, a persona able to connect with others, or herself, and to express her
deepest emotional fears despite consequences of humiliation and failure.
―The Missing Link‖
Charlotte Smith
As the most famous English female poet at the end of the eighteenth century, Charlotte Turner Smith
(1749-1806) encompasses some of the above mentioned most important traits characteristic to, as some critics
named it, the Feminine Romanticism. Her Elegiac Sonnets of 1784 went through ten expanding editions in
fifteen years. It was Smith, and her fellow female poets, who strongly impelled the revival of the sonnet, since
they avoided the form of the epic and mostly wrote sonnets, ballads, or lyrics. These forms enabled them to
express their own feelings and arouse sympathy of their readers, while memorizing an ongoing relationship or
the lack of it, such as did Smith in her own sonnets.
Charlotte Smith vigorously invoked the vernacular, ordinary language, as well as the already mentioned
quotidian values, e.g. in her fantastic world of ―Flora‖ (Beachy Head and Other Poems, 1807): ―The vision
comes…/ Flora descends, to dress the expecting earth,/ Awake the germs, and call the buds to birth;/ Bid each
hybernacle its cell unfold, / And open silken leaves, and eyes of gold! (Smith, ―Flora‖, The Poems of Charlotte
Smith, ed. Curran 1993)
While portraying the quotidian, a simple garden, in terms of a fairyland; Smith certainly uses the typical
poetry of vision which we refer to not always realizing the paradoxical meaning it has. The actual vision does
not have to be the metaphorical poeticizing, but an actual vision in the form of a province, or, as we could see, a
garden. While Smith repeatedly demonstrated her maternal devotion in the first part of her Elegiac Sonnets, in
―Flora‖ she subtly puts an emphasis on the feminine qualities of Flora, the goddess of flowers and the season of
spring in Roman mythology. Flora is a ―vision‖ herself, compelling the reader to imagine an extraordinarily
beautiful woman, a woman that employs herself with a mother‘s daily routine: she dresses the earth and awakes
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the germs like a mother would dress and awake her children in the morning. Flora is at the same time a vision of
fertility, the goddess, the woman giving birth to the buds, evokes life, the renewal of the cycle of life, and thus
highlighting the woman‘s essential role in human reproduction while at the same time underlining the
importance of the feminine touch as in ordinary so in extraordinary spheres of life. Smith‘s hidden message is
related to a woman poet‘s position in her own time; a woman poet‘s potential to open the society‘s ―eyes of
gold‖, of knowledge, independence, respect, and awareness, instead of those shut by judgment and false
ideologies.
As already mentioned, many of the Romantic women poets used the sexual ideology of their time for
their own purposes; Charlotte Smith was no exception. She used her suffering, her concern for her children, and
even the humiliating ―exile‖ husband as poetic inspirations and conveyed her self-pity on paper. In a letter to her
bookseller Thomas Cadell, she writes: ―I cannot but murmur at my fate, which seems the hardest that ever was
endured & the most irremediable‖ (Taylor, 1994). Pity and self-pity turned out to be the major theme that she
ever used in her poetical works, as a source of inspiration, as well as self-advertisement. The already mentioned
rising cult of sensibility gave women a certain feeling of advantage, since emotions were generally related to
femininity, thus, emotion and its projections transformed female writings, which finally lead to some kind of a
―Neo-Sentimentalism‖ and its upholding of empathy and introspection, as in the following poem by Charlotte
Smith.
In ―Sonnet XXXII. To Melancholy. Written on the Banks of the Arun, October 1785‖, Charlotte Smith
explores the limits of the tragic emotion of pity and sadness, but at the same time she smoothly draws on works
of former poets, such as Thomas Gray and Thomas Otway. The speaker‘s somber pensive mood is reflected in
the haunted landscape‘s description, which partly reminds us of mid-eighteenth century ―graveyard school of
poetry‖ and especially of Gray‘s ―Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard‖ (1751) with the melancholic,
vulnerable, and sensitive poetic persona. In that way, Smith displays the quality of sensibility, fashionable for
women poets at that time, and it provides a poetic persona whom the poet herself can identify with. At the end,
Smith once again surprises the reader with her positive use of negative experiences and emotions: ―Oh
Melancholy! such thy magic power,/ That to the soul these dreams are often sweet,/ And soothe the pensive
visionary mind!‖ ((Smith, ―Sonnet XXXII‖)
It is this pensive and sad emotion that the poet draws upon and develops her imagination, and it is this
very state of mind and heart that provides her with the skill to write verses such as the above mentioned. While
relying on these sensible and vulnerable emotions, Smith heavily drew upon her representation as a mother.
Nevertheless, it is not the later commercialized ―moral motherhood‖ of the nineteenth century but one that
concerns itself with the systematic subjugation of women, thus being able to sympathize with the subjugation of
any other person or people.
She displayed vigorous sympathy for the liberation of the French people, that it earned her a good
reputation and reception among the British living in Paris. Her poem ―The Emigrants‖ of 1793 was a dedication
to William Cowper, since she admitted to have used his ―The Task‖ (1785) as her model for the use of ―a poetic
style in which the inner musings of an isolated sensibility, through intertwining strands of association, define an
arena for desultory contemplation and surround it from various directions at once‖ (Curran, 1994). Smith
develops the already mentioned relational self, and corresponds as a solitary figure to the French exiles and their
loss, thus creating her own identity by absorbing their experiences of injustice and despair: ―Still, as Men misled
By early prejudice (so hard to break)/ I mourn your sorrows; for I too have known/ Involuntary exile.‖ (Smith,
―The Emigrants‖)
The very absorption of another person‘s emotion or experience is a typical trait of Sentimentalism,
since the resulting empathy and impact on one‘s own self is the main source of inspiration and self-reflection.
Apart from that, the implications of ―early prejudices, so hard to break‖ are more than apparent if observed in
relation to the oppressive state in which women had to live, where their legal existence was attached to that of
her husband, but even more, where an educated woman‘s hardships to confront male prejudices were socially
neglected. But the main difference between Cowper and Smith is his moralistic tone, which, although she writes
―Learn, that the God thou worshippest, delights/ In acts of pure humanity!‖ (Smith, ―The Emigrants‖), further in
the poem, she praises revolutionary actions by those who fight for their rights and freedom: ―Actions such as
these,/ Like incense rising to the Throne of Heaven,/ Far better justify the pride, that swells/ Of Victory from a
thousand brazen throats‖ (Smith, ―The Emigrants‖).
Even her representation of natural otherness in ―The Emigrants‖ is strongly influenced by her admiring
the concept of renewal (e.g. the change of seasons); something which people can admire but not participate in,
such as portrayed by William Wordsworth himself in ―The Solitary Reaper‖ (Poems, in Two Volumes, 1807).
Wordsworth paradoxically describes his inability to describe the unearthly song sang by a Scottish Highlands
girl as she reaps grain in a solitary field. He compares the girl to a nightingale singing an incomprehensible song,
which reminds us of Keats‘s ―Ode to a Nightingale‖ (1819) or even more to Shelley‘s ―To a Skylark‖ (1820),
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which devotedly emphasizes the bird‘s divine and transcendental qualities (―What art thou we know not; / Until
we hardly see – we feel that it is there.‖) (Shelley, ―To a Skylark‖), implying its inspiring effect on the poet,
along with the human inability to reach the bird‘s freedom and carelessness, and by deeper analysis, human
hopelessness in terms of natural processes and necessary changes. Nevertheless, many critics think that Smith‘s
―Beachy Head‖ (1807) is by far her greatest artistic achievement when considering the representations of nature.
She perfectly conveys her idea that no mind nor linguistic system can imagine or utter the power, infinity, and
variety that nature encompasses, thus people, not even elevated poets, are capable of understanding her, not to
mention of speaking for her (as Romantic poets usually claimed to). Beachy Head is actually a long headland,
whose human and geological history becomes the subject of this narrative poem. Some controversies arouse
regarding the connotations of French invasion of England in the poems, as well as the fact that the self-pity and
lament are briefly referred to with the question ―Ah, who is happy? [and the answer some thirty lines later] ―I
once was happy‖ (Smith, ―Beachy Head‖). Because of this very remoteness and absence of Smith herself, many
critics argued that the poem itself is more of a historical importance than elegiac one.
Anna Barbauld
In the Memoires devoted to Anna Laetitia Barbauld (1743-1825), Lucy Aikin wrote: ―That swiftness of
apprehension by which she [Barbauld] was eminently distinguished, manifested itself from her earliest infancy‖
(Aikin, 1826). It is thus sad that a student of British Romanticism cannot find more than two or three books on
this great female poet of the Romantic period. She was not only one of the most notable contributors to
Romantic poetry; she was also one of the many women poets that proved themselves in favor of a gradual social
reform. Anna Barbauld published her ―Epistle to William Wilberforce‖ on the evils of Slave Trade, under her
own name, thus sympathizing with the abolitionist movement; but she also anonymously published some
political orations with such a strong command that it seemed incredible to all when they realized that it was
written by a woman. Although confined to a woman‘s sphere from early age on, she certainly knew how to use
her situation in order to gain independence, such as the already mentioned Charlotte Smith did. In Stuart
Curran‘s words, ―if a woman‘s place is in the home, or in the schoolroom as in Anna Barbauld‘s case, or in the
garden, then the particulars of those confined quarters are made the impetus for verse‖ (Curran, 1996).
Barbauld herself used the quotidian or the ordinary as the driving force for her literary verses, thus the
titles of three of her poems are very indicative of it: ―Verses Written in an Alcove‖ (1773), ―An Inventory of the
Furniture in Dr Priestley‘s Study‖ (1825), or even ―The First Fire, October 1st, 1815‖ (1825). But she was also a
headstrong Dissenting writer who eagerly advocated the role of the Dissenters (English Christians who for one
reason or another separated from the Church of England) in the future of Britain, since it was for her the faith
and education of progress. Beyond the Dissenting intellectual community, she relied on the circle of cultured
―bluestockings‖ to whom her Poems of 1773 introduced her and who immediately embraced her as an articulate
representative of their values (which we already explored in detail).
She criticized Romantic reviewers‘ for increasingly emphasizing the connection between a woman‘s
life and her text as a way of enforcing contemporary ideologies of femininity, such as in her poem ―On a Lady‘s
Writing‖ (Poems, 1773): ―Her even lines her steady temper show;/ Neat as her dress, and polish'd as her brow;/
Strong as her judgment, easy as her air;/ Correct though free, and regular though fair:/ And the same graces o'er
her pen preside/ That form her manners and her footsteps guide‖.
Barbauld amazingly conveys to the reader an image of a perfect lady in just six lines, thus emphasizing
the difficulties which a woman poet had to deal with. A woman was supposed to be the caretaker of morality and
good manner, and so was her poetry (if any) expected to literally look like, and even sound. The neatness of
meters and syllabic uses was to be matched with a polished (artificial) language, thus enhancing the ―propriety‖
of a woman‘s conduct in every possible sphere of her life. Some of Barbauld‘s comments on the French
Revolution were extremely judged, and even any possible allusion on rebellious thoughts was generally
forbidden. For example, the suggestion in her collection of poems Hymns in Prose (1781) that a king could act
wrongly and be punished by God becomes much more uncomfortable at such a time.
Barbauld was a devotee to the cult of sensibility, which gained momentum once women poets realized
that they can gain certain authority by using their main ―defect‖, femininity, as a distinguishing virtue. Thus, in
her poem ―The Mouse‘s Petition. Found in the TRAP where he had been confin'd all Night‖ (Poems, 1773),
Barbauld reflects on herself, on human relations among themselves and to the natural environment with all its
creatures. She actually wrote the poem as a response to Joseph Priestley‘s scientific experiments on animals,
especially on a mouse that was caught in a trap the very night when Barbauld visited him. According to some
critics, the poem was found ―twisted among the wires of the cage [of the mouse] the next day when it was
brought in after breakfast‖ (Bellanca, 2003). Even Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who wrote ―The Rime of the
Ancient Mariner‖ (1798), admired her sensibility, and wrote: ―thanks to Mrs. Barbauld, . . . it has become
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universally fashionable to teach lessons of compassion towards animals‖ (Bellanca, 2003); but ―The Mouse‘s
Petition‖ was more than just a plea against animal experimentation, in many ways comparable to the poem ―To a
Mouse, on Turning Her Up in Her Nest, With The Plough‖ (1786) written by the self-proclaimed bard of
Scotland, Robert Burns. While introducing the reader with his knowledge of agriculture and farming, Burns
underlines the importance of sympathy even in the daily monotony of a simple farmer and the possibility of the
farmer‘s usurping the natural environment: ―I‘m truly sorry Man‘s dominion / Has broken Nature‘s social union‖
(Burns, ―To a Mouse‖). Due to the fact that the whole idea Barbauld had is projected in Burns‘s poem, it is not
surprising that he used some of her words such as ―beastie‖, but Barbauld‘s constant refusal to use any particular
gender, except in the last lines, enables both male and female readers to sympathize with the animal and nature
itself.
With lines such as: ―Lets Nature commoners enjoy/ The common gifts of Heaven‖ (Barbauld, ―The
Mouse‘s Petition‖), Barbauld speaks for general women rights downtrodden by their male contemporaries and
competitors, for any detained and oppressed human, and for such liberty as required by nature‘s laws. In that
sense, Barbauld defied imprisonment of any kind, psychological or social, as well as the constant human urge to
subdue nature under its control: ―The well-taught philosophic mind/ To all compassion gives;/ Casts round the
world an equal eye,/ And feels for all that lives.‖ (Barbauld, ―The Mouse‘s Petition‖)
Barbauld contrasts the feminine sensibility against male rationality, and skillfully encompasses both
―the philosophic mind‖ and ―compassion‖, which basically is a combination of the already mentioned contrary
literary currents, but a combination of human states of mind and heart as well. She was a firm advocate for a
better educational system for women, especially in the areas of natural science, since all (male and female)
human beings need a better understanding of the scientific approaches to natural processes. Barbauld ironically
concludes that whatever happens to an animal, a mouse in this case, can easily happen to humans as well
(―which men, like mice, may share‖) (Barbauld, ―The Mouse‘s Petition‖); a message similar to Burns‘s: ―The
best laid schemes o‘ Men an‘ Mice / Gang oft agley‖. (Burns, ―To a Mouse‖)
On one hand, it is natural catastrophes that could destruct a whole nation; on the other hand ―destruction
lurks unseen‖ (Barbauld, ―The Mouse‘s Petition‖) and usually as a consequence to humans of their own cruelty
(wars, oppressions, executions). The main difference between these two great poets is Burns‘s concluding with
the acceptance of an animal‘s inferiority due to its lack of reason and its experiencing any hardship only at the
very moment of it (―the present only toucheth thee‖) (Burns, ―To a Mouse‖), while Barbauld, reflecting her own
inferior position as a writer, discovers a ―kindred mind‖ in the ―free-born mouse detain[ed]‖ (Barbauld, ―The
Mouse‘s Petition‖) and nature‘s environment in general.
Conclusion
Women in patriarchal societies have historically been reduced to not more than just properties, to
characters in fairy tales and images imprisoned in male texts because generated only by male expectations and
ideas. This paper focused on women poets in the Romantic Era 1790s-1840s, those women who had broken out
of their prisons and into the literary world of poetry. Many events, such as the French Revolution, political and
social turbulences in Britain, rising female reading audiences, and public coteries (e.g. The Bluestocking
Society) have influenced the scope of women poets‘ development and reach.
Apart from their general appeal to female readers, women poets had to confront the increasing hostility
on the part of the male Romantic writers and artists. Due to this tension, male and female Romantic poetry
progressed in two contrary currents, with, raging from slightly to extremely, opposite ideas of the poetic
language and topics and the political and social implications of revolutionary uprisings. While women were
supposed to write in a manner which mirrors their female domestic qualities, men claimed the ―masculine
rationality‖ for them. However, almost every Romantic artist at that time produced works of approval regarding
social reforms; women focusing on the gradual evolution, and men mostly confirming to the sudden revolution.
Whatever the drawbacks or prejudices, women continued writing, developing a relational self devoted to the cult
of sensibility, which gained them greater acknowledgment and economic success after all.
Poets such as Charlotte Smith and Anna Barbauld were true Romantic models to emulate, and several
of their most famous poems, such as ―Beachy Head‖ and ―The Mouse‘s Petition‖ respectively, are the richest
productions of female imagination. They devotedly proved to be ―unacknowledged legislators of the world‖.
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References
Ashfield, Andrew, ed. Romantic Women Poets, 1770-1838: An Anthology. Manchester: Manchester University
Press, 1995.
Barbauld, Anna. The Works of Anna Barbauld. Ed. Aikin, Lucy. Boston: David Reed, 1826. (Digitized Version
in 2007.)
Brydges, Egerton. Imaginative Biography. London: Saunders and Otley, 1834.
(Digitized Version in 2008.)
Bygrave, Stephen, ed. Approaching Literature: Romantic Writings. Curran, Stuart. ―Romantic Poetry: The I
altered‖. London: Routledge (in association with the Open University), 1996.
Curran, Stuart. The Cambridge Companion to British Romanticism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2000.
Curran, Stuart. Essay: Romantic poetry: Why and wherefore?
Dizdar, Srebren. Poezija engleskog romantizma. Sarajevo: ―ŃahinpańiĤ‖, 1999.
Gilbert, Sandra M., Gubar, Susan. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-century
Imagination. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1984.
Roe, Nicholas, ed. Romanticism: An Oxford Guide. Mellor, Anne K. ―Feminism‖. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2005.
Smith, Charlotte. The Poems of Charlotte Smith. Ed. Curran, Stuart. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Stanton, Judith Phillips. The Collected Letters of Charlotte Smith. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press,
2003.
Woolf, Virginia. Selected Works of Virginia Woolf. London: Wordsworth Editions, 2005.
Van Leeuwen, Steven H. Bartleby.Com:Great Books Online. 1999.
URL: http://www.bartleby.com/
The Free Dictionary. Huntingdon Valley, PA: Farlex, Inc., 2006.
URL: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/
Articles used from JSTOR (Journal Storage):
Richard C. Taylor and Charlotte Smith, "The Evils, I was Born to Bear": Two Letters from Charlotte Smith to
Thomas Cadell, Source: Modern Philology, Vol. 91, No. 3 (Feb., 1994), Published by: The University of
Chicago Press, URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/438436
Stuart Curran, Charlotte Smith and British Romanticism, Source: South Central Review, Vol. 11, No. 2
(Summer, 1994), Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press, URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3189989
Paula R. Feldman, Women Poets and Anonymity in the Romantic Era, Source: New Literary History, Vol. 33,
No. 2, Anonymity (Spring, 2002), Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press, URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20057724
Mary Ellen Bellanca, Science, Animal Sympathy, and Anna Barbauld‘s ―The Mouse‘s Petition‖, Source:
Eighteenth-Century Studies, vol. 37, no. 1 (2003)
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Theresa M. Kelley, Romantic Histories: Charlotte Smith and "Beachy Head", Source: Nineteenth-Century
Literature, Vol. 59, No. 3 (Dec., 2004), Published by: University of California Press, URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4142003
Emma Major, Nature, Nation, and Denomination: Barbauld‘s Taste for the Public, Source: ELH, Vol. 74 (2007),
Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press
108
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Title
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Women Poets in Romanticism
Author
Author
Žero, Alma
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In Bosnia, modern university literary courses usually do not even include Romantic women poets into their syllabuses, which is a huge shortcoming for every student interested in gender studies as such. That is why this paper focuses on the Romantic Era 1790s-1840s and those women who had broken out of their prisons and into the literary world of poetry. Many events, such as the French Revolution, political and social turbulences in Britain, rising female reading audiences, and public coteries have influenced the scope of women poets‘ development and reach. Due to great tensions, male and female Romantic poetry progressed in two contrary currents with opposite ideas regarding many a problem and issue. However, almost every Romantic artist at that time produced works of approval regarding social reforms. Women continued writing, which gained them greater acknowledgment and economic success after all. Poets such as Charlotte Smith and Anna Barbauld were true Romantic representatives of female poets and this is why we shall mostly focus on specific display of their poetic works, language, and lives.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/383ac8583c2c620b8f3bdf35afaf5c1e.pdf
b6fef7351dcefba29f87ab69899ca3a5
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
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YABANCILARA TÜRKÇE ÖĞRETĠMĠ AÇISINDAN
TÜRKÇE-BOġNAKÇA BĠR SÖZLÜK
Yrd.Doç.Dr. Mustafa ġENEL
Filosofia Faculty
Turkish Language and Literature Department
Tuzla University
mustafasenel@hotmail.com
Abstract:The national culture as an important essential element propitiouses for an
existence nation. This culture gets its source from that national history language, religion ,
morality, art, traditions, briefly from own esence. Person names( antroponimies) from
point of view philologicial, linguistics, cultural, historical and folklore studies have
necessity. The calling of the human (middle name, name, surname, nickname and titles) is
associated with the culture of nation, proves a necessity of names fort he human. There
are different traditions and rules of calling in the each country. The reasons of calling may
be religious, national and local charecter as a result of investigation these tendentions we
find out that every society has its different specific traditions in calling, there are many
common issues in the many parts of the world and among societies has own peculiarity.
The name ‗Muhammed‘ is widely popular among the people and often they call their
children by this name, because it has a religion mean. The origin of this name is Arabic
and used for men. The name ‗Muhammed‘ as a male names the most widely spread in the
Kars(Turkey) region. The name ‗Muhammed‘ at the same time used in a wrong spelling.
These mistakes did the bureaucrats or men, who did not know the orphography this name.
Keywords: onomastik, Muhammed, name, Kars, misspelling
Sôzlùk, ― bir veya birden fazla dilin kelimelerinin bùtùnùnù veya bir bôlùmùnù, genel amaçlı veya ôzel
amaçlı olarak içeren, anlam, açıklama ve ôrnekleriyle ortaya koyan ve daha çok alfabetik olarak dùzenlenmiĢ
eserlerin genel adıdır"(Ġlhan, 2007:15), veya ―Bir dilin bùtùn veya belli bir çağda kullanılmıĢ kelime ve
deyimlerini alfabe sırasına gôre alarak tanımlarını yapan, açıklayan veya baĢka dillerdeki karĢılıklarını veren
eser.‖ (Tùrkçe Sôzlùk 2: 1338), veya ―Bir dilin (ya da birden çok dilin) sôzvarlığını, sôyleyiĢ biçimleriyle,
yazımlarıyla veren,bağımsız biçimbirimleri temel alarak bunların, baĢka ôğelerle kurdukları sôz ôğeleriyle
birlikte anlamlarını, değiĢik kullanımlarını gôsteren bir sôzvarlığı kitabı.‖ (Aksan, 1982: 77) olarak
tanımlanmaktadır.
Temelde sôzlùk ihtiyacını doğuran ve sôzlùkçùlùğùn bir dilbilim dalı olarak (Leksikoloji) geliĢmesine
sebep olan Ģey, mensup olduğu milletin konuĢtuğu veya yazdığı dilin kelime, deyim ve terimlerinin hepsini bilen
bir kiĢinin olmamasıdır(Ġnce, 2002:176). Sôzlùkbilim, ―Bir dilin ya da karĢılaĢtırmalı olarak çeĢitli dillerin
sôzvarlığını sôzlùk biçiminde ortaya koymaya yônelen, bu amaçla yôntemler koyarak uygulama yolları gôsteren
dilbilim dalıdır.‖ (Aksan, 1982: 71).
Tùrk sôzlùk biliminin temelleri Ģùphesiz Arap sôzlùkçùlùğù kurallarına gôre kaleme alınan KâĢgarlı
Mahmød‘un Dîvânu Lügâti‘t-Türk‘ùne kadar uzanır. KaĢgarlı‘nın Dîvānø Løgāt‘it-Tùrk adlı eseriyle baĢlayan
Tùrk sôzlùkçùlùğù
―Tùrk boylarının geniĢ ùlkelere yayılma ve yerleĢik medeniyet kuruculuğunu
benimsemeleriyle yeni yeni geliĢme devreleri geçirmeğe mecbur olmuĢtur.‖ (Caferoğlu, 1984: 187) Tùrk
Sôzlùkçùğùnùn en eski kaynağı olan Dîvân‘dan Kâmûs-ı Türkî‘ye kadarki dônemde yazılı olan gerek manzum
gerekse sôzlùk tertibindeki bùtùn yazma ve basma eserler ya Farsça- Tùrkçe ya da Arapça- Tùrkçe olup, Arap
sôzlùkçùlùk geleneğinde dùzenlenmiĢtir (Ölmez, 1994: 88; Aksan 1998:115).
Tùrk sôzlùkçùlùğùnùn geliĢimi içinde son dônemlerde dikkate alınmaya baĢlayan, Divan edebiyatı
içerisinde de ―Divan Ģairleri manzum lùgat tertip etmek merakına da dùĢmùĢlerdir. O kadar ki yalnız Arap ve
Fars dillerine ait lùgatlerle kalmamıĢlar, Fransızca, Rumca, Ermenice lùgatler bile tertip etmiĢlerdir.‖ (Levent,
1980: 636), denilerek ônemsiz bir mahsul gibi gôrùlen ―manzum sôzlùkler‖ de vardır(Ġnce, 2002:177).
Tùrk dilinin çeĢitli dônemlerinde kaleme alınan iki dilli veya açıklamalı sôzlùkler de Tùrk ve yabancı
Tùrkologların ilgisini çeken ônemli bir araĢtırma alanı olarak gôrùlùr. Kaleme alınan bu sôzlùkler sayesinde her
iki milletin de birbirinin dilini ôğrenmesi kolaylaĢmıĢ, ticarî ve siyasî iliĢkilerde bu sôzlùkler birer araç olarak
kullanılmıĢtır. Modern devlet teĢkilâtında da durum bôyledir. Ticarî, sosyal ve kùltùrel iliĢkiler hangi milletlerle
varsa, o alanda mutlaka iki dilli sôzlùkler de bulunmakta ve yayını artmaktadır (Yavuzarslan,2004,186).
Bu tùr kùltùrel iliĢkilerin baĢlangıç aĢaması olan iki dilli sôzlùklerin yazılıĢ amaçlarının baĢında, gidilen
bôlge insanına kendi kùltùrùnù anlatarak gùnlùk hayatın akıĢını sağlamak vardır. Gùnlùk hayatta paylaĢım
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içesinde olacak iki yabancı halkın bir an ônce kaynaĢması ve birbirini anlamak istemesi kadar doğal bir Ģey
yoktur. Bu durum BoĢnak halkına Tùrkçe ôğretmek amacıyla yazılmıĢ bu sôzlùk içinde geçerlidir.
Osmanlı akınları, 1386‘da baĢladıktan sonra Bosna Eyaleti 1463‘de fethedilmiĢ, 1878‘de yapılan Berlin
AntlaĢmasıyla Avusturya-Macaristan‘a verilinceye kadar dôrt yùz seneden fazla Osmanlı hakimiyeti altında
kalmıĢtır. 1463 yılında, Fatih Sultan Mehmed o zaman Bosna Kraliyetinin merkezi olan Yayçe Ģehrini, II.
Sultan Bayezid ise 1482 yılında Hersek bôlgesini fethetmiĢtir. Bu fetihlerle Ortaçağ Bosna Kraliyeti çôkmùĢtùr.
Bosna‘da Osmanlılar tarafından fethedilmiĢ olan son Ģehir Bihaç‘tır. Bihaç‘ın fethi XVI. yùzyılın sonuna rastlar.
Bu tarihler gôsteriyor ki, Bosna-Hersek‘in Osmanlı tarafından fethi aĢağı yukarı 200 yıl sùrmùĢtùr
(ZaĦinoviĤ,2003:9).
II. Sultan Abdùlhamîd (1876– 1909) 1878 yılında Bosna‘dan çekilmiĢtir
(ZaĦinoviĤ,2003:14).
Bosna ve Bosnalılar Osmanlı hakimiyeti boyunca hem askerî hem de siyasî alanlarda çok ônemli rol
oynamıĢtır. BoĢnaklar yùzyıllar boyunca Osmanlı Devletinin en yùksek makamlarına kadar yùkselmiĢlerdir.
Ortaçağ Bosna Kraliyetinin son hùkùmdarı olan Kral Styepan‘ın oğlu Ġslâm dinini kabul ederek, Ahmed
Hersekzâde adıyla Osmanlı Devletinin ilk sadrazamlarından birisi olmuĢtur. PadiĢahın yanında en yùksek unvan
olan sadrazam gôrevini 3 sultan dôneminde yapan ve bu gôrevde en uzun sùre kalan Mehmed PaĢa Sokoloviç –
(Sokollu Mehmed PaĢa) Bosnalıdır. Sôzù geçen Ahmed Hersek-zâde ve Sokollu Mehmed PaĢa dahil Osmanlı
Sarayında 22 BoĢnak, sadrazamlık gôrevinde bulunmuĢtur. Osmanlı Devletinde Tùrk olmayan halklar arasında
BoĢnaklar en fazla Osmanlı Devletine bağlılığını gôsteren topluluktur. Hattâ BoĢnakçada Ġstanbul‘a ikinci ad
olarak ―Carigrad‖ ( sultan Ģehri ) adı konmuĢtur
( ZaĦinoviĤ,2003:11).
Eğitim hayatına gelince Osmanlı dôneminde birçok eğitim kuruluĢları, medreseler kurulmuĢtur. En
meĢhur olanları Sarybosna‘daki Gazi Hùsrev Beg Medresesi, Tuzla‘daki Behram Beg Medresesi ve Travnik‘te
Elçi Ġbrahim PaĢa Medresesi‘dir. Okullarda dersler Tùrkçe olarak verilmiĢtir. Gazi Hùsrev Beg 1537 yılında
medresenin yanında kùtùphaneyi de kurmuĢtur. Bu kùtùphanede yùzlerce Tùrkçe, Arapça ve Farsça el yazma
eseri saklanmaktadır. Osmanlı dônminde BoĢnaklar eğitim almak için Ġstanbul‘a da gitmiĢtir. Bosna-Hersek‘te
Osmanlı hakimiyetinde ùç Ģark dili Tùrkçe, Arapça ve Farsça ôğretilmiĢtir. Bu dillerde çeĢitli alanlarda çok
sayıdaki eser kaleme alınmıĢtır. Divan edebiyatında tanınan BoĢnak Ģairler vardır (ZaĦinoviĤ,2003:12).
Manzum eserler yanında bu dônemde BoĢnaklar mensur eserleri de ortaya koymuĢlardır. Felsefe ve
siyasî alanlarnda değerli eserleri Arapça olarak yazmıĢlardır.. XIX. yùzyılda yaĢayan ve Gazi hùsrev Camiinde
meĢhur muvakkit olan Saraybosnalı Salih Sıdkî Târih-i Bosna adlı bùyùk eseri Tùrkçe olarak ortaya koymuĢtur.
Bu yazarların ana dili BoĢnakça olduğu halde Tùrkçe ve ôteki Ģark dillerini o kadar iyi derecede oğrenmiĢler ki
bu dillerde çeĢitli eserleri kaleme alabilmiĢlerdir. Kitapların istinsah edilmesi, ciltlenmesi, korunması ve
saklanmasının Osmanlı dôneminde ne kadar geliĢmiĢ olduğunu Ģark dillerinde yazılmıĢ eserler açık olarak
gôsteriyor. Bosna-Hersek‘teki saklanan el yazma eserler Saraybosna‘daki Gazi Hùsrev Beg Kùtùphanesinde
toplanmıĢtır( ZaĦinoviĤ,2003:12-13).
Bunun yanısıra Bosna-Hersek‘te Katolik tarikatı olan Fransisken tarikatına bağlı rahiplerin evlerinde
Osmanlı arĢivleri bulunmaktadır. Burada çok sayıda eser yıllarca saklanmıĢtır. Bosna-Hersek‘te birkaç yerde
bulunan bu evler ve içindeki kùtùphaneler birer hazinedir. Daha sonra Avusturya-Macaristan Ġmparatorluğu
dôneminde Saraybosna‘da Milli Kùtùphane yapılmıĢtır. Daha sonra ġarkiyat Enstitùsù kurulmuĢtur. Binlerce
eser saklandığı bu kùtùphanelerden, 1992 yılında bombalamalar sırasında Mayıs ayında ġarkiyat Enstitùsù,
Ağustos ayında da Milli Kùtùphane tamamen yıkılmıĢ ve bùtùn eserler yanmıĢtır. Mostar‘daki Hersek ArĢivinde
eskiden beri saklanan bir sùrù el yazma eserin durumu Ģimdi belli değildir. Bunlara rağmen Gazi Hùsrev Beg
Kùtùphanesinde ve Saraybosna Tarih ArĢivinde bir sùrù eser saklanmaktadır( ZaĦinoviĤ,2003:13).
Tùrkler, Osmanlı Dônemi‘nde gittikleri her yerde eğitim için uygun zemini ve mekânı kurmuĢlardır.
Medreseler, Osmanlı Dônemi‘nde eğitimin temel direğidir, denilebilir. Ancak, Enderun ismiyle azınlık
çocuklarının ùst dùzey yônetici olarak yetiĢtirildikleri bir eğitim kurumu ortaya çıkmıĢtır. Yalnızca erkeklere
verilen Ġlkokul ùstù eğitim, kendini çok da yenilemeden 19. yùzyılın sonlarına kadar basit dùzeyde kalmıĢtır.
Eğitimde ağırlıklı konu ―din‖ olup nakil ve ezbere dayanmaktadır (Demir, 2010:8)
Yùzyıllarca ùç kıtaya uzanan geniĢ bir coğrafyada hùkùm sùrmùĢ ve Kırım‘dan Kahire‘ye, Bağdat‘tan
Bosna‘ya gittikleri her yere kendi dil ve kùltùrlerini de gôtùren Tùrkler, buraları terk etmek durumunda
kaldıklarında , kendilerinden silinmez izler bırakmıĢlardır. Fatih Sultan Mehmet dôneminden baĢlayarak Tùrkçe
yazan Ģair ve yazar yetiĢtiren Bosna Hersek de bu kùltùr coğrafyamızın içerisdendir. Canlı, konuĢma diline yakın
sade ve samimi ùslūplarıyla; sınır boylarında olmaları dolayısıyla gazâ ruhunu canlı tutmalarıyla; bulundukları
bôlgeye ait gelenek ve gôreneklerle mahallî kùltùre ônem vermeleriyle bôlge halkı ve sanatkârları, Tùrkçenin
bayrağını yùzyıllarca o coğrafyada dalgalandırmıĢlardır (Çeltik 2000: 99-106, Ġsen 1997: 512-537, 565-570;)
Bu bildirimizde, Osmanlı dôneminde BoĢnaklara Tùrkçe ôğretmek amacıyla yazılmıĢ olan ve Tuzla
Arhiv Kùtùphanesinde bulunan Tùrkçe- BoĢnakça sôzlùğù tanıtmak istiyoruz. Sôzlùkçùlùk geleneği içerisinde
değerlendirilmesi gereken bu çalıĢma Tùrkçenin yazıldıkları dônemdeki en ônemli kaynaklarındandır.
Yabancılara Tùrkçeyi ôğretmek için kaleme alınan manzum sôzlùklerin yanında rastladığımız bu sôzlùk de bu
çerçevede değerlendirilmelidir.
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1273/ 1857
1.
Lugat
Koleksiyon
Tuzla Arhiv
Kùtùphanesi- No:10/10
1273/ 1857 yılında yazılmıĢ olan -baĢı eksik sonu tam olan- sôzlùkte her biri bir madde baĢı kabul
edilirse yaklaĢık olarak 900 kelime veya kelime grubu bulunmaktadır. Biz bu kelime veya kelime gruplarını 43
baĢlık altında topladık. Her bir kelime tek baĢına bir anlam ifade ettiği gibi bir sonraki kelime veya kelime
grubuyla da anlam olarak bùtùnlùk içerisinde olduğu dikkati çekmektedir. YazılıĢ ve dizliĢ sırası anlamsal olarak
yanyana veya devamında gelen satırdadır. Yani yanyana sıralanan ve devamında gelen satırlarda çoğu zaman bir
bùtùnlùk vardır.
Furun (1/5a/3)
PeĤ (1/5a/4)
Atamla (adımla)(yavaĢça) (1/5a/3)
vito (1/5a/4)
Dôniyor (1/5a/3)
Okrenu se (1/5a/4)
Bùtùn kelimeler hem tek baĢlarına hem de kendinden sonra gelen kelimelerle bağlantılı olarak
verilmiĢtir
Sana soylediğim oldı mı (1/5a/2)
Ńto sam ti govorio bilo (1/5a/3)
Dahi olmadı (1/5a/5)
Joń ne bi (1/5a/6)
Olacakdur (1/5a/5)
BiĤe / Bit Ĥe (1/5a/6)
Ertelemem ben (1/5a/9)
Ne hitim ja (1/5a/10)
ĠĢim yok (1/5a/9)
Posla nejmam / Posla nemam (1/5a/10)
ĠĢledum (1/5a/9)
Uradih (1/5a/10)
ġimdi sefa sorayım (1/5a/11)
Jako sefaluk provodım (1/5a/12)
Bu durum gùnlùk konuĢma metinlerinin yanı sıra dini anlatımlarda da gôze çarpmaktadır
Allahdan iste Allah virùr(1/9a/5)
Od Boga ińĤi Bog daĤe(1/9a/6)
Andan istemeli (1/9a/7)
Od njega valja iskat(1/9a/8)
Gayrıdan istememeli (1/9a/7)
Od drugoga ne valja iskat(1/9a/8)
BaĢa her ne gelirse(1/9a/9)
Na glavu ńto god i doħe(1/9a/10)
Gayrıdan bilme(1/9a/9)
U drugoga neznaj(1/9a/10)
BoĢnaklar, Osmanlı ôncesi dôneminde ayrı bir mezhebe mensuplardı. Ne Katolik ne de Ortodoks
mezhebi ―Bosna kilisesi‖ ne ait olanlar, ―Bogumil‖ler ( Tanrı‘ya sevimli olanlar ) adını taĢıyordu. Bosna
Devletinin hùkùmdarlarının çoğu da bu mezhebdendi. Doğudan ve Batıdan ôzellikle Vatikan‘daki Papa‘dan
gelen baskınlara rağmen BoĢnaklar inançlarını değiĢtirmek istemediklerinden kendi mezhebine bağlı
kalmıĢlardır. Bogumilleri yok etmek için pek çok askeri seferler de dùzenlenmiĢtir. Ancak BoĢnaklar tùm
zorluklara direnmiĢleridr. Bosna hùkùmdarları, ôzellikle Kulin Ban bu mùcadelelerde bùyùk cesaret ve maharet
gôstermiĢtir. Bogumil mezhebinin Ġslâm dini ile ortak noktaları olduğu tahmin edilmektedir. Eski Ġran‘dan gelen
Mani inançlarının etkisinin altında da kaldığı ileri sùrùlùr. Dualizm-ikililik inançlarına gôre insanlar, dùnyaya iyi
ve kôtù gùçlerin hakim olduğuna inanmıĢlardır. BoĢnakların ataları olan ―Bogumil‖lerin bùyùk kùpler Ģeklindeki
mezar taĢları sôz konusu dônemden kalma anıtlar olarak bugùn Bosna-Hersek‘in bazı yerlerinde toplu halde
bulunmaktadır (ZaĦinoviĤ,2003:9-10).
Osmanlı bôlgeye geldikten sonra yazılan bu eserde de dikkati çeken unsurların baĢında gùnlùk
konuĢmaların yanı sıra dini konuĢmalar gelmektedir. Bôlge halkına yeni bir dini ve kurallarını ôğretmek de
baĢlıca amaçlar arasındadır. Ġslamiyetin temel kavramlarının yanı sıra Allahın birliği ve her Ģeyin sahibi olduğu,
her Ģeyi bildiği vb. konular ôn plana çıkarılmıĢtır.
Bazı fiiller ve isimler verilirken hem olumlu hem de olumsuz Ģekilleri birlikte verilerek ôğrenme
kolaylaĢtırılmıĢtır.
1345
�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Ölmek (1/1/13)
Umrijet (1/1/14) Umrijeti
Dirilmek (1/2a/1)
Oţivit (1/2a/2) Oţiviti
Az (1/3a/15)
Malo (1/3a/16)
Çok (1/3b/1)
Mlogo / Mnogo (1/3b/2)
Azlık (1/3b/1)
Malko / Malo (1/3b/2)
Çokluk (1/3b/1)
Mlogoko (1/3b/2)
1.Seyahat İle İlgili Kelimeler
Sefer (1/1/1)
2. Askerlik İle İlgili Kelimeler
Ar.
Put (1/1/2)
Yol (1/1/1)
Tr.
Yol (1/1/2)
Asker(1/7a/1)
Ar.
Vojska(1/7a/2)
Süngü (1/6b/15)
Tr.
Kopje (Koplje)(1/6b/16)
Kalkan (1/1/3)
Tr.
Štit (1/1/4))
Yay(1/6b/15)
Tr.
Luk(1/6b/16)
Ok(1/6b/15)
Tr.
Strijela(1/6b/16)
Kiriş(1/6b/15)
Tr.
Uziša (Uzica)(1/6b/16)
Okçı(1/6b/15)
Tr.
Strijelac(1/6b/16)
3.Günlük Eşyalar
Kalbur (1/2a/11)
Ar.
Rešeto (1/2a/12)
Dokur(1/4a/5)
Tr.
Etka (Ţetka)(1/4a/6)
Merdiven (1/2b/13)
Far.
Ljestve (1/2b/14)
Elek (1/4b/14)
Tr.
Sito (1/4b/15)
Maşa (1/4b/16)
Far.
Oţeg (1/4b/17)
Çatal (1/5a/1)
Tr.
Soha (1/5a/2)
Çuval (1/5a/1)
Far.
Vreša (1/5a/2)
İğ(1/6b/11)
Tr.
Vreteno(1/6b/12)
Nerduban(1/7a/5)
Far.
Ljestve(1/7a/6)
Balta(1/9a/5)
Tr.
Sikira(1/9a/6)
Fuçu (1/2a/13)
Rum.
Baţva (1/2a/14)
Çapa(1/9a/5)
Tr.
Motika(1/9a/6)
İskemle (1/2b/13)
Rum.
Sto (1/2b/14)
Örs(1/9a/5)
Tr.
Nakovanj(1/9a/6)
Furun (1/5a/3)
Rum.
Peš (1/5a/4)
Susak(1/9a/9)
Tr.
ŢeŤ(1/9a/10)
Kulb(1/6a/7)
Rum.
Drzak(1/6a/8)
Kab(1/9a/9)
Tr.
Sud(1/9a/10)
Sergen (1/1/3)
Tr.
Polica (1/1/4)
Kablar(1/9a/11)
Tr.
Sudje(1/9a/12)
Elek (1/2a/11)
Tr.
Sito (1/2a/12)
Keser (1/12a/5)
Tr.
Tesle (1/12a/6)
Beşik (1/2b/11)
Tr.
Koliyevka (1/2b/12)
4.Ev İle İlgili ve Ev Yapımında Kullanılan Malzemlerle İle İlgili Kelimeler
Kilit (1/2a/7)
Far.
Katanac (1/2a/8)
Kütük(1/6a/7)
Tr.
Pan(J)(1/6a/8)
Anahtar (1/2a/9)
Rum.
Kljuţ (1/2a/10)
Kiriş Ağacı (1/5a/1)
Tr.+Tr.
Grad (1/5a/1)
Direk (1/1/3)
Tr.
Stupac (1/1/4)
Burgı(1/2b/1)
Tr.
Svrdo (1/2b/2)
Eşik (1/1/5)
Tr.
Prag (1/1/6)
Bıçkı 1/2b/2)
Tr.
Pila 1/2b/3)
Üst Eşik (1/1/5)
Tr.
Gornji Prag (1/1/6)
Dayak (1/2b/15)
Tr.
Poduporanj (1/2b/16)
Kütük (1/4a/5)
Tr.
Odrupat (Trupac)(1/4a/6)
Kum(1/9a/11)
Tr.
Pijesak(1/9a/12)
Dayak (1/5a/1)
Tr.
Potporanj (1/5a/2)
5. Fiiller
a. Masdarlar
Delmek (1/1/5)
Erimek (1/3a/11)
Mestve (1/3a/12)
Silmek (1/3a/11)
Utrat Brisati (1/3a/12)
Giymek (1/3a/11)
Obuj (Obuši) (1/3a/12)
Soutmak (1/3a/13)
Smrzut (1/3a/12)
Esnemek(1/8a/7)
Zevat(1/8a/8)
Gerinmek(1/8a/9)
Protezat(1/8a/10)
Probit (1/1/6)
Kesmek (1/1/6)
Posijeç (1/1/8)
Kaçmak (1/1/9)
Bjeţat / Bjeţati (1/1/10)
Ölmek (1/1/13)
Umrijet (1/1/14) Umrijeti
Dirilmek (1/2a/1)
Oţivit (1/2a/2) Oţiviti
Nallanmak (1/2b/7)
Potkivat (1/2b/8)
Sallamak (1/2b/13)
ljuljat (1/2b/12)
Dinlemek (1/3a/9)
Slušaj (slušati) (1/3a/10)
b.Görülen Geçmiş Zaman
Bağışladı (1/3a/7)
Pokloni ( Poklonio je) (1/3a/8)
Çaldı (1/3b/11)
Ukrade (1/3b/12)
Okudı (1/3b/9)
Uţi (Uţio je) (1/3b/10)
Satdı (1/3b/13)
Prodade (1/3b/14)
Diledi (1/3b/11)
Hoţe(1/3b/11)
Dikti (1/3b/15)
Usadi (1/3b/16)
1346
�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Haşladı (1/4a/1)
prekalemı(1/4a/1)
Aldum(1/11b/11)
Uzeh(1/11b/12)
Kaydı (1/4a/7)
omaţe (1/4a/8)
Tartdum(1/11b/13)
Izmjerit(1/11b/14)
Verdüm (1/4a/9)
Daho (dao) / Dao sam (1/4a/10)
Tutdı(1/12a/1)
Omladi se(1/12a/2)
Çapakladı (1/4b/9)
Ukrmeljo je (1/4b/10)
Düşündüm (1/12b/1)
Promisli(1/12b/2)
Dokundı(1/5b/7)
Nestade(1/5b/8)
Sokdı(1/12b/9)
Utisnite(1/12b/10)
Nallatdum(1/7a/7)
Potkovo (1/7a/8)
Çatladı(1/12b/11)
Puca(1/12b/12)
Gitdük(1/7b/11)
Odosmo(1/7b/12)
Yandı(1/12b/11)
Izgori(1/12b/12)
Bakduk(1/7b/11)
Gledasmo(1/7b/12)
Yakdı(1/12b/11)
zaţeţe(1/12b/12)
Köpükledi(1/9a/11)
Zapjeni se(1/9a/12)
Ögrendiler(1/14b/5)
Nuţiše(1/14b/6)
Geldi(1/10a/9)
DoŤe(1/10a/10)
Ayrıldı(1/16a/10)
Rastavi(1/16a/11)
Dağıldı(1/11a/5)
Razasuše(1/11a/6)
c. Görülen Geçmiş Zamanın Hikâyesi
Öğrendiydi(1/14a/7)
Metinde karşılığı yok
Ögrendiydünüz(1/14a/11)
Bijahte nauţili(1/14a/12)
d. Anlatılan Geçmiş Zaman
Nallanmış (1/2b/7)
Potkovao (1/2b/8)
Ögrenmişim(1/13b/15)
Nauţio sam(1/13b/16)
Kesilmiş (1/3b/3)
Osjeţeno (1/3b/4)
Bozulmış(1/15a/15)
Pokvareno(1/15a/16)
Haşlamış (1/4a/1)
prekalemljeno(1/4a/1)
Yapulmış(1/15a/15)
Naţinuto(1/15a/16)
Talmışım (1/4b/7)
Uronuo sam (1/4b/8)
Düzelmiş(1/15a/15)
Ponizano(1/15a/16)
Olmış(1/6a/15)
Bilo(1/6a/16)
e. Gelecek Zaman
Osješe (1/3b/4)
Kesilecek (1/3b/3)
f. Şimdiki Zaman
Damlıyor (1/4b75)
Kaplje (1/4b/6)
Ögrenmiyor(1/14b/1)
Ne nauţi(1/14b/2)
Döniyor (1/5a/3)
Okrenu se (1/5a/4)
Geliyorlar(1/15a/5)
IŤu(1/15a/6)
Egiriyor(1/6b/11)
Prede(1/6b/12)
övüyor(1/16a/5)
Fali (1/16a/6)
Kokuyor (1/12a/3)
Miri(1/12a/4)
övünüyor(1/16a/5)
Fali se(1/16a/6)
Ögreniyor(1/14b/1)
Nauţi(1/14b/2)
g.Geniş Zaman
Görür(1/6a/1)
Vidi (1/6a/2)
Getürürüz(1/10b/9)
Doniješemo(1/10b/10)
Olur(1/6a/15)
Biše(1/6a/16)
Görürsiniz(1/11a/1)
Vidišete(1/11a/2)
Bulurum(1/6b/5)
Našu(1/6b/6)
İsterüm(1/12a/3)
Hošu(1/12a/4)
Uyanur(1/8a/11)
Probudiše se(1/8a/12)
Gelürüm(1/12a/11)
Došu(1/12a/12)
Darılur(1/8a/11)
Raţljutiše se(1/8a/12)
Görürsün(1/14a/1)
Vidješeš(1/14a/2)
Vurur(1/8b/1)
Ubiše(1/8b/2)
Öğredür mi(1/14a/7)
Hošu li nauţit(1/14a/8)
Bilürüm(1/8b/5)
Znam(1/8b/6)
Bozarum(1/15a/15)
Pokvarišu(1/15a/16)
h. Geniş Zamanın Hikâyesi ve Şartı
Bulurdum(1/6b/5)
Našo bi(1/6b/6)
İsterse(1/10b/3)
Ako hoše(1/10b/4)
ı. Şart Kipi
Da iŤem(1/12b/2)
Ögrenseler(1/14a/15)
Da nauţe(1/14a/16)
Gel (1/3b/13)
Hodi / Dodji (1/3b/14)
Uç(1/6a/1)
Kraj (1/6a/2)
Koş (1/3b/15)
Potši (potrţi) (1/3b/16)
Umma(1/6b/3)
Ne uzdati se(1/6b/4)
Ver (1/4a/9)
Daj (1/4a/10)
Bul(1/6b/3)
NaŤi(1/6b/4)
Al (1/4a/11)
Uzmi (1/4a/12)
Çağır(1/8b/1)
Zovi(1/8b/2)
Bekle (1/5a/8)
Ţekaj (1/5a/8)
Könkeletme(1/9a/3)
Ne tupi(1/9a/4)
Gitsem(1/12b/1)
i.Emir kipi
1347
�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Könkeledursun(1/9a/3)
Istupišeš(1/9a/4)
Yaklaş(1/16a/7)
Prikuţi se(1/16a/8)
Gitsün(1/10b/3)
Neka iŤe(1/10b/4)
Getür(1/16a/7)
Donesi(1/16a/8)
Gösterün(1/10b/7)
Ukaţite(1/10b/8)
yönle(1/16a/9)
pošalji (1/16a/10)
Getür(1/10b/9)
Donesi(1/10b/10)
öde(1/16a/9)
plati(1/16a/10)
Bekleyin(1/10b/9)
smo ţekajte ( ţekajte) (1/10b/10)
Olsun(1/16a/10)
Neka bude(1/16a/11)
Kov (1/15a/13)
Istjeraj(1/15a/14)
j.İstek Kipi ve Hikâyesi
Dala (1/4b/7)
Uroni (1/4b/8)
Bilede(1/9a/1)
Naoštri(1/9a/2)
Elekleye (1/4b/15)
Prosij (1/4b/16)
Gideyim(1/11b/11)
DajŤem(1/11b/12)
Gidelüm(1/5b/3)
DajŤemo / Da idemo (1/5b/4)
Gidelüm(1/12a/7)
DajŤemo(1/12a/8)
Nalladayım(1/7a/7)
Da potkujem(1/7a/8)
Bilelüm (1/13a/3)
Da znamo(1/13a/4)
Kapanalum(1/7b/11)
Da zatvorimo(1/7b/12)
Kaçalum(1/15b/1)
Da bjeţimo(1/15b/2)
Gideyim(1/8b/5)
DajŤem(1/8b/6)
Yoğura(1/16a/7)
Razkupaj(razkuhaj) zakuhaj(1/16a/8)
Olaydı(1/14b/7)
Da bješe(1/14b/8)
k. Gereklilik Kipi
Gelmelidür(1/11b/5)
Vala mu doše(1/11b/6)
Olmalı (1/14b/9)
Vala da bude(1/14b/10)
6.Şekil İle İlgili Kelimeler
Çenber(1/10a/7)
Obruţ(1/10a/8)
Toparlak (1/4a/7)
Okruglo (1/4a/8)
Denge (1/2a/5)
Strana (1/2a/6)
Dört Koşeli (1/4a/5)
U Ţetri Šošeta (1/4a/6)
Büğri 1/2a/5)
Grbav 1/2a/6)
7. Giyim Kuşam İle İlgili Kelimeler
Giysi (1/1/11)
Haljina (1/1/12)
Gömlek(1/7a/3)
Košulja(1/7a/4)
Peştemal (1/2a/9)
Kuta (1/2a/10)
Çaruk(1/7a/11)
Opanţar(1/7a/12)
Edik (1/1/13)
Mestva (1/1/14)
Çarukçı(1/7a/11)
Obušar(1/7a/12)
Etek(1/6b/7)
Skut(1/6b/8)
8. Dini Kavramlar İle İlgili Kelimeler
Ölüm (1/1/13)
Smrt (1/1/14)
Ben Bilmedüğüni Bilürüm(1/9b/11)
Ja Što Znam Znam(1/9b/12)
Günah (1/2a/11)
Heman Hayır Amel
Işleyelum(1/5a/13)
Grijeh (1/2a/12)
Gerçek Bile(1/9b/11)
Istinu Znaj(1/9b/12)
Da Dobro Poslove Radimo (1/5a/14)
Allah Birdür(1/10a/1)
Bog Jedan(1/10a/2)
Cenneti Kazanalum (1/5a/13)
Dţenete Da Steţemo (1/5a/14)
Gayrısı Yokdur(1/10a/1)
Drugoga Nema(1/10a/2)
Allahdan Iste Allah Virür(1/9a/5)
Od Boga Išši Bog Daše(1/9a/6)
Öyle Bil(1/10a/1)
Tako Znaj(1/10a/2)
Andan Istemeli (1/9a/7)
Od Njega Valja Iskat(1/9a/8)
Ve Hem Inan(1/10a/1)
Hem Vjeruj(1/10a/2)
Gayrıdan Istememeli (1/9a/7)
Od Drugoga Ne Valja Iskat(1/9a/8)
Başka Cüne Değildür(1/10a/3)
Drugaţije Nije(1/10a/4)
Başka Her Ne Gelirse(1/9a/9)
Na Glavu Što God I DoŤe(1/9a/10)
Herkim Böyle Inansa(1/10a/3)
Tako Se A Vako Vjeruje(1/10a/4)
Gayrıdan Bilme(1/9a/9)
U Drugoga Neznaj(1/9a/10)
Ol Müslümandur(1/10a/3)
On Je Turţin(1/10a/4)
Gayrısı Kader Değildir(1/9b/1)
Lakin Eger Tanrı Yardım
Iderse(1/9b/3)
Drugi Nije Ništa Vrstan (1/9b/2)
Herkes Bilsün(1/10a/5)
Neka Svatko Znade(1/10a/6)
Ve Hem Inansun(1/10a/5)
Veše Ako(Veš Ako)Bog Pomoze(Pomozi)(1/9b/4)
Hem Vjeruje(1/10a/6)
Anun Kuvveti Çokdur(1/9a/3)
Njegova Snaga Puno(1/9b/4)
Hiç Düşünmesün(1/10a/5)
Kimse Ol Kadar Olmaz(1/9b/5)
Nitko Onoliko Nemora Bit(1/9b/6)
Öyle Midür(1/10a/7)
Tako Je(1/10a/8)
Her Ne Dilerse Kaderdir(1/9b/5)
Šta God Hoše More(1/9b/6)
Degil Midür(1/10a/7)
Nije Li(1/10a/8)
Nice Isterse(1/9b/5)
Kako Hošu(1/9b/6)
Böyle Bilmeli(1/10a/7)
A Vako Valja Znati(1/10a/8)
Allah Her Şeyi Bilür(1/9b/9)
Bog Sve Zna(1/9b/10)
Hem Bilür(1/12b/13)
I Znade(1/12b/14)
Hem Görür(1/9b/9)
Hem Vidi(1/9b/10)
Mi Što God Radimo(1/12b/14)
Biz Bilmeyiz(1/9b/9)
Mi Neznamo(1/9b/10)
Biz Ne Işlersen(K)(1/12b/13)
Dahi Fikir Itdigumüz Heb
Bilür(1/12b/13)
Zan Etme(1/9b/11)
Ne Misli(1/9b/12)
Neka Ne Misli(1/10a/6)
Još Stogar Pomislimo Zna(1/12b/14)
1348
�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Zira(1/9b/3)
Jera(1/9b/4)
Sanma(1/9b/11)
Ne Misli(1/9b/12)
Değil(1/9b/11)
Nije (1/9b/12)
Böyledir(1/10a/1)
A Vako Je(1/10a/2)
9.Sağlık İle İlgili Kelimeler
Dirilük (1/2a/1)
Ţivot (1/2a/2)
Tr.
Sağ (1/2a/1)
Tr.
Zdravo (1/2a/2)
10. Hastalık ve Hastalıklar İle İlgili Kelimeler
Hasta (1/2a/1)
Far.
Bolesna (1/2a/2)
Kısır(1/5b/13)
Tr.
Jalova (1/5b/14)
Sıtma (1/2b/3)
Tr.
Groznica (1/2b/4)
İrin(1/6a/13)
Tr.
Gnoj(1/6a/14)
Souklamak (1/2b/15)
Tr.
Nazebst / Prehladiti Se (1/2b/16)Sıtma(1/8a/9)
Tr.
Groznica(1/8a/10)
Terlemek (1/2b/15)
Tr.
Oznojit (1/2b/16)
Uyuz(1/8a/9)
Tr.
Svrab(1/8a/10)
Çapak (1/4b/9)
Tr.
Krmelj (1/4b/10)
Sigil (1/3a/3)
Tr.
Bradavica (1/3a/4)
Çıpan(1/5b/13)
Tr.
Ţir(1/5b/14)
Gebe Avrat(1/5b/13)
Tr.+Ar.
Teška Ţena(1/5b/14)
Kıtluk (1/3a/15)
Ar.+Tr.
Tjeskoba (1/3a/16)
11. Günlük Karşılaşılan Olaylar İle İlgili Kelimeler
Ödünç (1/3a/5)
Tr.
Uzajmit (1/3a/6)
Bağış (1/3a/7)
Tr.
Poklon (1/3a/8)
12. İnsanların Fiziksel Özellikleri İle İlgili Kelimeler
Aksak (1/2a/3)
Tr.
Hromo (1/2a/4)
Güzellük(1/6b/9)
Tr.
Ljepota(1/6b/10)
Hor (1/3a/3)
Far.
Zloţasto (1/3a/4)
Aksi Yüzlü(1/6b/9)
Tr.
Smrknuta(1/6b/10)
Kör(1/6a/1)
Far.
Slijep (1/6a/2)
Körlük(1/9a/1)
Tr.
Tupo(1/9a/2)
Dilber(1/6a/15)
Far.
Lijepo(1/6a/16)
Genç(1/11a/3)
Tr.
Mlado(1/11a/4)
Çirkin(1/6a/15)
Far.
Ruţno(1/6a/16)
Arta Boylı(1/12b/5)
Tr.
Srednjog Boja(1/12b/6)
Siyah Gözlü(1/12b/7)
Far.+Tr.
Crnih Oţiju(1/12b/8)
Sarı Sakallı(1/12b/5)
Tr.
Ţuta Brada(1/12b/6)
Şensad (1/2a/6)
Tr.
Sakat (1/2a/5)
Şişman(1/12b/7)
Tr.
Drzmaga (Drzmonja) (1/12b/8)
Sağır (1/3a/1)
Tr.
Gluho (1/3a/1)
Yalın Ayak (1/2b/9)
Tr.+Tr.
Bosonog (1/2b/10)
Dilsüz (1/3a/1)
Tr.
Nijemo (1/3a/2)
Gözü Çapaklu(1/4b/9)
Tr.+Tr.
Krmeljave Oţi (1/4b/10)
13. Temizlik İle İlgili Kelimeler
Hammam (1/2a/9)
Ar.
Banja (1/2a/10)
14. Yön-Mesafe-Ölçü İle İlgili Kelimeler
Dane(1/9a/11)
Ar.
Zrno(1/9a/12)
Kalayaya(1/7b/11)
Ar.+Tr.
U Rat(1/7b/12)
Çift(1/7a/3)
Far.
Dvoje(1/7a/4)
Yüksek (1/2a/15)
Tr.
Visoko (1/2a/16)
Alçak (1/2a/15)
Tr.
Nisko (1/2a/16)
Yukarı (1/3a/13)
Tr.
Gore (1/3a/14)
Aşa (1/3a/13)
Tr.
Dole (1/3a/14)
Geniş (1/3a/15)
Tr.
Prostrano (1/3a/16)
Az (1/3a/15)
Tr.
Malo (1/3a/16)
Çok (1/3b/1)
Tr.
Mlogo / Mnogo (1/3b/2)
Azlık (1/3b/1)
Tr.
Malko / Malo (1/3b/2)
Çokluk (1/3b/1)
Tr.
Mlogoko (1/3b/2)
Adum (1/3b/15)
Tr.
Koraţaj Korak (1/3b/16)
Yukarı (1/4a/9)
Tr.
Gore (1/4a/10)
Aşa(1/4a/9)
Tr.
Dole (1/4a/10)
Kulaç(1/6b/11)
Tr.
(1/6b/12)
Adum(1/6b/13)
Tr.
Koraţaj (1/6b/14)
Atım(1/6b/13)
Tr.
Hitac (1/6b/14)
Buçuk(1/7a/3)
Tr.
Pola(1/7a/4)
Kanat(1/7a/3)
Tr.
Krilo(1/7a/4)
Tek(1/7a/3)
Tr.
Samcat (Sam) (1/7a/4)
Tek (Ilk) (1/7a/3)
Tr.
Prvo(1/7a/4)
Yarıya(1/7a/13)
Tr.
Raspoloviti(1/7a/14)
Dolayumuzda(1/7b/1)
Tağ
Dolayunda(1/7b/3)
Bayır Altunda
(1/7b/3)
Tr.
Oko Nas(1/7b/2)
Tr.
Oko Planine(1/7b/4)
Tr.
Pod Brdom (1/7b/4)
Bayır Aşrı (1/7b/3)
Tr.
Preko Brda(1/7b/4)
Dolaşık(1/8a/7)
Tr.
Naokolo(1/8a/8)
Dolaşa(1/8a/7)
Tr.
ObiŤi(1/8a/8)
Yarı(1/9b/1)
Tr.
Pola(1/9b/2)
Öteden (1/10a/9)
Tr.
Otuda(1/10a/10)
Beriden(1/10a/9)
Tr.
Odavde (1/10a/10)
Bu Taraftan(1/10a/9)
Tr.
S Ove Strane(1/10a/10)
Ol Taraftan(1/10a/9)
Tr.
S One Strane(1/10a/10)
Ovada(1/12a/9)
Tr.
U Polju (1/12a/10)
Yukarıdan(1/13b/3)
Tr.
Ozgor(1/13b/4)
Aşadan(1/13b/5)
Tr.
Ozdol(1/13b/6)
Karşıya(1/16a/5)
Tr.
Miješaj(1/16a/6)
1349
�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Salkum Dane
(1/2b/11)
Tr.+Far.
Grozdovi (1/2b/12)
15. Bitkiler
Isırgan (1/2b/4)
Tr.
Ţara (1/2b/6)
Tomurcuk(1/9b/1)
Tr.
Pup (1/9b/1)
Gonca ((1/12a/1)
Far.
Klilo (1/12a/2)
Çiçek(1/12a/1)
Tr.
Cvijet(1/12a/2)
Tiken (1/4a/3)
Tr.
Trn (1/4a/4)
16. At ve Atlar İle İlgili Kelimeler
Nalça (1/2b/4)
Ar.
Potkov (1/2b/6)
Sagırak (1/2b/11)
Tr.
Drvenica (1/2b/12)
Çul (1/3a/3)
Ar.
Pokrivaţ (1/3a/4)
Eyer(1/7a/5)
Tr.
Sedlo(1/7a/6)
Çul(1/7a/5)
Ar.
Pokrivaţ (1/7a/6)
Uyan(1/7a/5)
Tr.
Uzde (1/7a/6)
Nal(1/7a/7)
Ar.
Pluša(1/7a/8)
Kişnemiş(1/9a/1)
Tr.
Vrisnuti(1/9a/2)
Muh(1/7a/7)
Far.
Klinac(1/7a/8)
Yele(1/12a/5)
Tr.
Beygir Yelesi(1/12a/7)
Far.+Tr.
Konjska Griva(1/12a/8)
Nalsuz (1/2b/9)
Griva(1/12a/6)
Nepotkovan
(1/2b/10)
Uyan (1/2b/9)
Tr.
Uzde (1/2b/10)
Yular (1/2b/11)
Tr.
Oglavina (1/2b/12)
Far.+Tr.
17. Günlük Konuşmalar
Nallat Beygiri(1/2b/4)
Potkuj Konja
İşgalüm Yoktur (1/5a/11)
Muka Nejmam / Muka Nemam (1/5a/12)
Alurum (1/4a/11)
Uzešu / Uzet Šu (1/4a/12)
Bu Dünya Geçti (1/5a/13)
Ovi Svijet ProŤe (1/5a/14)
Ben Alurum (1/4a/11)
Ja Šu Uzet / Ja Šu Uzeti (1/4a/12)
Šta Ja Hošu (1/5b/2)
Ben Aldum (1/4a/13)
Ja Uzeo / Ja Sam Uzeo (1/4a/14)
Benum Ne Hacetum ( /5b/1)
Vakit Geçti Yetişemeyiz
(1/5b/3)
Sen Al (1/4a/13)
Ti Uzmi (1/4a/14)
Gece Uzundur(1/5b/5)
Noš Duga (1/5b/6)
Sen Alma (1/4a/13)
Ti Ne Uzmi (1/4a/14)
Gün Kısadur(1/5b/5)
Dan Kratak (1/5b/6)
Sen Gel (1/4a/13)
Ti Hodi / Ti Dodji (1/4a/14)
Dahi Var(1/5b/7)
Još Ima (1/5b/8)
Sen Gelme (1/4a/15)
Ti Ne Budi / Ti Ne Dodji (1/4a/16)
Dobro Došo / Dobro Došao (1/4a/16)
Yakında Dokandı(1/5b/7)
Benim Ne Kadar Işlerüm Var
(1/5b/9)
Skoro Nestade (1/5 /8)
Hoş Geldin (1/4a/15)
Hoş Bulduk (1/4a/15)
Dobro Vas
Safa Geldün (1/4b/1)
Lijepo Došo/ Lijepo Došao (1/4b/2)
Safa Da Buldun(M) (1/4b/1)
Zajedno DajŤemo / Zajedno Da Idemo (1/5b/12)
Otur (1/4b/1)
Lijepo Vas Našo /Lijepo Vas Našao (1/4b/2) Beraber Gidelüm(1/5b/11)
Yine Beraber
Sjedi (1/4b/2)
G lürüz(1/5b/11)
Oturdum (1/4b/3)
Sjeho(Sjeo) Sjeo Sam (1/4b/4)
Çokdan Olmışdur(1/6b/1)
Nako Bit Odavno Bilo(1/6b/2)
Sen Otur (1/4b/3)
Ben Oturdum(Otururum)
(1/4b/3)
Ti Sjedi (1/4b/4)
Şimdi Olacakdur(1/6b/1)
Jako Še Biti(1/6b/2)
Ja Šu Sjedit (1/4b/4)
Hiç Olmaz(1/6b/3)
Ništa Ko Neše Bit
İşim Var (1/4b/3)
Posla Imam (1/4b/4)
Hiç Bulmam(1/6b/5)
Nikako Nešu Naš(1/6b/6)
Giderüm Ben (1/4b/5)
IŤem Ja (1/4b/6)
Kakav Je Poso (1/4b/6)
Velakin Istemem(1/6b/7)
Ol Sebebden
Bulmam(1/6b/7)
Ama Nešu(1/6b/8)
Ne Asul Işdur (1/4b/5)
Sana Soylediğim Oldı Mı
(1/5a/2)
Što Sam Ti Govorio Bilo (1/5a/3)
Gidelüm Kalaya(1/7b/5)
Da Išemo U Rat(1/7b/6)
Dahi Olmadı (1/5a/5)
Još Ne Bi (1/5a/6)
Ne Yapalum(1/7b/7)
Šta Šu Ţinit(1/7b/8)
Olacakdur (1/5a/5)
Biše / Bit Še (1/5a/6)
Yeni Kaladur(1/7b/7)
Novi Grad(1/7b/8)
Erteleme (1/5a/5)
Ne Hiti (1/5a/6)
Bakalum Ne Bolmış(1/7b/7)
Da Vidimo Šta Je(1/7b/8)
Zira (1/5a/5)
Jera (1/5a/6)
Ne Bakars n(1/7b/9)
Šta Šeš Gledat(1/7b/10)
Öyle (1/5a/5)
A Tako (1/5a/6)
Ben Bakmışım(1/7b/9)
Je Gledao(1/7b/10)
Böyle Oldı (1/5a/7)
Ovako Bi (1/5a/8)
İş Yok(1/7b/9)
Nevalja(1/7b/10)
Ertelemem Ben (1/5a/9)
Ne Hitim Ja (1/5a/10)
Katı Degildur(1/7b/9)
Tvrd Nije(1/7b/10)??
İşim Yok (1/5a/9)
Posla Nejmam / Posla Nemam (1/5a/10)
Velakin Begenmedük
Ama Ne Begenismo(1/7b/12)
İşledum (1/5a/9)
Şimdi Sefa Sorayım
(1/5a/11)
Uradih (1/5a/10)
Bizim Için Degildür(1/8a/1)
Za Nas Nije (1/8a/2)
Jako Sefaluk Provodım (1/5a/12)
Biraz
Malo Ima (1/8a/2)
ašo Do ro Vas Našao(1/4a/16) Gezici Beraberdür (1/5b/9)
Beraber Değil(1/5b/11)
ar (1/8a/1)
Zaman ProŤe Ne Stigosmo (1/5b/4)
U Mene Posla Ima (1/5b/10)
Ko Hoda Jednako(1/5b/10)
Jednako Nije (1/5b/12)
Opet Zajedno Šemo Doš (1/5b/12)
Stogar Ne NaŤo(1/6b/8)
1350
�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Velakin Ufak(1/8a/1)
Tüfekden Biraz
Buyurhak(1/8a/3)
Ama Malehni (Malehno) (1/8a/12)
Cem Oldı(1/11a/5)
Skupi Se(1/11a/6)
Od Puške Malo Više(1/8a/4)
Ben Cem Etdüm(1/11a/7)
Ja Skupi(1/11a/8)
Sürmez Çok(1/8a/3)
Nemore Gonit Zadugo(1/8a/4)
Sen Cem Et(1/11a/7)
Ti Skupi(1/11a/8)
Ayağım Uyuşdı(1/8a/9)
Noga Mi Utrnu(1/8a/10)
Nice Idelüm(1/11a/7)
Kako Šemo Ţebit(1/11a/8)
Niçün(Niçin) (1/ a/11)
Jera (1/8a/12)
Na Asıl(1/11a/7)
Kako(1/11a/8
Babam Uyur(1/8a/11)
Sonra Pişman
Olursın(1/8b/1)
Otaš Mi Spava(1/8a/12)
Bilürseniz(1/11a/9)
Ţnadete(Znadete)(1/11a/10)
Poslije Kajaše Se(1/8b/2)
Ol Güne(1/11a/9)
A Nako(1/11a/10)
Benüm Bilduğum(1/8b/1)
Ja Što Znam(1/8b/2)
İşleyin(1/11a/9)
Radite(1/11a/10)
Neme Lazumdur(1/8b/3)
Što Še Mi(1/8b/4)
Erken Gelür(1/11a/9)
Rano DoŤite(1/11a/10)
Bilmezsin Sen(1/8b/3)
Nerde L zum
Olacakdur(1/8b/3)
Bir Yerde Lazım
Degildür(1/8b/5)
Neznaš Ti(1/8b/4)
Kaçan Gitdi(1/11a/11)
Kad Odoh(1/11a/12)
Gdje Še Trebat(1/8b/4)
Şimdiye Gelmişdür(1/11b/1)
Do Jako Je Došo(1/11b/ )
Negdje Ne Treba(1/8b/6)
Znadeš Li(1/11b/2)
Gerekdür Bana(1/8b/5)
Treba Meni(1/8b/6)
Bilür Misün(1/11b/1)
Ne Zaman Gelür
Bilmem(1/11b/1)
Bildüğüm Yere(1/8b/7)
Kodar Znam (1/8b/8)
Ne Pitah(1/11b/4)
Ne Asıl Yerdir(1/8b/7)
Kako Mjesto(1/8b/8)
Sormadum(1/11b/3)
Kendinden
Deyurmedi(1/11b/3)
Bana Bir Şey Kalmaz(1/ b/9)
Eger Sana
Deyürsmm(1/8b/9)
Meni Ništa Ne Osta(De)(1/8b/10)
Yarın Gelür(1/11b/3)
Sutra Doše(1/11b/4)
Ako Tebi Kaţem(1/8b/10)
Öyle Demiş(1/11b/3)
Tako Reko Je(1/11b/4)
Bize(Bana) Benzer(1/9a/1)
Kimse Bir Şey
Vermez(1/10a/11)
Herkesin Kendisi Şeyi Bekler
(1/10a/11)
Nama(Meni)Nalikuje(1/9a/2)
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Ja Šu Iši(1/11b/6)
Nereye Gitmiş(1/11b/5)
Kud Je Otišo(1/11b/6)
Köye(1/11b/7)
Na Selo(1/11b/8)
Allah Virmesün(1/10a/11)
Kimseye Muhtaç
Olmayalım(1/10b/1)
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Kanğı Köye(1/11b/7)
Na Koje Selo(1/11b/8)
Adunı Unutdum(1/11b/7)
Ime Mu Zaboravih(1/11b/8)
Allahtan Isterüz(1/10b/1)
Od Boga Ištemo(1/10b/2)
Git Çarşıya(1/11b/7)
IŤi Na Ţaršiju(1/11b/8)
Ne Işim Var(1/11b/9)
Kako Posla Imah(1/11b/10)
Un Al(1/11b/9)
Brašno Uzmi(1/11b/10)
Nitko Ništa Nedade(1/10a/11)
Svatko Svoje I Ţuva(1/10a/11)
Nikome Da Ne Bude Muhtaç(1/10b/2)
Her Ne Gönli Isterse(1/10b/1)
Ko Da Srce Ište(1/10b/2)
Kimse Bozma (1/10b/3)
Bu Yerde Ansuz
Olabilir(1/10b/3)
Niko Nemore Razbit(1/10b/4)
Hema Gitmez(1/10b/5)
O Da Bize
Gerek(Mez)(1/10b/5)
Sizden Istedüğümüz Kime
Ne ( /10b/5)
Getürdi Söz Mü (1/10b/7)
Eger Getürdiysenüz(1/10b/7)
Hepümüz Görelüm(1/10b/7)
Nerden Getürülmiş(1/10b/9)
em Bakun(1/10b/9)
Şimdi Hazır
Degildür(1/10b/11)
Kanğısını Alurum(1/11b/9)
Na Ovome Mjestu Brez Nega Bit More(1/10b/4)
Kukuruz Unı(1/11b/9)
Zaludo Neše Iš (1/10b/6)
Kaç Fiyata(1/11b/11)
I On Nam Neše Valjat (1/10b/6)
On Fiya a(1/11b/11)
Od Vas Što Smo Iskali Kome(1/10b/6)
Ne Kadardur(1/11b/13)
Doneso Ste Li(1/10b/8)
Diduğin Kadar(1/11b/13)
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Kaç Paraya Aldun(1/11b/13)
Da Mi Svi Vidimo(1/10b/8)
Beş Paraya(1/11b/15)
Odakle Si Donio(1/10b/10)
Niçin Öyle Bahalı(1/11b/15)
Hem Pogledajte(1/10b/10)
Aşa Virmezler(1/11b/15)
Jako Nije Kotovo(Gotovo)(1/10b/12)
Kad Še Doš Neznam(1/11b/2)
Od Sebe Ne Kazala(1/11b/4)
Koga Šu Uzet(1/11b/10)
Klasovno(1/11b/10)
Koliko Oka(1/11b/12)
Deset Oka(1/11b/12)
Kolko Je(1/11b/14)
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Pošto Si Uzeo(1/11b/14)
Po Pet Para(1/11b/16)
Jera Ta o Skupa(Skupo)
Niţe Nedaju(1/11b/16)
Böyle Alınur(1/11b/15)
Ovako Uzimate(1/11b/16)
İster Misün(1/12a/1)
Hošeš Li(1/12a/2)
Çiçek Vireyim Sana(1/12a/3)
Cvijet Da Ti Dam(1/12a/4)
Kokuyor Mı(1/12a/3)
Miri Li(1/12a/4)
Nereye(1/12 /7)
Kuda(1/12a/8)
Ya Ne Zamandur(1/10b/11)
Ja Kad Še Bit(1/10b/12)
Ne Zaman Olursa(1/10b/11)
Kada Bude(1/10b/12)
Eziyet Etmeyin(1/11a/1)
Nemojte Ezijet Ţinit(1/11a/2)
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Çapam ,,,,,,,(Keskin
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otika Mi Tupa(1/12a/12)
1351
�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Gideyim Biledeyim(1/12a/11)
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Na Pamet Doši Nemore .....(1/13b/8).
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Što Šemo(1/14b/10)
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1352
�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Tez Olsun(1/15a/1)
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18. Olumsuz Fiiller
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Vodu Provedi (1/16a/11)
Na Ovi Svijet Selamet Da Dade( /16b/2)
Proh daj(1/15b/12)
1353
�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
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19. Yemekler
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Tr.
20. İsimler
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Tr.
Metinde Karşılığı Yok
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Ne Nauţi(1/14b/2)
Yeni (1/3b/7)
Novo (1/3b/8)
Ögrendiler(1/14b/5)
Nuţiše(1/14b/6)
Eski (1/3b/7)
Vehto / Staro (1/3b/8)
Ögrenmediler(1/14b/5)
Ne Nauţiše(1/14b/6)
Kış (1/3b/9)
Zima (1/3b/10)
Olmalı (1/14b/9)
Vala Da Bude(1/14b/10)
Yaz (1/3b/9)
Leto / Ljeto (1/3b/10)
Olmamalı (1/14b/9)
Vala Da Ne Bude (1/14b/10)
Tez Gel (1/3b/13)
Hitro Hodi Brzo Dodji (1/3b/14)
Yaklaş(1/16a/7)
Prikuţi Se(1/16a/8)
Yavaşça (1/3b/15)
Polahko (1/3b/16)
Nad Putem(1/7b/6)
Pod Putem(1/7b/6)
1354
�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Yaklaşma(1/16a/7)
Ne Prikuţi Se(1/16a/8)
23. Mevsimler
Kış (1/3b/9)
Tr.
Zima (1/3b/10)
Yaz (1/3b/9)
Tr.
Leto / Ljeto (1/3b/10)
24. Birleşik Fiiller
Satın Aldı (1/3b/11)
Tr.+Tr.
Hibe Eyledi (1/3b/13)
Ar.+Tr.
Tez Gel (1/3b/13)
Far.+Tr.
Kupi Kupio Je (1/3b/12)
Pokloni Poklonio Je
(1/3b/14)
Hitro Hodi Brzo Dodji
(1/3b/14)
Kert Eyleye(1/7a/7)
Tr.+Tr.
Zareţi(1/7a/8)
Çiçek Dikdüm(1/12a/1)
Tr.+Tr.
Cvijet Usadih(1/12a/2)
Haz Iderler(1/13a/9)
Ar.+Tr.
Milovaše(1/13a/10)
Fikir Eylese(1/13b/5)
Ar.+Tr.
Misli(1/13b/6)
Böyle Et(1/13b/9)
Tr.+Tr.
Ako Ţini(1/13b/10)
Haber Virün(1/15a/3)
Ar.+Tr.
Kaţite(1/15a/4)
25. Zarflar
Evvel (1/5a/7)
Prije (1/5a/8)
Niçün(1/15b/5)
Jera (1/15b/6)
Yavaşça (1/3b/15)
Polahko (1/3b/16)
Dahi Iy(1/15a/13)
Još Bolje(1/15a/14)
Öyle (1/5a/5)
A Tako (1/5a/6)
Yavaşça (1/3b/15)
Polahko (1/3b/16)
Şimdi(1/5a/7)
Jako / Sada (1/5a/8)
Evvelce(1/11a/7)
Stariji(1/11a/8)
Sonra (1/5a/7)
Niçün(Niçin)
(1/8a/11)
Poslije (1/5a/8)
Çabuk(1/11b/11)
Hitro(1/11b/12)
Jera (1/8a/12)
Çapucak (1/4b/11)
Odmah (1/4b/12)
Çokdan (1/11a/11)
Davno(1/11a/12)
Atamla (Yavaşça) (1/5a/3)
Vito (1/5a/4)
Nereye(1/12a/7)
Kuda(1/12a/8)
Yaşça(Yavaşça)(1/8a/11)
Polahko(1/8a/12)
Nerede(1/12a/7)
Gdje(1/12a/8)
Yavaş(1/9a/1)
Polahko(1/9a/2)
Nerde(1/12a/9)
Gdje(1/12a/10)
Öteden(1/11a/11)
Otuda(1/11a/12)
Sonra(1/12a/11)
Kendi
Kendüme(1/12b/3)
Yavaş
Yavaş(1/14b/5)
Poslije(1/12a/12)
Beriden(1/11a/11)
Odavde(1/11a/12)
Sam Sebi(1/12b/4)
Çokdan (1/11a/11)
Davno(1/11a/12)
Da Malo Po Malo(1/14b/6)
Sonra(1/12a/11)
Poslije(1/12a/12)
Nereye(1/15b/1)
Kuda(1/15b/2)
Yavaş Yavaş(1/14b/5)
Da Malo Po Malo(1/14b/6)
26. Meyva ve Sebzeler
Soğan(1/9b/7)
Tr.
Luk(1/9b/8)
Kavun(1/9b/7)
Tr.
Dinja(1/9b/8)
Sarmusak(1/9b/7)
Tr.
Bijeli Luk(1/9b/8)
Karbuz(1/9b/9)
Far.
Lubenica(1/9b/10)
Hıyar(1/9b/7)
Far.
Krastavac(1/9b/8)
27. Yiyecek ve İçecekler İle İlgili Kelimeler
Un (1/4b/11)
Tr.
Mlivo (Meljivo)(1/4b/14)
Yağ (1/5a/15)
Tr.
Maslo (1/5a/16)
Hamur (1/4b/14)
Ar.
Tijesto /1/15)
Süt (1/5a/15)
Tr.
Mlijeko (1/5a/16)
Penir (1/5b/1)
Far.
Sir (1/5b/2)
Yoğurt (1/5a/15)
Tr.
Kiselo Mlijeko (1/5a/16)
Kepek (1/4b/13)
Tr.
Mekinje (1/4b/14)
Ayran (1/5b/1)
Tr.
Mlašenica (1/5b/2)
Kapuk (1/4b/14)
Tr.
Kora (1/4b/15)
Tuz(1/9a/11)
Tr.
Bro(1/9a/12)
28. İnsanların Ruhsal Özellikleri İle İlgili Kelimeler
Nazik(1/6b/9)
Far.
Lijepo(1/6b/10)
Şenli(1/6b/9)
Tr.
Veselo(1/6b/10)
Aksi (1/4b/16)
Tr.
Gladna (1/4b/17)
Dargın(1/12b/7)
Tr.
Ljut(1/12b/8)
29. Tarım İle İlgili Kelimeler
Harman (1/4b/16)
Far.
Gumno (1/4b/17)
Hırman (1/6a/1)
Far.
Vršaj(1/6a/2)
30. Vücut Organları ve Vücudun İşleyişi İle İlgili Kelimeler
Nefes(1/5b/5)
Ar.
Zrak (1/5b/6)
Maya(1/6a/3)
Far.
Sirište (1/6a/4)
Kulunç(1/8a/9)
Ar.
Sandţija(1/8a/10)
Pazu(1/6a/9)
Far.
Mišiš(1/6a/10)
Zülüf (1/5b/13)
Far.
Solufa (1/5b/14)
Ciger (1/6a/11)
Far.
Dţigerica (1/6a/12)
Haya(1/5b/13)
Far.
Tašak(1/5b/14)
Bacak (1/5a/15)
Tr.
Noga (1/5a/16)
1355
�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Soluk(1/5b/7)
Tr.
Uzdihlaj / Uzdisaj(1/5b/8)
Kol(1/6a/9)
Tr.
Ud,Lakat Do Šaka(1/6a/10)
Meme(1/5b/13)
Tr.
Sise (Dojke)(1/5b/14)
Koltuk(1/6a/9)
Tr.
Pazuho(1/6a/10)
Öd(1/6a/1)
Tr.
Ţuţ (1/6a/2)
Göbek(1/6a/9)
Tr.
Pupak(1/6a/10)
Talak (1/6a/1)
Tr.
Šleţena / Slezena(1/6a/2)
Bubrek (1/6a/11)
Tr.
Pubrak(1/6a/12)
Bağır(1/6a/3)
Tr.
Jeţa (Jeka)(1/6a/4)
Bağırsak(1/6a/11)
Tr.
Šrijevo(Crijevo) (1/6a/12)
Kürek(1/6a/3)
Tr.
Lopatica (1/6a/4)
İşkene(1/6a/11)
Tr.
Trbušak (1/6a/12)
Uyluk(1/6a/3)
Tr.
Estegno (1/6a/4)
Tükürük(1/6a/13)
Tr.
Pljunka(1/6a/14)
Diz(1/6a/3)
Tr.
Koljeno (1/6a/4)
Ter(1/6a/13)
Tr.
Znoj(1/6a/14)
Baldur(1/6a/3)
Tr.
List (1/6a/4)
Boğaz(1/6a/13)
Tr.
Grlo(1/6a/14)
Ökçe(1/6a/5)
Tr.
Peda (Peta)(1/6a/6)
Baş Tepesi(1/6a/15)
Tr.
Tjeme(1/6a/16)
Dirsek(1/6a/9)
Tr.
Lakat(1/6a/10)
Boş Yer(1/6a/3)
Tr.+Tr.
Prazno Mjesto (1/6a/4)
31.Ağaçlar
Dişi Budak( Dişbudak) (1/5b/14)
Tr.
Jasjen (Jasen) (1/5b/15)
Kara Sogüt Ağacı(1/6a/11)
Tr.
Rakimovina (Vrba)(1/6a/14)
32. Rüzgarlar
Lodos(1/6a/5)
Rum.
Jug(1/6a/6)
Poyraz(1/6a/5)
Rum.
Sjever(1/6a/6)
Kasırga(1/6a/5)
Tr.
Vihar (Vihor)(1/6a/6)
33. Hayvanlar ve Hayvanlar İle İlgili Kelimeler
Ağıl(1/6b/9)
Tr.
Tor(1/6b/10)
Tasma(1/7a/11)
Uţe(1/7a/12)
Tr.
Baykuş(1/7a/9)
Kokuk (Guguk)
(1/7a/13)
Tr.
Jehina(1/7a/10)
Tr.
Pjevaţica(1/7a/14)
Uyak(1/7a/15)
Tr.
Grlica(1/7a/16)
Far.+Tr.
Pijeto(1/7b/2)
Lastavica Bijela
Ptica(1/7a/16)
Ağaç Dökün(1/7b/1)
Tr.
Ţuna(1/7b/2)
Kirpi(1/6b/13)
Tr.
Jeţ(1/6b/14)
Tavuk(1/7b/1)
Tr.
Kokoš(1/7b/2)
Kelebek(1/6b/13)
Tr.
Leptir(1/6b/14)
Sığırcak(1/7b/1)
Tr.
Tatrijeb(1/7b/2)
Sümükli Böcek(1/6b/13)
Tr.
Puţ(1/6b/14)
Kurbağa(1/8a/3)
Tr.
Ţaba(1/8a/4)
Bal Arusı(1/7a/1)
Tr.
Matiše (Matice)(1/7a/2)
Kaplubağa(1/8a/5)
Tr.
Kornjaţa(1/8a/6)
Kuş(1/7a/3)
Tr.
Ptica(1/7a/4)
Baluk (1/8a/5)
Tr.
Riba(1/8a/6)
Doğan(1/7a/9)
Tr.
Jastrijet(1/7a/10)
Alın Baluk(1/8a/5)
Tr.
Pastrma(1/8a/6)
Kaz(1/7a/9)
Tr.
Guska(1/7a/10)
Yabani(1/8a/5)
Tr.
Divje(1/8a/6)
Tavus(1/8a/3)
Ar.
Paun(1/8a/4)
Şahin(1/7a/9)
Far.
Soko(1/7a/10)
Horos(1/7b/1)
Far.
Bülbül Kuşu (1/7a/15)
34. Müzik Aletleri
Davul(1/7a/1)
Ar.
Bubanj(1/7a/2)
Çayır(1/7a/13)
Tr.
Luţ(1/7a/12)
Zurna(1/9b/7)
Far.
Surla(1/9b/8)
Tağ(1/7b/3)
Tr.
Planina (1/7b/4)
Boru(1/7a/1)
Tr.
Boruya(1/7a/2)
35.Tabiat Olayları ve Coğrafya İle İlgili Kelimeler
Bulutlandı(1/8b/9)
Naoblaţi(1/8b/10)
Çamur(1/12b/9)
Kav(1/12b/10)
Yağmur Yağıyor(1/8b/11)
Kiša Lije(1/8b/12)
Yol Çamurlı(1/12b/9)
Put Kavun(1/12b/10)
Soudu(1/9b/1)
Ohladje(1/9b/2)
Kurakluk(1/12b/9)
Suhoša(1/12b/10)
Çayır(1/7a/13)
Luţ(1/7a/12)
Tağ(1/7b/3)
Planina (1/7b/4)
Tr.
Luţ(1/7a/12)
36. Renkler İle İlgili Kelimeler
Yeşil(1/9b/9)
Tr.
Zeleno(1/9b/10)
38. Sıfat-fiiller
Spavaţ(1/12a/8)
Uyuyan(1/12a/7)
37. Zarf-fiiller
Okudıp (1/3b/9)
Nauţi (1/3b/10)
Ögrenünce(1/14b/3)
Dok nauţim(1/14b/4)
Oldukta(1/15a/1)
Kad bude(1/15a/2)
39. Edatlar
Gül Gibi(1/12a/5)
Köpek
Gibi(1/12b/7)
Far.+Tr.
Ko Ruznica(1/12a/6)
Tr.
Ko Pahţe(1/12b/8)
1356
�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Dilsüz
Gibi(1/13a/3)
Bildüğüm Kadar
(1/13b/15)
Tr.
Ko Brez Jezika(Ko Bez Jezika)(1/13a/4)
Tr.+Ar.
Koliko Sam Mogao(1/13b/16)
40. Ünlem
İnşallah(1/12b/3)
Ar.
Ako Bog Da/12b/4)
1357
�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and
Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
41. Zamirler
Biz De
Ögrendiyduk(1/14a/9)
I Mi Bijahmo Nauţili(1/14a/10)
Ögrenürdüm Ben(1/14a/13)
Ja Nauţi Prije(1/14a/14)
Ögrenürsem Ben(1/14b/3)
Ako Nauţim(1/14b/4)
Beni Ögredesen(1/14b/3)
Sen Beni
Ögretmezsün(1/14b/3)
Mene Uţi(1/14b/4)
Ben Aldum (1/4a/13)
Ja Šu Uzet / Ja Šu
Uzeti (1/4a/12)
Ja Uzeo / Ja Sam
Uzeo (1/4a/14)
Sen Al (1/4a/13)
Ti Uzmi (1/4a/14)
Sen Alma (1/4a/13)
Ti Ne Uzmi (1/4a/14)
Sen Gel (1/4a/13)
Ti Hodi / Ti Dodji (1/4a/14)
Kendini Ögret(1/14b/5)
Ti Ne Budi / Ti Ne
Dodji (1/4a/16)
Ben Dedüm (1/14b/13)
Ben Alurum (1/4a/11)
Sen Gelme (1/4a/15)
Sen Otur (1/4b/3)
Ben Oturdum(Otururum)
(1/4b/3)
Ti Sjedi (1/4b/4)
Giderüm Ben (1/4b/5)
Ti Mene Nemoj Uţit(1/14b/4)
Sebe Nauţi(1/14b/6)
Ja Reko(1/14b/14)
Oni Da Bijahu(1/14b/16)
Ja Šu Sjedit (1/4b/4)
Onlar Olaydı(1/14b/15)
Siz Ta'accüb Iderseniz
Olacak(1/14b/15)
IŤem Ja (1/4b/6)
Biz Gelelüm(1/15a/3)
Mi Da DoŤemo(1/15a/4)
Bizi(1/13a/9)
Nas(1/13a/10)
Kimdedur(1/15a/7)
U Koga Je(1/15a/8)
Öğrenün Siz(1/14a/3)
Nauţite Vi(1/14a/4)
Herkesde(1/15a/7)
U Svakoga(1/15a/8)
Biz Ögrendük(1/14a/5)
Siz Örenün Bizüm
Gibi(1/14a/5)
Mi Nauţismo(1/14a/6)
Anları(1/15a/11)
Vi Nauţite Ko Mi(1/14a/6)
Falanca(1/1/10)
Tamo(1/1/9)
Size Yeterdür(1/14a/5)
Vama Dosta(1/14a/6)
Filan Yere(1/8b/7)
Ta Ovo Mjesto(1/8b/8)
Ögrendün Mi Sen(1/14a/9)
Nauţil Ti(1/14a/10)
Ögredük Biz(1/14a/9)
Nauţismo Mi(1/14a/10)
Ne Mutlu Size(1/14a/9)
Blago Vama(1/14a/10)
42. Sıfatlar
Hasta (1/2a/1)
Sağ (1/2a/1)
Aksak (1/2a/3)
Büğri 1/2a/5)
Far.
Tr.
Tr.
Tr.
I Vi Šete Se Zaţudit(1/14b/16)
Naprijed(1/15a/12)
Bolesna (1/2a/2)
Tek(1/7a/3)
Tr.
Samcat (Sam) (1/7a/4)
Zdravo (1/2a/2)
Çift(1/7a/3)
Far.
Dvoje(1/7a/4)
Hromo (1/2a/4)
Tek (Ilk) (1/7a/3)
Tr.
Prvo(1/7a/4)
Grbav 1/2a/6)
Yabani(1/8a/5)
Tr.
Divje(1/8a/6)
Tr.
Mutno(1/8b/12)
Şensad (1/2a/6)
Tr.
Sakat (1/2a/5)
Bulanık(1/8b/11)
Yüksek (1/2a/15)
Tr.
Visoko (1/2a/16)
Seyrek(1/8b/11)
Tr.
Rijetko(1/8b/12)
Nisko (1/2a/16)
Safi(1/8b/11)
Ar.
Bristro(1/8b/12)
Gluho (1/3a/1)
Keskin(1/9a/1)
Tr.
Oštro(1/9a/2)
Nijemo (1/3a/2)
Yavaş(1/9a/1)
Tr.
Polahko(1/9a/2)
Zloţasto (1/3a/4)
Diri(1/9a/3)
Tr.
Ţivim(1/9a/4)
Tr.
Pola(1/9b/2)
Alçak (1/2a/15)
Sağır (1/3a/1)
Dilsüz (1/3a/1)
Hor (1/3a/3)
Tr.
Tr.
Tr.
Far.
Yukarı (1/3a/13)
Tr.
Gore (1/3a/14)
Yarı(1/9b/1)
Aşa (1/3a/13)
Tr.
Dole (1/3a/14)
Genç(1/11a/3)
Tr.
Mlado(1/11a/4)
Prostrano (1/3a/16)
Çabuk(1/11b/11)
Far.
Hitro(1/11b/12)
Malo (1/3a/16)
Şişman(1/12b/7)
Tr.
Drzmaga (Drzmonja) (1/12b/8)
Mlogo / Mnogo (1/3b/2)
Dargın(1/12b/7)
Tr.
Ljut(1/12b/8)
Tr.
Suhoša(1/12b/10)
Tr.
Duboko Je(1/16a/11)
Geniş (1/3a/15)
Az (1/3a/15)
Çok (1/3b/1)
Tr.
Tr.
Tr.
Yeni (1/3b/7)
Tr.
Novo (1/3b/8)
Kurakluk(1/12b/9)
Eski (1/3b/7)
Tr.
Vehto / Staro (1/3b/8)
Derindur(1/16a/10)
Toparlak (1/4a/7)
Tr.
Okruglo (1/4a/8)
Yukarı (1/4a/9)
Tr.
Gore (1/4a/10)
Aşa(1/4a/9)
Tr.
Dole (1/4a/10)
Aksi (1/4b/16)
Tr.
Gladna (1/4b/17)
Kör(1/6a/1)
Far.
Slijep (1/6a/2)
Güzellük(1/6b/9)
Tr.
Ljepota(1/6b/10)
Şenli(1/6b/9)
Tr.
Veselo(1/6b/10)
Aksi Yüzlü(1/6b/9)
Tr.
Smrknuta(1/6b/10)
Buçuk(1/7a/3)
Tr.
Pola(1/7a/4)
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�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
43. Bağlaçlar
Bunlar Ile (1/5b/3)
S Ovim (1/5b/4)
Anlar Ile (1/5b/3)
Sa Šnjima / S Njima (1/5b/4)
Zira (1/5a/5)
Eğer
Kovarsan(1/15a/13)
Jera (1/5a/6)
Ako Istjeraš(1/15a/14)
Dônem içerisinde dùĢùnùldùğùnde ulaĢım aracı olarak atın hala çok ônemli olduğunu, insaların
evlerini kendilerinin yaptığını, ev yaparken gerekli temel malzemelerin neler olduğunu, sıtmanın hâlâ ônemli bir
hastalık olduğunu, pek çok hayvanın bôlgede yaĢadığını, askeri kavramaların yine ôn planda olduğunu, BoĢnak
yemek kùltùrù içerisinde olmayan bulgur pilavının tanıtılmaya çalıĢıldığını, en çok kullanılan fiillerin neler
olduğunu vb. ôzellikleri sôzlùğùn yansıttığı toplumsal gerçekler olarak tespit edebiliriz.
21, %4
AR.
20, %3
AR.+TR.
39, %7
FAR.
1, %0
FAR.+AR.
16, %3
FAR.+TR.
8, %1
RUM.
451,%79
TR.
2, %0
TR.+AR.
1, %0
TR.+FAR.
15, %3
TR.+TR.
Ġki veya daha fazla kelimelerden oluĢan gùnlùk konuĢmalar hariç, %79‘ u (451) Tùrkçe kelimeden
oluĢan sôzlùkte %7 Farsça (39), % 4 Arapça (21) vd. kelime yoğunluğu bulunmaktadır. Yukarıda 43 baĢlık
altında toplanmıĢ olan sôzlùk, kendinden once yazılmıĢ bir sôzlùkten kopyalanmıĢtır. Bugùnkù anlamda
yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğreten kılavuz kitap gibi yazılan, baĢı eksik olan sôzlùğùn aynı dônemler içerisinde
yazılmıĢ ve Gazi Hùsrev Beg kùtùphanesindeki diğer sôzlùklerle364 karĢılatırılmasının dônemin dil ôzellikleri
ve kùltùrù açısından daha geniĢ bir bilgi vereceği gôz ardı edilmemelidir.
364
Diğer 17 adet sözlük tarafımızdan çalışılmaktadır.
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REFERENCES
AKSAN, Doğan. (1998), ―Türklerde Sözlükçülük, Bugün Türkiye‘de Sözlük‖.Kebikeç. Sayı 6, s.115-118.
AKSAN, Doğan (1982, Her Yônùyle Dil Ana Çizgileriyle Dilbilim, TDK Yayınları, Ankara
CAFEROĞLU, Ahmet (1984 ), Tùrk Dili Tarihi, Enderun Kitapevi, Ġstanbul
ÇELTĠK, Halil; (2000), ―Rumeli ġairlerinde Yöresel Kültür‖, Bilig, S.14, s.99-109,Ankara
DEMĠR, Necati (2010), ― BaĢbakanlık Osmanlı ArĢivlerine Göre 1877-1912 Yılları Arasında Kosova‘da Eğitim
ve Öğretim
Education in Kosovo Among 1877-1912 According to the Prime Ministry Ottoman
Archives‖ , ZfWT Vol. 2, No. 3 ,s.5-26
ĠNCE, Yılmaz(2002) , ―Manzum Sözlükler ve ―ġemsî‘nin Cevâhirü‘l-Kelimât‘i Üzerine Bir Dil Ġncelemesi.‖
Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi ,Cilt: 12, Sayı: 2, s. 175-182, Elazığ
ĠSEN, Mustafa, (1997), Ötelerden Bir Ses Divan Edebiyatı ve Balkanlarda Tùrk Edebiyatı Üzerine Makaleler,
Ankara
ĠLHAN, Nadir(2007), GeçmiĢten Gùnùmùze Sôzlùkçùlùk Geleneği ve Tùrk Dili Sôzlùkleri, Manas Yay. Elazığ
LEVENT, Agah. S. (1980) , Dîvân Edebiyatı (Kelimeler ve Remizler, Mazmunlar ve Mefhumlar), Enderun
Kitapevi, Ġstanbul
ÖLMEZ, Mehmet. (1994), ―Türk Dillerinin Sözlükleri ve Türk Sözlükçülüğü‖. Uygulamalı Dilbilim Açısından
Tùrkçenin Gôrùnùmù. Dil Derneği Yayınları, Ankara
Tùrkçe Sôzlùk (1998), I-II, TDK Yayınları, Ankara
ÜLKÜTAġIR, M. ġakir (1948),―XI.Yüzyıldan Günümüze Kadar YazılmıĢ BaĢlıca Sözlüklerimiz‖. TDAYBelleten. TDK Yay.,s.45-55 Ankara
YAVUZARSLAN, PaĢa, (2004) ― Türk Sözlükçülük Geleneği Açısından Osmanli Dönemi Sözlükleri ve
ġemseddin Sâmî‘nin Kâmûs-I Türkî‘si‖ , Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakùltesi Dergisi ,
44, 2, 185-202
ZAĥINOVIģ , Neira (2003) Bosna Kùtùphanelerindeki Eski Tùrkçe Gazetelerin Dili, (DnĢ.Prof. Dr. Hamza
Zùlfikar ,BasılmamıĢ Yùksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara Ünv,Sos.Bil.Enst.) , Ankara
http://tdkterim.gov.tr/bts/
1360
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YABANCILARA TÜRKÇE ÖĞRETĠMĠ AÇISINDAN TÜRKÇE-BOġNAKÇA BĠR SÖZLÜK
Author
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ŞENEL, Mustafa
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The national culture as an important essential element propitiouses for an existence nation. This culture gets its source from that national history language, religion , morality, art, traditions, briefly from own esence. Person names( antroponimies) from point of view philologicial, linguistics, cultural, historical and folklore studies have necessity. The calling of the human (middle name, name, surname, nickname and titles) is associated with the culture of nation, proves a necessity of names fort he human. There are different traditions and rules of calling in the each country. The reasons of calling may be religious, national and local charecter as a result of investigation these tendentions we find out that every society has its different specific traditions in calling, there are many common issues in the many parts of the world and among societies has own peculiarity. The name ‗Muhammed‘ is widely popular among the people and often they call their children by this name, because it has a religion mean. The origin of this name is Arabic and used for men. The name ‗Muhammed‘ as a male names the most widely spread in the Kars(Turkey) region. The name ‗Muhammed‘ at the same time used in a wrong spelling. These mistakes did the bureaucrats or men, who did not know the orphography this name.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
MUHAMMED: AN EXAMPLE OF MISWRITING OF PERSON NAMES IN
KARS CITY ( IN TURKEY) ACCORDING TO ONOMASTIC
Asst.Prof.Dr. Mustafa ġenel
Tuzla University, Faculty of Filosofia, Turkish Language and Literature Department,
Tuzla-Bosnia and Herzegovina,
mustafasenel@hotmail.com
The national culture as an important essential element propitiouses for an existence
nation. This culture gets its source from that national history language, religion , morality,
art, traditions, briefly from own esence. Person names( antroponimies) from point of view
philologicial, linguistics, cultural, historical and folklore studies have necessity. The
calling of the human (middle name, name, surname, nickname and titles) is associated
with the culture of nation, proves a necessity of names fort he human. There are different
traditions and rules of calling in the each country. The reasons of calling may be religious,
national and local charecter as a result of investigation these tendentions we find out that
every society has its different specific traditions in calling, there are many common issues
in the many parts of the world and among societies has own peculiarity.
The name ‗Muhammed‘ is widely popular among the people and often they call their
children by this name, because it has a religion mean. The origin of this name is Arabic
and used for men. The name ‗Muhammed‘ as a male names the most widely spread in
the Kars(Turkey) region. The name ‗Muhammed‘ at the same time used in a wrong
spelling. These mistakes did the bureaucrats or men, who did not know the orphography
this name.
Keywords: onomastik, Muhammed, name, Kars, misspelling
The national culture as an important essential element propitiouses for an existence nation. This culture
gets its source from that national history language, religion , morality, art, traditions, briefly from own esence.
Person names( antroponimies) from point of view philologicial, linguistics, cultural, historical and folklore studies
have necessity. The calling of the human (middle name, name, surname, nickname and titles) is associated with the
culture of nation, proves a necessity of names fort he human. There are different traditions and rules of calling in
the each country. The reasons of calling may be religious, national and local charecter as a result of investigation
these tendentions we find out that every society has its different specific traditions in calling, there are many
common issues in the many parts of the world and among societies has own peculiarity. The famous scientist
lexicolog Adolf Bach says that; ― the name treasure of the nation expressions its past and present mental- spiritual
state‖.315
Person names are very important from point of view of linguistic, cultural history and folklore studies. In
the Orkhon Ġnscriptions were reproached the men who had lost own national identitiy and took Chinese name. The
foreign cultures at first showed themselves in the names. The most of of an important side of names in linguistics in
the reflection of alienation or privatizaton of language. Resources of the Turkish names are tombstones, birth
certificates, mosque (clergy) registers, charities, the telephone directory in the modern period, school registers,
marriage registers, nursing registry, death registry and other documents.316
The calling in the Turkish is a cultural element in itself . The Turkish names show different ways in the
history according to their customs, geography and traditions. 317 Atradition to call new borned baby has an ancient
history in the Turkish custom.
Each name which was given to the children by their parents was according to tradition of ancestors. Every
name has its calling reason. While borning of the child each incident, coming of visitors to the house or tent, first
seen an object, animal or plant can effect for calling that girl or boy. 318 In the many regions of Anadolu (Anatolia)
given names have not much difference.
In the calling exists nearly the following rules: 319
1.
Calling by religious names: Muhammed, Hasan, Hùseyin, Yakop(Yakup), Yonana(Yahya)
etc.
315
Doğan Aksan, Her Yônùyle Dil Ana Çizgileriyle Dilbilim, TDK Yay, Ankara 1995, s. 115
Tuncer Gùlensoy, ―Türk KiĢi Adlarının Dil ve Tarih Açısından Önemi‖, Tùrk Dili, Ocak 1999,sayı 565, s.3
317
Tuncer Gùlensoy, agm., s .3
318
Tuncer Gùlensoy, ―Türklerde Ad Verme Geleneği ve Hektor‖, Millî Folklor, KıĢ 1994, Cilt 3,S. 22, s.5
319
Doğan Aksan, age., s.115-118
316
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2.
3.
4.
Calling by famous and celebrity men‘s names or their surnames: Ġskender, Kanuni, fatih,
M.Kemal etc.
Calling by names heroes of tales, miths, destans(epoes): Oğuz, Ayhan, Orhan, Bozok, Üçok
etc.
Calling by names of geographical places, historical events or names ot tribes and
nations:Toponims: Tuna, Fırat.
Calling by the names of important days or events :Cuma, Kadir, Bayram, Kurtulush, Ġstiklal etc.
5.
Other ways of calling: besides those above mentioned ways we can meet the names of
fitonims, zoonims, beaituful lovely things, derivations of favorite and nice names, which
existes in the international region and very common among peoples.
Language is a common tool for mankind contact. The social life is one of the main featurs of the humanity.
This is a reson of language‘s produce. Proceeds includes all process of produce language with covering its
development. The language is itself of society. It is interwined with society by its natural structure. We devide the
language into two part: spoken or oral language and written language. We use oral and spoken language in our daily
life, when we speak. The feature of oral speech or language is in its remain only as a spoken language, being a
carrier of production in a small area. On the other side, a spoken language and folklore culture are a main and the
most important source for written language.320
A spoken or oral language unlike from written language and its has own characteristies features, usefull for
practical purpose in the daily life. A spoken or oral language is older than written language and take it as a base.
The language may be considered as seporate from the writing, but can not be considered apart from speech. The
mankind before contrive writing was able to understand each other within centuries. That is why the understanding
a structure of language depends on knowledge conditions of speech. This language depends on social classes,
geographic regions, may show many differents. The patois, accent and dialects are the natural result of the
changes.321
Every area has its own unique patois features. From time to time these patois features being shown in the
oral speech manifets itself in the written language too. Since the old time the calling tradition in the Turkish society,
what has very important role, exposed to influence of oral speech. Especially in the entry birth certificates oral
mistakes were reflected in the written language. Therefore sometimes exists a differency between written names in
the birth certificates and oral calling of the same man. Generally we see these mistakes in the ancient documents.
The bureaucrats often interfered in calling process of the parents , did their corrects and as a result we meet many
misuriting, changed names between population. That is why some names has not means from point of view
semantic or orphography. The family which need not in correction , used these wrong names.
The name ‗Muhammed‘ is widely popular among the people and often they call their children by this
name, because it has a religion mean. The origin of this name is Arabic and used for men. Its means: ―1. Many
times praising, praying for . 2. possesor many good and nid characters.‖322 This name much useful and in Kars.
As a rule at the end of the Turkish words does not have consonants = b,c,d,g=. The consonants = p,ç,t,k =
take their place. That is many borrowing words had undergone many changes in the Turkish Language . As a result
of these changes the consonants p,ç,t,k substituted =b,c,dg= at the and words.323
Therefore the name ‗Muhammed‘ changed into ‗Muhammet‘ in the Turkish Language.
The name ‗Muhammed‘ as a male names the most widely spread in the Kars region. This name sometimes
used alone, sometimes with other name togeather. In such composite names the word Muhammed takes the first
place, then comes the second naem. The tradition of binary calling comes from religion, because ‗Muhammed‘ is a
elerical naem. Of course it is impossible to reflect all binary names. Below we gave some of them for example:
320
http://denizlevent.blogcu.com/konusma-dili-yazi-dili-ayrimi_19430.html
http://www.edebiyatsanat.com/dil-bilgisi/61-dil-tarihi/421-konusma-dili-yazi-dili.html
322
http://www.isimbulamadim.com/isimayrinti.asp?isim=Muhammed&isimid=784
323
http://www.dilimiz.com/dil/TurkDili/trkdili2.htm#ÜNSÜZLERDE SES OLAYLARI
321
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May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
MUHAMMED ABDULLAH
MUHAMMET AKIN
MUHAMMED AKĠF
MUHAMMET ABBAS
MUHAMMED ALĠ
MUHAMMET ADĠL
MUHAMMED ALĠ RIZA
MUHAMMET AHRAR
MUHAMMED ALĠASKER
MUHAMMET ALĠ
MUHAMMED AVNĠ
MUHAMMET ARDA
MUHAMMED ARĠF
MUHAMMET ARĠF
MUHAMMED BAYCAN
MUHAMMET BĠLAL
The name ‗Muhammed‘ at the same time used in a wrong spelling. These mistakes did the bureaucrats or
men, who did not know the orphography this name.some examples:
MEHRAÇ MUHAMLET
MUHAMED
MUHAMED ALĠ
MUHAMET
MUHAMET ALĠ
MUHAMET NECĠP
MUHAMET ZEKĠ
MUHAMLET
MUHAMMAT
MUHAMMAT MUHANDIZ
MUHANMED
MUHANMED ALĠ
MUHANMED FAHRĠ
MUHANMET
MUMAMMET
MUMAMMET ALĠ
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�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Such mistakes do not limited only by name ‗Muhammed‘ . They are in the order parts of our country besides of
province Kars. The small child in his childhood does not take care of his name, but by growing he is confronted
with mockery of friends. When he growthes he sees the absurd and meaning less own name. Who is facilited
changes, correctes or uses another names. Sometimes the registrar gives boy‘s name to the girl or vice versa. As
a result such errors some girls are called to the military service, these one of the interesting events in our
country. In the ancient times the old Tukish our ancestors were very attentively when they gave the name, in our
time we also must be delicate and tactiful. It is necessary that in the goverment agencies works person who had
not graduated from university even works in the out of branch. Espicially when the gratueted students from
the Turkish Language and Literary are unemployed , in order to avoid with such problems we must review some
of our plans again.
Kaynaklar
Aksan D., Her Yônùyle Dil Ana Çizgileriyle Dilbilim, TDK Yay Ankara 1995
Gulensoy T., ―Türk KiĢi Adlarının Dil ve Tarih Açısından Önemi‖, Tùrk Dili, Ocak 1999,S.565, s.3-9
Gulensoy T., “Türklerde Ad Verme Geleneği ve Hektor”, Millî Folklor, Kış 1994, Cilt 3, S. 22, s.5
http://denizlevent.blogcu.com/konusma-dili-yazi-dili-ayrimi_19430.html,15.08.2008
http://www.edebiyatsanat.com/dil-bilgisi/61-dil-tarihi/421-konusma-dili-yazi-dili.html, 15.08.2008
http://www.isimbulamadim.com/isimayrinti.asp?isim=Muhammed&isimid=784, 15.08.2008
http://www.dilimiz.com/dil/TurkDili/trkdili2.htm#ÜNSÜZLERDE SES OLAYLARI, 15.08.2008
968
�
Dublin Core
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Extent
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697
Title
A name given to the resource
MUHAMMED: AN EXAMPLE OF MISWRITING OF PERSON NAMES IN KARS CITY ( IN TURKEY) ACCORDING TO ONOMASTIC
Author
Author
ŞENEL, Mustafa
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The national culture as an important essential element propitiouses for an existence nation. This culture gets its source from that national history language, religion , morality, art, traditions, briefly from own esence. Person names( antroponimies) from point of view philologicial, linguistics, cultural, historical and folklore studies have necessity. The calling of the human (middle name, name, surname, nickname and titles) is associated with the culture of nation, proves a necessity of names fort he human. There are different traditions and rules of calling in the each country. The reasons of calling may be religious, national and local charecter as a result of investigation these tendentions we find out that every society has its different specific traditions in calling, there are many common issues in the many parts of the world and among societies has own peculiarity. The name ‗Muhammed‘ is widely popular among the people and often they call their children by this name, because it has a religion mean. The origin of this name is Arabic and used for men. The name ‗Muhammed‘ as a male names the most widely spread in the Kars(Turkey) region. The name ‗Muhammed‘ at the same time used in a wrong spelling. These mistakes did the bureaucrats or men, who did not know the orphography this name.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/005c18087b690c8c477cede5039c17ff.pdf
68108dc7c5262e16e8c9cf24a733a2f6
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Text
1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Deyimlerin Kültürel Özellikleri
(Azerbaycan, Türk, Özbek ve Uygur Dillerinde)
Günel Ġsayeva
Bakù Slavyan Universitesi, Azerbaycan
gunel.isa81@gmail.com
Özet: Bildiride Turk kùltùrùnù; tùrklerin ulusal ôzelliklerini, ayrıca, dùnyaya bakıĢ
açısını, dini gôrùĢlerini, tefekkùr tarzını, psikolojisini, tarihini, inanclarını, ôrf ve
adetlerini, mitoloji ve kosmoloji tasavvurlarını, yaĢam koĢullarını yansıtan deyimlerin
ôzellikleri araĢtırılmıĢtır. ÇağdaĢ Tùrk dillerinde bugùn de iĢlenen deyimlerin
meydana gelme sebepleri incelenerek kùltùrel açıtan semantik anlamları ùzerinde
dayanılmıĢtır. Tùrk dùĢùnce yapısını aksettirmesi açısından bakıldığında deyimlerin
turkçe geleneksel deyimlerin izlerini taĢımakta olduğunu gôrùyoruz. Deyimlerin
kùltùrel temele sahip olması onların toplumun kùltùr yaĢantısından izler taĢıması ve
kanıtlar sunması doğaldır.
Anahtar kelimeler: deyim, kùltùr, Tùrk dilleri
GiriĢ
Ġnsanlar arasında karĢılıklı iliĢki yaratan tek ve aynı zamanda benzersiz bir araç olan dil hemde insana
ôzgù eylemlerin bir sonucudur. Çevrenin bu araçla yansıtılması, pratik ve teorik bilgilerin pekiĢtirilmesi, bu
bilgilerle dùnyanın kavranması dilin varlığının iletiĢimde çok ônemli olduğunu gôsteriyor. Ġnsan dùĢùnceleri dile
aktarılarak çôzùmlene, değerlendirilebilir ve bu değerlendirme, çôzùmlenme dilbilim ile yapılmaktadır. Dilin
dilbilim nesnesi olarak bilimsel araĢtırmaların konusu olması kùltùrlerin gizli kalmıĢ ôzelliklerinin açılmasının
bir amacıdır. Bu açıdan dil kùltùr arasında sıkı iliĢki ve dayanıĢma dil, kùltùr, hatta tarih araĢtırılmalarında çok
etkili yardımcıdır. Kùltùrlerarası iletiĢimde baĢlıca rol oynayan deyimler dilin kùltùrel iliĢkisini kendisinde
tecessùm ettiriyor. Bu da deyimlerin ulusal-kùltùrel yanlarının sayesinde gerçekleĢir.
Dilbilimin diğer alanlarına nazaran deyimbilimin araĢtırma tarihi genç olsada, bu alanda sayısız
araĢtırma eserlerine rastlanır. Etnokultur içerik taĢıyan frazeoloji birimler çeĢitli ùlkelerin dilbilimcilerinin
defalarca araĢtırma nesnesi olmuĢtur. Bir dilin sôz varlığı ve deyimbilimi belli dùzeyde benimsenilmelidir, bu da
konuĢmada onların dùzgùn ve akıcı kullanımını sağlıyor. Dilbilimde belirtildiği gibi, "eğer anlambilim mahiyet
itibariyle hayat gerçeklerini, olaylarını, faktôrlerini, sùreçlerini tùmùyle yansıtıyorsa, deyimbilim ôncelikle his ve
heyecan, ùzùntù ve sevinç, sevgi ve dostluk, çekiĢme ve mùcadele gibi, kalite belirtilerini kapsamaktadır
(Royzenzon ve Avaliani, 1967). Dilin deyim (frazeoloji birim) katını oluĢturan çeĢitli frazeoloji birimler
deyimbilime karmaĢık dil iĢaretlerini ôğrenen dilbilim alanı gibi bakmaya esas veriyor. Genelde, dilin deyim
sistemi farklı tùrlù ve çok yanlı olaydır. "Deyimbilim daha canlı, hareketli ve çeĢitli hizada olan dil olaylarını
inceler (Vinoqradov,1946).
Frazeoloji birimler gerçeğin obrazlı kabul edilmesi temelinde oluĢur, herhangi dil topluluklarının
gùnlùk yaĢamını, kùltùrel ve tarihi birikimini yansıtıyor. "Onlar (frazeoloji birimler - G.Ġ.) kendisinde masal,
mitolojik, dini ve edebi metinlerin parçalarını taĢıyor ve bağlamdan canlılığa sahiptir" (Teliya, 1981).
Deyimbilim dilbilimin diğer alanlarından farklı olarak, kuĢaktan kuĢağa, hemen hemen hiçbir
değiĢikliğe uğramadan yollanır. Bilindiği gibi, "deyimler dil dùzeylerinin (fonetik, sôzcùksel, morfolojik ve
sintaktik) tam teĢekkùlù zamanı oluĢur" (Әlizadə, 2009). Bu bakımdan dilin frazeoloji birimlerini derinden
ôğrenmek o dilin kanunlarını benimsemektir.
Frazeoloji birimler; kùçùk metin, tarih ve mitoloji gôrùĢler (mikromətn, mikrotarih, mikromif) – bu
"kùltùr kodu"nda iletiĢimin tùm hattı, olayı Ģifrələnib" (Kovaleva ve Yakuçakova, 2010). ĠĢte bu açıdan da dilin
deyim katı karmaĢıktır.
Aynı zamanda dil "onun koruyucusunun milli kùltùrùnùn aynasıdır: dil birimleri halkın - dil
taĢıyıcılarının yaĢam tarzına Ģu veya bu ôlçùde uygun içeriği yansıtıyor" (Felisina ve Mokienko, 1990). Herhangi
bir etnosun dilinin derin katlarını, ulusal ôzelliklerini, ayrıca, tefekkùr tarzını, psikolojisini, kùltùrùnù, tarihini,
yaĢam koĢullarını ve diğer niteliklerini içeren, koruyan dil birimlerinden en ônemlisi frazeoloji birimlerdir.
"Frazeoloji birimler dil ve tefekkùrùn karĢılıklı abstraksisinin ùrùnù olmasaydı, dilin bilgeselliyi ve ulusal
doğasının, halkın etnik psikolojisinin gôstergesine dônùĢmezdi‖ (Әlizadə, 2009).
533
�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
―Halkın dili onun ruhudur ve halkın ruhu onun dilidir – bundan gùçlù aynı bir hadise yoktur‖
(Zveqinsev, 1965). Frazeoloji birimler ise bu ruhu dıĢarıya yansıtan ve tùrk dillerinin dil manzarasını yaratarak
dùnyanın dil manzarasına dil ve kùltùr açısından ôzellik katan dil birimleridir. Her milletin dilinde onun dunyaya
bakıĢ açısı, hayat yolu, tarihi geliĢmeler bir Ģekilde kendini gôsteriyor (Axundov, 2006).
ÇalıĢma Yöntemi
AraĢtırmada tarihi karsılaĢtırmalı dilbilim yôntemi kullanılmıĢtır. Frazeoloji birimlerin iç yapısını
açmak için onların etimolojisi de araĢtırılmıĢtır. Amaç, ÇağdaĢ Azerbaycan, Tùrk, Özbek ve Uygur dillerinde
iĢlenen deyimlerin yaranma sebeplerini ôğrenmek, kùltùrel ôzellik taĢıyan faktôrlerin deyimlerin yaranmasında
ne gibi rol oynadığını aĢkarlamaktır.
Örnekleme
AraĢtırmaya sevkedilen Azerbaycan, Tùrk, Özbek ve Uygur dillerinde sôzlùklerden, deyimler
sôzlùğùnden ôrnekler seçilmiĢ, onlardan dini, simgesel, mitoloji ôzellikleri, inanc sisteminin unsurlarını, kult
izlerini taĢıyan deyimler ôrnek olarak verilmiĢtir.
Veri Analizi Süreçleri
Kùltùrù içeren kavramlar deyimlerde kendini gôsteriyor; renklerin, rakamların simgeselliyi, tùrk
mitoloji dùĢùncelerin ilkin ôgeleri, Ġslamdan ônce ve sonrakı dini gôrùĢler, hayat tarzı ve gelenekler, inanıĢlar
deyimlerin kùltùrel nitelik taĢımasını sağlıyor. Bu ôzelliye sahip deyimler tùrk dillerinin sôzlùklerinden alınmıĢ
karĢılaĢtırılmıĢtır. Deyimler renk adlarının deyimlerde rolu, sayıların sembolik nitelikleri, mitoloji tasavvurlardan
ve inançlardan tùreyen deyimler gibi gurublaĢtırılarak farklı ve benzer ôzellikleri ortaya koyulmuĢtur. Tùrk
dillerinde, ôzellikle, Azerbaycan, Tùrkiye, Uygur ve Özbek Tùrkce`lerinde deyimler arasındaki sôzcùksel bağlar
ortaya koyularak bu diller arasındaki ortak kullanımların, ortak fikirlerin tespiti sağlanmıĢtır. Bu dillerin
kôkenleri aynı tarihe ve aynı kùltùre dayandıkları için deyimleri arasında benzerlikler vardır. ĠĢte bu çalısma aynı
kôkenden gelen, aynı kùltùrù paylaĢan toplum arasındaki ortak dùsùnceleri ve ortak kullanımları ortaya
koymuĢtur. Aynı kùltùrùn bir parçası olan bu deyimler arasındaki farkın sadece Ģekil yônùnden olduğu ve anlam
olarak aynı dùĢùnceleri ifade ettiklerinin tespiti sağlanmıĢtır. Fakat bazı farkların da olmadığını da sôylemiyoruz.
Bu farkların olması doğal, cùnkù farklı hayat tarzı sùrmùĢler ve bu da kendini deyimlerde gôsteriyor.
Bulgular ve Yorum
Her milletin kendine ôzgù tarihî ve kùltùrel değerleri vardır. Bir millet baĢkalarından farklı kılan da,
sahip olduğu bu değerleridir. Dùnyanın en kôklù ve bùyùk milletlerinden olan Tùrkler, tarihî ve kùltùrel
değerlerini, ôrf, adet ve geleneklerini, dinî inançlarını, mitoloji tasavvurlarını dùnden bugùne bùyùk bir itina ile
taĢımıĢlardır. TaĢıdıkları tùm bu nitelikler dillerine de yansımıĢtır. Tùrk dili, Tùrk milletiyle birlikte, çok geniĢ
alanlara yayılmıĢ zengin bir dildir. Tarihin derinliklerinden gùnùmùze uzanan bu zengin dil, dùnyada en çok
konuĢulan diller arasında yer almaktadır. Yayılma alanlarına kesin sınırlar konulamayan Tùrk dili, çok geniĢ
alanlara yayılmakla kalmayıp kendi içinde tekrar bùyùklù kùçùklù kollara bôlùnmùĢ kendine has ôzelliklere
sahip olan dillere dônùĢmùĢler. Tùrk dillerinin sıkı dil bağları olduğu için onların sôzcùk sistemi de ortak dil
birimleriyle zengindir.
Tùrk dillerinin kelime hazinesini zenginleĢtiren, eski Tùrklerin genel anlamda kùltùrel ôzelliklerini
kendinde taĢıyarak koruyan ve savunan dil birimlerinden biri de deyimlerdir.
Deyimler, dilin sôzcùk sistemindeki boĢlukları doldurmakta ve çoğu zaman bir nesneyi, niteliği, sùreci,
koĢulu ve buna benzer durumları tek bir ifade haline getirmektedir. Deyimlerin oluĢumu, dùsùnce gereksinimi ile
dilin sınırlı sôzvarlığı kaynakları arasındaki çeliskiyi azaltmaktadır. Deyimler bir dilin hazinesidir ve genelde
açık bir sekilde ulusal karakter taĢımaktadır. Bir halkın tarihi, kùltùrù ve yasam zenginliği deyimlerde anlam
bulmaktadır. Dilin anlatım gùcùnùn en iyi tespit edilebildiği sôz varlıkları, deyimler olduğu kabul edilmektedir
ve onların oluĢturulmasında, sôz konusu kùltùrùn temel değerlerinin baĢ rolù oynadığı bilinmektedir. Bunlar
arasında renk adlarının, rakamların simgeselliyi ve bùyùlù nitelik taĢımalarının, inanc sistemini oluĢturan kult ve
dinin, ôrf ve adetlerin, mitoloji ve kosmoloji dùĢùncelerin, hem toplumun temel kùltùr değerlerinden, hemde
deyimlerin yapısında ônemli bir iĢlev ùstlenen ôgelerden olduğu muhakkaktır.
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Renklerin deyimlerdeki anlamı
Renklerin ifade ettiği anlamlar ve anlam çağrıĢımları toplumdan topluma hem değisiklik gôsterirə
hemde farklılıklar arz edebilir. Tùrk tarihinin en eski devirlerden baĢlayarak, çesitli renklerin sembol
anlamlardan baska, manevî ve millî anlamlar da kazandığı gôrùlmektedir.
Deyimlerde renk bir kavram gôstermektedir. Mesela, ak çoğu durumda iyi, olumlu kavramı; kara ise
kôtù, olumsuzluğu gôstermektedir. Dolayısıyla renklerin gôsterdiği kavramlar ùzerinde de durulması
gerekmektedir. Mesela, ak renginde ―iyi, olumlu; temizlik, arılık; dùrùst, doğru (insan için); beyaz tenli, gùzel;
yaslılık, basarı‖ gibi kavramlara tùrk dillerinde rastlanmaktadır.
Ak rengi ÇağdaĢ Uygur ve Özbek dillerinde ak sünek//ak suyak deyimlerinde iĢlenmiĢtir. Bugùn de tùrk
dillerinde iĢlenen ak kemik deyimi asıl soylu kimse, çok saygılı, çok temiz kisiler için kullanılmaktadır
(Uyqursko-russkiy slovar, 1968).
Ak rengin, Tùrklerin en eski inançlarından olan ġamanist dônemle ilgili bazı manevî inançlarından
kaynaklanarak ululuk, adalet ve gùçlùlùk anlamları kazandığı gôrùlmektedir. Tùrk ġamanizminde Ülgen, hayır
ilâhıdır. Ülgen‘in altın kapılı sarayı ve altın tahtı vardır. ġaman dualarında ona Beyaz Parlak (Ak Ayas), Parlak
Hakan (Ayas Kaan) vb. Ģekilde hitap edilir. ĠnanıĢa gôre Ebem Kusağını (Gôk Kusağı) da o yaratmıĢtır (Ġnan,
1987). Bu sebeple ġamanlar kùlâhlarını bilhassa beyaz kuzu derisinden yaptırırlardı. Çùnkù, itikatlarına gôre
beyaz renk, temiz ruhların hosuna giderdi (Ġnan, 1987). Buradan giderek ak sôzù ve rengi ġamanizm Tùrk
inançlarında arılık ve yùceliğin bir sembolù haline gelmiĢtir. Bu yùzden ak renk için ―baĢ renk‖, ―esas taraf‖ da
diyenler vardır (Genç, 1997). Yine bu inançlardan kaynaklanarak Tùrklerde ―aklık‖ temizliktir, arılıktır,
yùceliktir, ululuktur. YaĢlılık, tecrùbe ile dolu oluĢ ve bir kocalıktır, bùyùklùktùr. Devletin ululuk, adalet ve
gùçlùlùğùnùn bir sembolù, devlet bùyùklerinin, ôzellikle savaĢlarda giyindikleri bir giysi, elbise rengidir. Beyaz
renk elbise, bilhassa Hun bùyùklerinin ve subaylarının bir ùniforması gibi algılandığı gôrùlmùstùr. Beyaz at da
ordu içindeki bùyùk rùtbelileri askerlerden ayıran bir isaretti. Bu gelenek Tùrklerden Moğollara da geçmis ve
Cengiz Han devletinde de devam etmistir (Ögel, 1991). Eski Tùrklerde ak sôzù daha çok Oğuzlarda kullanılmıĢ,
diğer Tùrklerde ise ak yerine daha çok ―ùrùng‖ sôzù yayılmıĢtır. Batı Tùrklerinde ―aksakal‖ deyimi, yaslı, akıllı
ve bilge bir kiĢiyi aklımıza getirirken, Kutadgu Bilig‘de Doğu Tùrklerinde ôlùmùn yaklaĢtığını hatırlatır,
―sakalın ùrùng olunca ôlùmùn yaklaĢtı‖ demektir (Ögel, 1991). Ak – soy, ak soylu anlayıĢı da Karahanlı kùltùr
çevresinde ürüng kelimesinin tanıtılmasıyla yapılmıĢtır. Özellikle Çingiz Han devletinin etkileri altında kalan
Tùrk bôlgelerinde, ak – kemik, kara – kemik deyimleri; idare edenlerle edilenleri birbirinden ayırmak için
kullanılmıĢtır. Gôktùrk yazıtlarında, yalnızca kara – kamıg, yani kara – kemik sôzù bulunmaktadır. Bu deyimle
halk kitlesinin anıldığı gôrùlmektedir (Ögel, 1991).
Tùrklerde boz kelimesi renk anlamından baĢka ―genç‖ anlamını da taĢıyor. Boz kelimesi ÇağdaĢ Özbek
ve Uygur dillerinde bўz bola (Uzbeksko-russkiy slovar, 1959)//bўz ẏiqit//boz bola (Uyqursko-russkiy slovar,
1968) frazeoloji birimlerinin tarkibinde iĢlenmektedir. Harfiyan ―boz oğlan‖, anlamca her Ģeyin sağını solunu
tam anlamıyla daha anlayamamıĢ; ergenlik çağına ermiĢ, fakat henùz delikanlılık olgunluğuna eriĢememiĢ genç
erkek demektir.
Boz kelimesi, açık toprak rengi, kùl rengi, boz renk olarak açıklanmıĢtır. Ayrıca açılmamıĢ ve
sùrùlmemiĢ (toprak) anlamında kullanılmaktadır. DTS‘de boz ―gri‖, ―kır dùsmùs‖, gri tonları (tùy rengi, don)
olarak gôsterilmiĢtir (Drevnetyurkskiy slovar, 1969).
Bu frazeoloji birimin içerdiği "boz" sôzù hakkında çeĢitli gôrùĢler ileri sùrùlmùĢtùr. Öyle ki, boz bola
frazeoloji birimindeki boz kelimesi "Boz ayğırlı Bamsı Beyrek" adı almıĢ oğlanın "Bozoklar" kavmına ait
olduğunu belirtmek için iĢlenmiĢ deyimdir. BaĢka tahminlere gôre ise bu deyimdeki boz kelimesi "genc,
yetiĢkin" anlamını bildiriyor (Elekberova, 2007). DùĢùnùyoruz, bu ônerme daha doğrudur, çùnkù Tùrk dillerinde
de bu deyim aynı anlama geliyor. Kırgız dilinde de boz bala Ģeklinde rastlıyoruz ve bu dilde de aynı anlam
veriyor. Ayrıca, boz bala frazeoloji biriminin Uygur dilinde boz jiqit seçeneğine de rastlıyoruz. Onun anlamı ise
"bekar erkek" demektir.
Deyimlerde sayıların sembolik nitelikleri
Genelde, Tùrk dillerinde frazeoloji birimlerin oluĢmasında sayılar da rol oynuyorlar. Sayılardan oluĢan
frazeoloji birimlerin anlamlarında her bir rakamın semantikası ve onlardakı kutsallık deyime yansıyor. Bu da
bazı rakamların kutsallığının Tùrklerin dini-mitolojik gôrùĢlerinde, inançlarında, felzefi dùĢùncelerinde taĢlaĢıp
kalması ile ilgilidir. Öyle ki, bir -Allah'ı, iki - yeraltı ve yerùstù dùnyayı, dôrt - dùnyayı yaratan dôrt unsuru, yani
ateĢ, su, hava, ve toprağı, dokuz - gezegenleri, yedi - çoğulluk kavramını bildiriyor, beĢ danıĢık organlarını, altı
ise tarafların sembolù gibi alqılanılıyor.
Tùrk halk inançlarında rakamların bùyùlù gùcùne olan inancın, eski kamlık dùsùncesinin etkisi ve
Ġslâm‘ı kabul ettikten sonra Arapların alfabe dùzenlerinde her harfe bir sayı değeri verdikleri ―ebced hesabı‖nın
(Mercanlıgil, 1960) etkisiyle Ģekillendiğini dùĢùnmekteyiz. Tùrk halk kùltùrùnde 3, 7, 9, 40 gibi rakamlardan
ôzellikle kırk rakamının ônemli bir yeri vardır. Kırk gùnlùk, kırklamak, kırk yıllık v.b. gibi sùrelerin oynadığı
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rolùn ônemine binaen, bu rakamın mistik bir kuvvet kazandığına inanılmaktadır (Karahan, 1951). Halk
inançlarında genelde 3, 7, 9, 40, 41 rakamlarında mistik bir yôn ve bùyùsel bir gùç olduğu savunulmaktadır. Bu
sayılardan 3 ve 7 yaygın bir sekilde kullanılmaktadır.
9 sayısı sonsuzluğun,ululuğun simgeselliyi gibi algılanılıyor. Özbek dilinde tôrenle ilgili yaranmıĢ bir
deyim vardır 9 rakamı o deyimde semboliktir. Örneğin, tomsa tўққuz, oқsa ўtuz (Umarov, 1971) frazeoloji
biriminin harfiyan anlamı "damcılasa dokuz, aksa otuz" demektir. Bu frazeoloji birim eski tôrenle bağlı
oluĢmuĢtur. Öyle ki, eğlence gecelerinde eğer kimse Ģarabı yere dağıtsaydı, onda o kiĢiyi zorluyorlardı ki, dokuz
Piyale Ģarap içsin. Eğer Ģarap tamamen yere dağılsaydı, onda o kiĢi mecburen otuz kadeh Ģarap içme idi.
Uygur dilinde Yette ata (Uyqursko-russkiy Slovar,1968) frazeoloji birimi mevcuttur ki, çok
uzak, ulu nesil anlamını taĢıyor. Yedi arka ulusuna, neslin yedinci kôkùne kadar olan akrabalık iyerarxiyasını
bildiriyor. Tùrkçe'de bu deyimin baĢka bir varyantına yedi arka dönen//yedi arka geçinen ifadesine rastlanır.
M.Adilov bu deyimin en eski kabile yapısının izlerini muhafaza ettiğini yazıyor; Ata-baba kultuna, bùyùklere,
ihtiyarlara derin saygı besleyen Tùrk milleti içerisinde yedi arka ulusun (dônen) tanımak çok zor olarak
gôrùlùyordu, Ģunları tanımayanlar asılsız ve genellikle yaramaz adam olarak gôrùlùyordu, saygıdan, otoriteden,
gôzden dùĢùrdù. Yedi arka neslini tanımayanı eski qırğızlar "kul" olarak yapıyorlardı. Onlar hatta ana hattı ile
yedi arkasını (dônənini) tanımayanlara "kul" diyorlardı (Adilov, 1988). Genellikle, yedi arka ulusunu (dônənini)
tanımak eski Tùrk kabile gelenekleri ile ilgili olmuĢtur ve "yedi arka dônen" birimi tùrklerin yaĢam ve aileiçi
iliĢkileri ile alakalıdır. Tùrk dilinde mevcut olan yedi kat yabancı (Aksoy, 1988) frazeoloji birimi "akraba veya
tanıdık gibi yakınlığı bulunmayan" anlamına gelir. Özbek dilinde de tamamen yabancı, akrabalık iliĢkisi
olmayan bir insanı belirten etti ѐt beqona (Uzbek tilininq izoxli lugati, 1981) frazeoloji birimine rastlıyoruz.
Hatta frazeoloji birimin anlamını gùçlendirmek için "yabancı" anlamına bildiren ѐt ve beqona kelimeleri birlikte
iĢlenmiĢtir. Genellikle, yedi sayısı diğerlerinden daha gùçlù kutsallığa sahiptir ve onun bu seviyeye yùkselmesi
"insan dùĢùncesinde çoğulluk kavramının geliĢmesi ile doğrudan ilgilidir" (Qıpçaq, 2002). Birçok halkların,
ôzellikle de Tùrklerin mitolojik tasavvurlerinde yedi sayı kutsallığın simgeselliyi olarak yaĢıyor. Ve bu
tasavvurlar frazeoloji birimlerde kendini gôsteriyor.
Mitoloji, dini görüĢlerden, adet ve törelerden türemiĢ deyimler
Her ùlkenin, kùltùrùn, kuĢağın içinde bulunduğu evreni, dùnyayı, çevresindeki nesneleri kendine ôzgù
bir algılama biçimi vardır. Tùrk mitolojisinde ve inanç sisteminde atalar kùltù, tabiat kùltleri, gôk tanrı kùltleri,
dini tôrenler gùnùmùzde iĢlenen deyimlerin oluĢmasında esas rôl oynadıklarını onların etimolojisini araĢdırırken
gôrùyoruz.
Tùrk mitolojisinde gùneĢ, ônceleri daha bùyùk bir ôneme sahipti. M.S. 763 de Uygurlar "Mani"
mezhebini kabul edince, yavaĢ yavaĢ "Ay"da bùyùk bir ônem kazanmağa baĢlamıĢtı. Bununla beraber Bùyùk
Hun Devleti zamanında hem gùneĢe, hem de aya, ayrı ayrı saygı gôsterildikten sonra, kurbanlar kesildiğini de
biliyoruz.
ÇağdaĢ Özbek dilinde kullanılan kўzi ѐrimoқ fiili frazeoloji biriminin harfiyan anlamı "gôzù iĢıqlandı"
demektir. Ёrimoқ fiili "aydınlatmak, aydınlık olmak" anlamını ifade etse de, frazeoloji birimin anlamı
"doğurmak, dùnyaya çocuk getirmek" demektir. ÇağdaĢ ôzbek dilinde iĢlenen bu frazeoloji birime
"Oğuzname"nin Uygur versiyonunda rastladık: ... Ay қağanuң közü yarıp bodadı, erkek oğul toğurdı
(Oğuznamələr, 1993). Uygurca Oğuznâme'de Oğuz-Han'ın babasının adının, "Ay-Han" olduğu sôylenir.
Maalesef, bu Oğuznâme'nin baĢkısmı kaybolmuĢtur. Bu sebeple, bu "Ay-Han"ın kim olduğunu anlayamıyoruz.
Bilindiği ùzere, Oğuz Han'ın ikinci oğlunun adı da, Ây-Han" idi. Burada "Ay-Han" yalnızca bir ùnvandır. Yoksa
bazılarının dedikleri gibi, Ay-Han, "Ay'ın Han"ı, Kùn-Han da "GùneĢ'in Han'ı değillerdi. Elbetteki Ay-Han,
Tùrk mitolojisinde Ay'ı temsil eden sembolik bir ad idi. Tùrklere gôre ay, erkek idi. "Ay-Ata" deyim ve adları,
buradan geliyordu. Tùrk-Moğol efsanelerinde "Ay'ı, çocuk doğurtan bir baba olarak" da gôrùyoruz.
Özbek dilinde ise kўzi ѐrimoқ frazeoloji birimi xotunin kўzi ѐridi Ģeklinde iĢleniyor. "Öğuzname"deki
versiyon ÇağdaĢ Özbek dilinde iĢlenen kўzi ѐrimoқ frazeoloji biriminin invarinatının (ilkin varyantının) seçeneği
hesap edilecektir. Tùrk mitolojisinde Aydan ıĢık doğması tasavvurları mevcut olmuĢtur. ĠĢte bu elementin
"Oğuznae"de yansıyan Ay kağana aktarılması invarinat anlamın variantını dahil frazeoloji anlamı meydana
getirdi. Ayrıca metn`de kўzi ѐrimoқ frazeoloji birimine "doğurmak" anlamını taĢıyarak ѐrimoқ seçeneği de
kullanılıyor: Töl boğaz boldı. Künlәrdәn son, keçәlәrdәn son ẏarudı, üç erkek oğulңı toğurdı (Oğuznamələr,
1993). Bu da onun gôstergesidir ki, Tùrk dillerinde tek kelimeden oluĢan frazeoloji birimlerin varlığı eski
kôklere bağlıdır.
Gôrùldùğù gibi, Tùrk halklarının mitolojik tasavvurlarında yansıyan stereotiplər frazeoloji birimlerde de
kendini gôstermektedir.
Eski Tùrklerde, yas alâmeti olarak yùksek sesle ağlanmakta, yùzler parçalanmakta ve kesilmektedir.
Orhun Abideleri'nde yas tutarken saçların ve kulakların kesildiği, feryat ederek ağlanıldığı zikredilmektedir.
ÇağdaĢ Tùrk dillerinde mevcut olan kan ağlamak veya Azerbaycan dilinde qan yaĢ tökmek (Orucov, 1976)
frazeoloji birimi de eski tùrklerin defin tôreni zamanı yaptıkları adetlerden kalmıĢtır. Tùrklerin defin tôrenlerine
gôre ôlùyù çadıra koyarlarmıĢ sonra ôlmùĢ kiĢinin oğulları, torunları ve baĢka akrabaları çadırın karĢısında
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koyun yahud at kurban kesermiĢlerdi. Sonra çadırın etrafına yedi defa dolanır, yùzlerini bıçakla keser sesli
ağlarlardı; gôz yaĢları kana karıĢıb akardı. Defin ederken de ağlar ve yùzlerini keserlerdi (Rəcəbov ve
Məmmədov, 1993).
OĢuқi alçı kelivatidu frazeoloji birimi "iĢleri yolunda gitmek, Ģans getirmek" anlamında birçok Tùrk
dillerinde iĢleniyor. Bu ifade Tùrk uluslarında "aĢık oyunu" gibi mevcut olan oyundan oluĢan ve deyimleĢerek
Tùrk dillerinde Ģimdiye kadar da iĢlenmektedir. Tùrklerde "âĢık" koyunun arka ayağının diz kemiğine deyilirmiĢ.
Oyunun içeriği Ģu ki, aĢığı atarken onun yan tarafı yukarı dùĢerse, aĢığı atan kiĢinin "aĢığın alçı kalkıp", yani
kazanmıĢtır demektir. Bu oyun Azerbaycan'da Ģimdi de çocuklar arasında oynanır. Özbek dilinde bu frazeoloji
birim oĢiği olçi (Uzbeksko-Russkiy Slovar, 1959) Ģeklinde, ismi frazeoloji birim gibi mevcuttur. OĢuқi alçı
kelivatidu frazeoloji birimi Tùrk dilinde aĢığı bey (cuk / cuk) oturmak (Aksoy, 1988) seçeneğinde iĢleniyor. Bu
frazeoloji birimin içerdiği bey ve cuk sôzlerine Ö. Aksoy Ģôyle izah etmiĢtir: "cuk aĢığın çukur gôbek tarafı, bey
"cuk" arkasındaki yuvarlak tarafsız" (Aksoy, 198). Tùrkçe'de iĢlenen bu frazeoloji birim maçası alçı kalkıp
(Aksoy, 1988) Ģeklinde de kullanmaktadır.
Özbek dilinde iĢlenen anқoninq tuxumi//uruği frazeoloji biriminin harfiyen anlamı "anko kuĢunun
yumurtası" demektir. "Anko" mifik kuĢ ismi olup Ġbranice anak kelimesinden tùremiĢtir, isim olarak anlamı
gerdanlık, uzun boyunlu div, fiil olarak ise gerdanlık takmak, boğmak, boğazı sıkmak anlamlarına gelir
(Batislam, 2002). ―Anka; uzun boyunlu, ismi olup cismi olmayan bùyùk bir kuĢtur. Simurg, Zùmrùdùanka
adlarıyla da bilinir. Cennet kuĢuna benzer yeĢil bir kuĢ olduğu için bu ad verilmiĢtir. Bu adların dıĢında Anka,
Semender, Devlet KuĢu, Phoenix, Tuğrul, Hùmâ adlarıyla da bilinir" (Batislam, 2002).
Arapça'da Anka, Farsça'da Simurg adı verilen; Tùrkçe'de ise, bu iki isimle ya da bu iki ismin
birleĢmesinden meydana gelen Zùmrùdùanka (Simurg u Anka) adıyla anılan, Ġslâm tasavvuf ve sanatında da
ônemli yer tutan efsanevî kuĢ, benzer nitelikteki baĢka kuĢlarla karıĢtırılmıĢtır.
Genellikle, Anka, Simurg, Humay gibi efsanevi kuĢlar hakkında çeĢitli yorumlar vardır. M.Adilov
Simurg kuĢu hakkında Ģôyle yazıyor: "Eski esatirlere gôre Elbrus Dağı'nda yaĢıyor. Bazı kaynaklarda bu dev ve
efsanevi kuĢa Әnqa (veya Ünqa) denir" (Adilov, 1988). Anka kuĢunun yumurtası olması konusunda ama kimse
bahsetmiyor. Yalnızca M. Adilov Humay kuĢundan bahsederken bu kuĢ hakkında varolan rivayetlerden birine
gôre onun yumurtladığını yazıyor; "Bir rivayete gôre, Bùyùk Okyanus adalarında, Hindistan'da, Çin'de, Kıpçak
bozkırlarında yaĢayan kuĢtur ki, gôlgesi herkesin ùstùne dùĢerse, o kiĢi veya padiĢah, yada zengin, zengin, mutlu
kiĢi oluyormuĢ. Gùya havada yumurtlar ve yavrusu havadaca yumurtadan çıkıp uçmaya baĢlarmiĢ ..." (Adilov,
1988). Bôylece, Anka veya Simurg, Humay kuĢlarının aynı efsanevi kuĢ olma ihtimali ortaya çıkıyor.
DùĢùnùyoruz, Humay kuĢunun havada yumurtlaması hakkındaki rivayeti anқoninq tuxumi frazeoloji birimi
doğruldur. Özbek dilinde bu frazeoloji birim çok ender bulunan veya çok zor bulunan, bulunması mùmkùn
olmayan bir Ģeyi belirtmek için kullanılır. Humay kuĢunun havada yumurtladığı yumurtanın da elde edilmesi
muhtemelen mùmkùn olmayan bir iĢtir. Buradan da ihtimal olabilir ki, Anko, yani Simurg ve Humay aynı
kuĢtur.
Örneğin, Ҩavas bўlsa, anқoninq tuxumi ҩam topiladi. (Oybek, "O.v. Ģabadalar") Bunqa iĢonadiqan
odam ҩozir anқoninq tuxumi (Uzbeksko-Russkiy Slovar, 1959). Tùrkçe'de anқoninq tuxumi frazeoloji birimine
"kuĢ sùtù" (Aksoy, 1988) frazeoloji birimi uygun geliyor.
Özbek dilinde қўlini yuvub <қўltikқa urmok> frazeoloji birimi ayrıca "kul yuvmok" biçiminde de dilde
iĢleniyor. ġ.Raxmatullayev tahmin ediyor ki, Özbek dilinde "қўl yu vmoқ" "қўlini yu vub қўltikқa urmok"
frazeoloji biriminin kısaltılmıĢ varyantıdır. Fakat E.A.Umarov yazıyor, Özbek dilinde el yuvmoқ//ilik yuvmoқ
frazeoloji birimi XIX yùzyılda artık қўl yu vmoқ biçiminde iĢlenmeye baĢlamıĢtır. Bu da "el" ve "ilik"
kelimelerinin aynı dônem için artık dilden çıkmasıyla bağlıyor (Umarov, 1971). A.Zayonçkovski "el yumak"
frazeoloji biriminin Fars dilinden tùrk dillerine geçen bir taklit olduğunu sôylùyor. E.A.Umarov ise A.
Zayonçkovskinin fikrine itiraz ederek yazıyor: "Birincisi, "қўl yu vmoқ" frazeoloji birimi eski Tùrk yazılı
yapılarında gôrùlùr ve yaygın olarak seçenekleri ile birlikte iĢlenmiĢtir. Ġkincisi ise, ÇağdaĢ tùrk dillerinde
sadece yazılı dilde değil, ayrıca sôzlù dilde de iĢlenir" (Umarov, 1971]. Rus dilinde de bu deyim iĢlenmektedir
ve ―iĢin içinden sıyrılmak, bir kenara çekilmek, bir iste artık sorumluluk almamak‖ anlamını taĢıyor. Aslı Eski
Slavca‘dan geçen taklittir rus etimol. Bazı eski topluluklarda hakim ve savcilar verilen karara razı olmadıklarını
gôstermek için sembolik bir tôrenle ellerini yakarlardı. Bunu yaparak, alınmıĢ olan karara karĢı sorumluluğu
ùzerinden attıklarına inanırlardı. Bu gelenekten Ġncil‘de de sôz edilmektedir (Vtorozakoniye, 21, 6-7). Ġncil‘de
belirtildigine gôre, Ġsa‘nın çarmıha gerilme kararına onay vermek zorunda kalan Pilatus‘un, halkın ônùnde
ellerini yıkayarak ―Bu kutsalının kanında benim suçum yoktur‖ (Matfey, 27, 24) demesinden sonra bu deyim
yaygın bir Ģekilde kullanılmaya baĢlamıĢtır (Mokiyenko, 2005). Tùrk dillerinde her iki Ģekilde, қўl yuvmoқ ve
қўlini yuvub қўltikқa urmok Ģekillerinde mevcut olan frazeoloji birimlerin anlamı "umudunu kaybetmek"
demektir. Iki seçenekten hangisinin daha erken olmasını ayırt etmek biraz zor olsa da, fikrimizce, E.A.Umarovun
da gôrùĢùne gôre de bu frazeoloji birim "қўl yuvmoқ" Ģeklinde mevcut olmuĢ, "қўlini yu vub қўltikқa urmok"
seçeneği ise sonra oluĢmuĢtur. Oğuz grubu Tùrk dillerinde el yıkamak, Kıpçak grubunda ise kol yıkamak
Ģeklinde mevcut olması da қўlini yuvub қўltikқa urmok seçeneğinin daha sonra oluĢtuğunu sôylemeye esas
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veriyor. Örneğin, Azərb. el yıkamak//el yüzmek//el çekmek; tm. el yuvmak; tr. El yıkamak//el çekmek; gr. kol juup
kaluu. Örneklerden gôrùldùğù gibi, bu frazeoloji birimin hatta seçeneklerine da rastlamak oluyor.
Gùnùmùzde, Azerbaycan dilinde ―Gôyden ùç alma dùĢdù. Biri menim, biri ôzùmùn, biri de nağıl
sôyleyenin‖ (Seyidəliyev, 2004) deyimini tez tez kullanıyoruz. Bu deyimin tùreme sebepleri çok ilgiçekicidir.
―Gôyden ùç alma dùĢtù‖ deyiminin kôkù eski Tùrk inanıĢına bağlıdır.
Geleneksel Tùrk dini içerisinde, tabiat kuvvetlerine inanç çerçevesinde "orman ve ağaç inanıĢı" da
ônemli bir yer tutmuĢtur. Ötùgen dağının ormanlarla kapalı olmasının ve buraların Gôktùrkler ve Uygurlarca
kutsal sayılmasının tesiri bùyùk olmuĢtur. Gerçekte orman inanıĢının, ormanda yaĢayan ve yiyecek derleyip
avcılık yaparak geçinen ilkel topluluklara mahsus olduğu; Tùrklerin de gôçebe çoban hayatına oradan geçtikleri
ône sùrùlmùĢtùr. Tùrkler arasında bozkır kùltùrùnùn hakim olduğunu kabul eden bazı bilim adamları bu gôrùĢe
karĢı çıkmıĢtır (Gùngôr, 2002). Gùnùmùzde Uygurlar arasında bazı ağaçlara ôzel ônem vererek kutsal sayma
inancı hala devam etmektedir (Rahman, 1996). Uygurların inancında, elma kôtù ruhlu olmayan sihirli ağaç
sayılır. Onun için cinlerin ruhuna değsin diye elma ağacı ve elma kurusunu kullanarak tùtsù yaparlar. Bunun için
Perihunluk geleneğinde tuğ bağlandığında onun dalına bir elma ağacı asılır. BahĢi‘nin (dinî hekim) elinde de
elma sopası olur.
Tùrklerin dini inanıĢlarından da tùreyip gùnùmùze kadar gelen deyimler de çoktur. Ġslami tasavvufla
bağlı deyimlere rastlıyoruz. Mesela, Tùrk dilinde abası kırk yerinden yamalı (Tasavvuf terimleri ve deyimleri
sôzlùğù) deyimi, dilimize tasavvuftan geçmiĢtir; derviĢlerin abalarının yırtık pırtık olmasını ifade eder. Eskiden
derviĢler, hırkalarının helal maldan olmasına itina gôsterirler, bu yùzden mallarının helal olduğuna inandıkları
sufilerden kumaĢ parçaları toplarlar, bunları birbirine dikip ekleyerek kendilerine aba yaparlardı. Ayrıca, "abalı"
kelimesi, fakir ve yoksul kimseler için kullanılır.
Deyimlerde tùrk dillerinin ifade gùcùnù, gùzelliğini gôrmek mùmkùndùr. Aynı zamanda Tùklerin
Ġslamiyet ôncesi dini, tarihi, kùltù ve toplum hayatıyla ilgili dùnya gôrùĢleri ve hayata bakıĢları konusunda ip
uçları verir.
Sonuç ve Öneriler
Malum olduğu gibi de, oldukça geniĢ bir coğrafyada yaĢayan Tùrk ulusu zengin ve kôklù bir dil ve
kùltùr geleneğine sahiptir. Bu geleneğin bir parçası Ģùphesiz deyimlerdir. Yıllar geçse de ortaklığını
kaybetmeyen deyimler onların arasındaki kùltùr bağının ne kadar eskiye dayandığını ve ne kadar sağlam temele
sahip olduğunu gôsterir. Bu bildiriyi daha bilimsel dayanaklarla ispat etmek için bazı deyimlerin etimolojisini
kaynaklara dayanarak araĢtırtık ve bu alanda araĢtırma yapmıĢ dilbilimcilerin de eserlerinden faydalandık. Tùrk
deyimleri Tùrk ulusunun binlerce senelik yaĢam felsefesinin ùrùnùdùr. Onlar binlerce senelik tarih içerisinde
kuĢaktan kuĢağa geçip gùnùmùze kadar ôzlùğùnù korumuĢtur. Gùnùmùzde oldukça geniĢ bir coğrafyada
yaĢayan ÇağdaĢ Tùrk topluluklarının kelime hazinesinde pek çok ortak deyimlerin bulunması bunun bariz bir
delilidir. Bu durum aynı zamanda yine ÇağdaĢ Tùrk toplulukları arasındaki kùltùr bağının ve birliğinin ne kadar
derinlere uzandığını ispat etmektedir. Bu çalıĢmada, Azerbaycan, Tùrk, Uygur ve Özbek deyimleri arasında ne
kadar ortaklık ve ne kadar farklılık olduğunu gôrmek amacıyla, bu dillerde olan bazı deyimleri inceledik ve
onların iç yapısındakı semantik ôzelliyin tùreme sebeplerinden kaynaklandığını gôrmùĢ olduk. Eski Tùrklerin
mitoloji tasavvurlarına, rivayetlerine, efsanelerine, inanc sistemine, kùlt inanıĢlarına, ôrf ve adetlerine,
yazıtlarına bir seyahet ettiğimiz zaman deyimler kendi kendiliğinde bu kavramların bir ôzeti olduğunu isbat
ediyor. Bunlar aslında deyimlerin dil niteliğini ortaya çıkaran faktôrlerdir.
Bir dilin semantik açıdan araĢdırılması deyimlerin de araĢdırılmasını içine almalı, Tùrk dillerinde
deyimler daha detaylı incelenmelidir. Çùnkù, Tùrk dillerinde deyimlerin ve kùltùrel açıdan araĢtırılması
deyimbilim sahasında yapılması gereken ônemli iĢlerden biridir.
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81
Title
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Deyimlerin Kültürel Özellikleri (Azerbaycan, Türk, Özbek ve Uygur Dillerinde)
Author
Author
İsayeva, Günel
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Bildiride Turk kùltùrùnù; tùrklerin ulusal ôzelliklerini, ayrıca, dùnyaya bakıĢ açısını, dini gôrùĢlerini, tefekkùr tarzını, psikolojisini, tarihini, inanclarını, ôrf ve adetlerini, mitoloji ve kosmoloji tasavvurlarını, yaĢam koĢullarını yansıtan deyimlerin ôzellikleri araĢtırılmıĢtır. ÇağdaĢ Tùrk dillerinde bugùn de iĢlenen deyimlerin meydana gelme sebepleri incelenerek kùltùrel açıtan semantik anlamları ùzerinde dayanılmıĢtır. Tùrk dùĢùnce yapısını aksettirmesi açısından bakıldığında deyimlerin turkçe geleneksel deyimlerin izlerini taĢımakta olduğunu gôrùyoruz. Deyimlerin kùltùrel temele sahip olması onların toplumun kùltùr yaĢantısından izler taĢıması ve kanıtlar sunması doğaldır.
Date
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2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f6dde50712eac1c81fe43b222a8762ae.pdf
01c904f3b08e52c10f201774f0e12c18
PDF Text
Text
1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
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The Findings upon the Designation of Turkish Words among Balkan
Languages
Fatih ĠYĠYOL
Department of Turkish Language and Literature
International Burch University, Bosnia Herzegovina
fiyiyol@ibu.edu.ba
Ahmet Musab KESMECĠ
Department of Turkish Language and Literature
Sùleyman ġah University, Turkey
akesmeci@ssu.edu.tr
Abstract: The presence of the Turks in the geography of Balkans can be track back to
the centuries before Ottomans. The actual impact of the Turkish language and culture
began with the start of Ottoman conquests. With the Ottoman conquest, there have
been great changes on the structure of the Balkan communities. As a result of this
comprehensive and large impact, thousands of Turkish words entered into the
Balkanic Languages. The quantity of Turkish words, their effect of the Balkanic
Cultures and Languages have directed the researchers to search these words. The
researchers who investigated the Turkish words in the Balkanic Languages faced a
fundamental problem. The main problem that the researchers faced was the issue of
designation of these words in question. Due to the appearance of the words of Arabic
and Persian origin along with Turkish, some researchers have applied the term
―Orientalism‖ for these words in question. Since the vast majority of words in the
Balkanic Languages are Turkish, the researchers, considering the fact that Arabic and
Persian words entered into the Balkanic Languages through Turkish, have preferred
the concept ―Turkism‖ for these words. Researchers, without making a detailed
evaluation on either ―Orientalism‖ or ―Turkism,‖ have stated their more general
preferences. However, the designation issue of these words, which have such effect
on the Balkanic Languages and their numbers getting closer to ten thousand in some
languages, requires a detailed analysis in order to formulate an opinion. The purpose
of this study is to evaluate the words in question in terms of grammatical, cultural and
historical process and to contribute to the issue of designating through Ottoman
institutions and community life. Within the scope of this study, the emphasis is given,
in addition to all the Balkanic Languages, on the Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian and
Albanian Languages where Turkish words are dominantly present.
Key Words: Turkish, Balkanic Languages, Orientalism, Turkism, culture and
language.
Introduction
The existence of the Turkish communities in the Balkans and the cultural effects of these communities
can be tracked back to a much earlier periods before the Ottoman Empire evoked its impact on the region. It is
known that the Avars, Cumans and Pechenegs continued their existence in certain periods and contributed to the
cultural structure of this Geography. Settling in the area in the VI. century, the Avars is a Turkic tribe which
affected the Balkanic communities from the socio-cultural perspective. ―Ban‖ title that Bosnians and Croatians
confer to their rulers is a word of Avar origin. In the Slavic Languages of the Balkans, the word ―Obrovac,‖
which means the place where the Avars live, even seen in today‘s toponomy, derived from the word ―Obri,‖
which is used for the Avars, is pretty significant in displaying the extend of Avars‘ effect in the region (Malcolm,
2002: 6). Before the Ottoman conquest, the presence of the word ―Kaduna/Kadın‖ in Bosnian, Serbian and
Croatian is another example for the effect of the Avarian Turkish on the Slavic Languages in the Balkans
(Skaljic, 1965: 12).
In the Balkans, the effect of pre-Ottoman Turkish communities is also seen in Albanian Language.
Ġstyan Schùtz, Hungarian Linguist, states that Turkish was a language which affected the Albanian Language
between X-XIV centuries. According to Schùtz, the Albanian men were returning to their villages in winter after
working as a shephard. Therefore, an important period of the year, only women and children remained in the
villages. When Pecheneg Turks raided these villages, upon seeing the crowd consisting of women and children,
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they used the ―Katun, kadın‖ phrase for Albanian villages. This word, entering into Albanian, caused the villages
to be called ―Katund‖ (Bayraktar, 2009: 1084).
The effect of Turks before Ottoman in the Balkanic communities is not limited with the examples we
provided. The debate over Proto-Bulgarians being people of Turkish origin, Cuman communication with
Romanians in the West Balkans, the presence of Western Huns in the Eastern Europe can be approached from
the aspect of the effect of Turkic communities in the Balkans before Ottoman. It is likely that these Turkic
tribes contributed to the cultures of the Balkanic communities, which are as similar and complex as to one
another. However, considering the effect of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, the effects of communities in
question are seen to be limited and gradually fused into , indigenous cultures, within the time limited and is seen
to be fused into the local cultures.
The effect of Ottoman in the Balkanic Cultures
With the Ottoman political and military influence on the geopraphy of the Balkans, the interaction
between the Turkish culture and the Balkanic communities began. Indirect communication began before the
conquests turned into a direct and more comprehensive impact with the conquests. Reconstruction of the
conquered lands, establishment of the cities, and occurrence of the Turkish-Islamic cultural basin around these
cities, ensured the emergence of permanent, deep and great effects, the results of which has lasted till today. It is
possible to classify the Balkanic communities in terms of the socio-cultural effect caused by the Ottomans. The
first group 158is Bosnians and Albanians, who were Islamized in vast majorities after the conquest movements.
The second group is Serbs, Croats, Macedonians, Greeks, Bulgarians, Romanians who protected their OrthodoxCatholic structures and the Islamization was limited. The interactions of these two groups from Turkish culture
and the ratio of Turkish words in their language have been different. With the new religion, while the cultural
change in the Bosnian and Albanian communities was deeper and more comprehensive; the other Balkan
communities regarded them as ―Turkicized masses.‖159 However, the Balkanic communities in the second group,
who preferred to be ―Reaya,‖ have deeply experienced the effect of the Ottoman-Turkish culture, even though
not as much as the Islamized communities.
According to Maria Todorova, who emphasized the importance of the influence that Ottoman‘s left in
the Balkanic communities, there are two actors in the history of the Balkans. One of them is the political and
religious influence of Byzantine and the other is the Ottomans, who gave names to the peninsula from their
language and established the longest political unity. Todorova has attracted such attention to this effect, ―it is not
an exaggeration to conclude that the Balkans are the Ottoman legacy.‖ To Todorova, ―In the field of
Demography and the public culture, the Ottoman legacy has left lasting and continuous effect‖(Todorova, 2006:
36). Other researcher, who indicated this effect that Bulgarian historian emphasized, is Vuk Karadzic. Serbian
Linguistic Karadzic, while refering to the folk culture of his era, expresses the traditional lives of the Serbians
residing in the cities. Karadzic states that while the women in Belgrade wore scarves like Muslim women did
and the Serbian men, wore turban and smoked hookah (Castellan, 1995: 148). The effect of the Turkish culture
in the Ottoman period in the Balkans can also be seen in language and literature. Author Sofroniy Vraçanski
(1739-1813) states that since Bulgarians, living in the cities, knew Turkish better than they knew Bulgarian, they
consistently used Turkish words in their works (Yalçın, 2009: 572). Another author, who expresses the effect of
Turkish in the Bulgarian cities is Ivan Vazov. Living in the middle of the XIX century, Vazov identified the
language spoken in the Bulgarian cities as ―Almost the half of the languages spoken in our cities was Turkish‖
(Öztekten, 2004:32).
In the Balkanic communities during the Ottoman period, a literature called ―Alhamijado/Alhamiyado‖
emerged, written in Ottoman alphabet and consisting of Turkish, Arabic, Persian and local Balkanic languages.
The representatives of this literature adapted the Ottoman alphabet according to their own languages. Some of
the representatives of the Alhamijado Literature wrote their works mainly in Turkish, Arabic and Persian. Yet
other repsentatives of this literature prefered their own languages in their literary works. The Alhamijado poets
built their works upon Turkish poetry tradition and the culture of dervish lodges. Specially the Alhamijado poets
158
Torbes and Pomaks (Macedonians Muslim), whose origins are controversial, can also be included in this group. Gypsies,
who are seen in almost every region of the geography of the Balkans and Tatars, living in Romania, are not taken into the
scope of this study. Since the non-Turkish communities are discussed in classification, the Balkan Turks were not included.
159
Vatican, Orthodox churches and Balkanic communities regarded the Islamized communities in the Balkans as ―Turkicized
masses.‖ Konstantin Mikhailovich, towards the end of XV century, states this for the Islamized Slavs ―...in spite of
everything, the number of our people voluntarily being Turkicized is rising every year...‖ Benedict Kurupesic, for the same
community, in 1530, used such a statement"... The Turks left them a religion, young people were Turkicized..."(Nurkiç,
2007: 63). It is accepted opinion that the "Potur" statement, used for Bosnian Muslims, is derived from the verb "Poturçiti /
Turkicized"(Malcolm, 2005: 60-61). "Turkization," expressed in the sources, is not used a community‘s change of language
and entisite, but for the Islamization of the communities in question.
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of Bosnian and Albanian origins also became important representatives of classical Turkish poetry and dervish
lodge literature. Many poets, lik Muhammed Karamusic, Ziyai, Vahdeti, Dervis-Pasha, Mezaki, Hasan Kaimi,
Sukkeri, Asım Yusuf Celebi, Mehmed Meyli, Ahmed Hatem, Fadıl-Pasha Serifovic, Arif Hikmet (Nametak,
1997), were important intellectuals of their own periods writing in Turkish and Balkanic languages. In the works
that these poets wrote in their own languages, a deep Turkish effect can be noticed. One of the poets that we
clearly see this effect is Hasan Kaimi, a poet of Dervish lodge. Bosnian Turkologist Fehim Nametak makes such
an assessment of the head of Sarajevo Hadji Sinan Dervish Convent Hasan Kaimi‘s famous poem ―Ostante se
tutuna,160‖ ―We are not so sure either Turkish words are more or Bosnian words are‖ (Nametak, 1989: 121).
The Turkish Words that Entered into Balkanic Languages
During the Ottoman period, Turkish word entered in ot the Balkanic languaes in many ways.
Particularly young people of Balkanic origin receiving their religious education in the Ottoman cities like
Istanbul is one of the basic reasons. Young people of Bosnian, Albanian, Torbes, etc., origin obtained classical
madrasah-dervish lodge education in Istanbul,Bursa and in other Ottoman learning centers and reached a
proficient level of reading and writing literary Turkish. When these young people returned to their countries after
being equipped with Ottoman-Islamic culture, they used these words and concepts belonging to the language
they learnt along with their own local language and this way Turkish words passed on to the masses of public
(Metaj, 2009: 10; SkajliĤ, 1965: 13). Another reason for extensive use of Turkish words in the Balkanic
languages is the Balkan native folk poets‘ writing in Turkish or using great many Turkish words in the local
language. Attributing the extensive use of Turkish word in Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian to the folk poets and
scholars, Grga Martic uses such remarkable statements: ―For this reason, the number of Turkish words increased
in our folk poems and people used these words and they could not write poems with them. These words are
similar to salt in a dish, how you cannot get the taste of a dish without adding salt in it, the public could not write
poems without those words‖ (SkajliĤ, 1965: 13). The Ottoman perception of urbanization and the effect of
Turkish in the Balkan cities it built and developed, due to various reasons like Turkish being the state language,
gave a significant number of words to the Balkanic languages.
The quantity of the Turkish words in the Balkanic languages and the effect on the public culture differ
from one community to another. The Turkish words that are seen in the language we calle Balkan Slavic
language, which includes: Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian languages. The most comprehensive study, which
examines these words in terms of semantics and morphology and deals with the changes of these words in the
languages in question, is Abdullah SkajliĤ‘s work called ―Turcizmi u Srpsko-Hırvatskom Jeziku/ The Dictionary
of Turkish Words Available in Serbian and Bosnian Languages‖, which was published in 1965. SkajliĤ states
that he discovered 8.878 words and 6.878 terms in these languages (SkajliĤ, 1965: 23). A variety of studies were
carried out on the presence of Turkish words in the Albanian language. In Tahir Dizdari‘s researches, the
number of Turkish words identified in Albanian is 4406 (Kadiu-Abdiu, 2009: 1230). Ilaz Metaj, in the
dictionary called ―Orientalizmat‖ that he published in 2009, identified 3600 words (Metaj, 2009: 7). Recent
studies show that the number of Turkish words available in the Albanian language is almost 5000 (Bayraktar,
2009: 1086). Various studies on the number of Turkish words in the other Balkanic languages were conducted as
well: but these studies are not as comprehensive as the studies conducted in Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and
Albanian. For this reason, it is difficult to give figures closer to the realistic existence of the Turkish words in
Romanian, Greek and Bulgarian. Ivan Gaberov, in the dictionary called ―Reçnik na Çujdite Dumi v Bilgarskiy/
Dictionary of Foreign Words in Bulgarian‖ that he published in 1998, states that 3548 Turkish words are still in
use today in Bulgarian language.
The most comprehensive study examining the effect of Turkish on Romanian dates back to XX.
century. L. Ńaineanu detected 3900 Turkish elements in Romanian. Today, the presence of Turkish words in
Romanian is seen to be decreasing compared to early XX. century. Muhummed Nurlu, in his work called
―Turkish Traces in Romanian‖ in 2002, identified 1200 Turkish words. The researchers, who conducted
significant studies on Turkish elements in Greek, are K. Kukkidis and P. Georgias. While Kukkidis identifies the
existence of Turkish words in Greek as 3000, Georgias does it as 1968161 (Öztekten, 2004).
160
A sample stanza from the poem in question:
Frenkler buni satarlar
Frenkler bunu satarlar
Sudøk içre tutarlar
Suduk içre tutarlar
Ba ne zehir jutarlar
Bak ne zehir yutarlar
Ostante se tutuna
Tütünden vazgeçin (Ġyiyol, 2010a: 276).
161
We tried to mention the basic works related with the Turkish words in the Balkanic languages. However, the Turkish
words in the Balkanic languages and So many studies have been conducted on the Turkish words and their sound, structural
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The presence of Turkish words in any of the Balkanic languages is seen to differ from one study to
another. Although there are several reason for this difference, but it is mostly related to the study‘s scope and
period. While some of the researchers deal with the Turkish words in the literary language, yet one section of
researchers deal with written and spoken language together. The number of Turkish words in the Balkanic
languages varies according to the quality of the source scanning and compilation work. Another reason for
changes of Turkish words is related to the period study was conducted. The number of Turkish words gradually
decreased with the departure of Ottoman from the region. For this reason, there will be difference in word
numbers between the studies conducted at the end of XIX. century and today.
The Designation of Turkish Words in the Balkanic Languages
The multitude of the presence of Turkish words in the Balkanic lanaguages, the frequent use of these
words in the public culture and literary works, revealed the need to designate these words which entered into the
Balkanic languages through Turkish. The language and cultural researchers of the Balkanic communities have
tried to designate these words, which are found in significant numbers in their languages, in different concepts
such as; ―Orientalism,‖ ―Turcizmi-Turcizam/Turkism,‖ ―Arabism,‖ and ―Balkanism.‖ The designation problem
of these words, which have been conceptualized as ―Turkism‖ or ―Orientalism‖ by vast majority of the
researchers, should be dealt with in various ways. The morphological and semantical features of these words,
through which cultural basin they entered into, their equivalences in the folk culture and their positions in the
literary language will help to solve the problem.
Russian linguist Agnia Desnitskaja deals with the Turkish words in the Balkanic languages starting
from the Albanian examples. According to Desnitskaja, the Albanian youth adopted Arabic and Persian words
which they are taught at the Ottoman educational institutions. Desnitskaja expresses that since the Ottoman‘s
literary language was Persian and religious language was Arabic, therefore these words should be called
―Orientalism.‖ Albanian linguist Tahir Dizdari prefered to use the term ―Orientalism‖for the words which
entered into Albanian in the Ottoman period. Dizdari, in his another article, designated the words in question
with ―Turkism‖ concept. Tahir Dizdari‘s use of these two concepts indicates that author cannot make a definite
choice between these two concepts (Abazı-Egro, 2002: 5).
Ilaz Metaj,in his dictionary called ―Orientalizmat/Orientalists‖ in which he brought Turkish words in
Albanian together, prefered to use ―Oryantalizm‖ concept for these words.Metah states that he encountered a
basic problem in his dictionary work and these words in question have problems of designation. The words in
question, according to Metaj, came from three oriental languages like Turkish, Arabic and Persian. For this
reason, he prefered to use Orientalism concept for designating these words in question. Ilaz Metaj expresses the
effect of Albanian Orientalist Fethi Mehdiu on his choice of this concept (Metaj, 2009: 7). Hanka Vajzovic, in
the work entitled ―Orijentalizmi u Knijiţevnom Djelu-Lingvistička Analazia/ The Linguistic Analysis of
Orientalisms in the Literay Language,‖ deals with the words which entered into Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian
from Turkish and thought Turkish. Vajzovic states that he used ―Turkism‖ concept for the words in question but,
nowadays the ―Orientalism‖ concept began to be widespared. According to Vajzovic, although the vast majority
of the words in Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian are Turkish, but he stated that also the words of Arabic and Persian
can also be found(VajzoviĤ, 1999: 11). While Vajzovic prefered Orientalism concept at the beginning of his work,
at the summary section, he states that Orientalism is a synonym of ―Turkism‖ concept.
Many linguists designated the words which entered into the Balkanic languages during the Ottoman
period as ―Turkism.‖ Abdullah SkajliĤ deals with this matter in his comprehensive work called Turcizmi u
Srpsko-Hırvatskom Jeziku. SkajliĤ provides information on the studies which are examining the Turkish
elements in the Balkanic languages at the begining of his dictionary. According to him, the studies, which are
conducted on this subject, are full of inaccuracies due to several reasons. SkajliĤ gives an example to the more
explicit inaccuracies by Otto Blau‘s claim that the word ―Eyvallah‖ is the derivative of the Bosnian word ―Eh!
Hvala/ Eh! Thank you‖ (SkajliĤ: 1965: 17). SkajliĤ expresses that most of the words, which entered into Bosnian,
Serbian and Croatian, are Turkish or possess the semantic and morphological features of Turkish. According to
him, the number of Arabic and Persian words which entered into Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian, not through
Turkish, are very limited. For this reason, these words in question should be called ―Turcizmi/Turkishm‖
(SkajliĤ, 1965: 24).
According to Eqrem Cabej, who designated the words that entered into the Balkanic languages during
the Ottoman period with Albanian examples, these words should be designated as ―Turkism.‖ Cabej states that
Arabic and Persian words in Albanian entered into the language though Turkish, therefore it will be more
accurate to designate them as ―Turkism.‖ Starting from the Albaniam example, another researcher, who took up
the task of designating the words in question, is Norbert Borevsky. According to Borevsky, there are three main
and semantic features in the Balkanic languages and the reflection of Turkish words and group of words on social life. See.
(SkajliĤ, 1965; Metaj, 2009; Öztekten, 2004).
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reasons for these words to be called ―Turkism.‖ First, the number of people in the Albanian community who
knew Arabic and Persian were very few. The people of Albanian origin, who have a good command of Arabic
and Persian, did not live in Albania and did not get into an important communication with the Albanian
community. These intellectuals were mostly assigned in the important cities of the Empire like Istanbul.
Therefore, there was no significant communication between these superior Arabic-Persian knowing party and the
Albanian community. Since these Arabic and Persian words entered in to Albanian through Turkish, they are
designated as ―Turkism.‖ Secondly, it is difficult to say that Arabic and Persian words, which entered into
Albanian, are directly taken from these languages. These words are also present in Turkish. Sincere there are no
any Arabic and Persian words, which are present in Albanian and not available in Turkish, these words should be
called ―Turkism.‖ Thirdly, in the Arabic-Persian words in Albanian, there phonetic features of Turkish can be
seen. In order to call these words, which are left from the Ottoman period as ―Orientalism,‖ the pronunciation
and grammatical features of these words in question should have been out of Turkish usage. However, no such
word has been located till now (Abazi-Egro, 2002: 6).
The researchers, who were explaining the words that entered into the Balkanic languages during the
Ottoman period with ―Turkism‖ concept, have accepted the discourse of the vast majority of these words being
Turkish origin as the point of reference. Arabic and Persian words in the Balkanic languages, other than Turkish,
have taken shape according to Turkish grammar. Therefore, since these words are Turkicized, it is more
appropriate to use ―Turkism‖ concept. The main claim of those defending Orientalism is that even though the
majority of these words in question are Turkish, Arabic and Persian words are also available. Therefore these
words belong to the east. For this reason, it is more appropriate to call these words in question as ―Orientalist.‖
In our view, the designation of the Turkish words and the other words which entered in the Balkanic
languages through Turkish should be considered various angles. The position of these words in the Balkanic
languages and cultures, their function in the Balkanic folklore, their semantics, syntax and morphological
features should be taken into consideration. When the association of Turkism and Orientalism concepts and the
question of whether these concepts will be adequate or not in designation of these words are evaluated, it will be
possible to reach a conclusion based on scientific data.
One of the basic factors to discuss in designating Arabic, Persian and Turkish words in the Balkanic
languages is to consider the historical-cultural basis of the passage of these words in question. The literary
language is called ―Ottoman Turkish‖ during the Ottoman Imperial period. In this language, although Turkish is
the dominating element, but the influence of Arabic and Persian, the two major languages of the Islamic
civilization, is present. Ottoman Turkish accommodated Arabic and Persian elements well and was formed as a
language with wide range of vocabulary. So many great poets and authors and significant verse and prose work
have emerged from the body of this language. Therefore, the dominant language in the Balkans along with the
Ottoman is Ottoman Turkish. Ottoman Turkish has affected the Balkanic languages and Turkish, along with
Arabic and Persian, which it harbors in its body, entered into the Balkanic languages. The poets of Classical
Turkish Literature and Turkish Dervish Lodge Literature prepared a similar literary ground in the Balkanic
communities. The Balkan poets and authors, who are affected with this literary ground, have used the words
which they obtained from Ottoman Turkish in their works. Many factors such as Ottoman state system,
educational institutions, the effects of dervish lodges deeply affected the languages of the Balkanic communities.
If Turkish, Arabic and Persian words in the Balkanic languages are considered in this regard, it will not be
appropriate to use expressions like Orientalist or ―Orientalism,‖ which means the words of Eastern languages,
for these words from the historical-cultural basis.
A part of the words, which entered into the Balkanic languages from Ottoman Turkish, are concepts
from the Turkish state tradition. 453 of the Turkish words in Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian are related to state
system, administration and law. 166 words in these languages are army and military terms (SkajliĤ, 1965: 25).
One part of the words in the Turkish state system and the organization of army are Turkish, and yet another part
of the words are of Arabic and Persian origin. In Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian, beside the Turkish words such
as: Bajraktar (Flag-bearer), Beg (Gentleman), Beglerbeg (Governor-General), there are some concepts of Arabic
origin on state system such as: Kadija (Judge), zabit(Officer), vilajet (Province). Due to some of the concepts of
Turkish state system being Arabic-Persian origin, it is not enough to define these words as Orientalism.
Along with the words belonging to Ottoman Turkish, Turkish adjuncts also entered into the Balkanic
languages.162 The adjuncts, mentioned below, preserve their functionality in the Balkanic languages even today.
These adjuncts, which we explained with examples, are of Turkish origin and are not used in Arabic and Persian.
For this reason, evaluating these Turkish adjuncts within the concept of Orientalism will be an enforcement in
terms of linguistics.
The -cı, ci,-cu, cü, -çı,-çi,- çu,-çü adjuncts are in use in Albanian, Bosnian, Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian and
Bulgarian.
162
Apart from the adjuncts, which entered into the Balkanic languages, from Ottoman Turkish, there is also –gar (kar)
adjunct. This adjunct is used in all Balkanic languages.
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Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian; KeĦedņija (Felt-maker), kundurdņija (Shoemaker), mejdanņija (Fieldsman)
Albanian; Shakaxhi(Joker), inatçi (obstinate), batakçi(crook), sherrxhi (aggressive)
Macedonian; ilecija (trickster), kavgacija (aggressive), abacija (wool-cloth maker).
-lık,- lik, -luk, -lük; these adjuncts can be seen in all the Balkanic languages except Greek.
Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian; bajramluk (festivity outfits), dunjaluk(worldly goods), Ħizmedņiluk(boots-making),
Ħobanluk (occupation of a shepherd)
Albanian; baballek (stepfather), beqarllek (bachelorhood), budalallek (stupidityk), pazarllek (bargain).
Macedonian; pazarlak (bargain), rezilak(disgracefulness), samanlak (haymow), terzilak(tailorship) haremlak
(wifehood), fukaralak( poverty).
-lı, -li, -lu, -lü, these adjuncts can be seen in all the Balkanic languages except Greek.
Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian;Sarajlija (Court-member-Sarajevo-resident), mekteplija (student),
(additional)
Albanian; nazeli (coy), sheherli (city-dweller), vesveseli (apprehensive), borxli (indebted)
Macedonian;tatlija(dessert), sarajlija(court-member), Ģerbetlija(sweet and juicy).
yedeklija
-ça,- çe,-ca, ce ; these adjuncts can be seen in Albanian, Bosnian,Serbian and Croatian.
Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian: Ġlidņa (hot spring) daidņa (maternal uncle)
Albanian; hajdutçe (banditry), Turçe (Turkish), çobançe/çabanlık (occupation of shepherd) (SkajliĤ, 1965;
Metaj, 2009; Kadiu,Adiu, 2009; Bayraktar, 2009; Oktay, 1999).
The words, which entered into the Balkanic languages during the Ottoman period, could be used with prefixes
and suffixes of that particular lanaguage. These words, which are used with the adjuncts of the Balkanic
languages, can be discussed with examples from Albanian. For example; Pa-gejf(dejected, unhappy) pa-rehati
(sick, uncomfortable), çoban-eri (shepherd), çam-ishte (Pine grove), bayrak-as (flag-bearer), oda-tar (office boy,
janitor), çay-tore (tea-maker), azdi-sem (getting angry), bırakti-sem (leaving, giving up), çirak-i (apprentice),
jeshil-im (green vegetation) etc. (Metaj, 2009). Starting from these examples, Turkish, Arabic and Persian words
are seen to adjust to the phonetic and grammatical features of Albanian language. Therefore, these words,
available in Albanian, do not belong to the East; they are adopted into Albanian. For this reason, evaluating these
words in question with ―Orientalism‖ concepts will mean to disregard this adaptation and transition.
The slogans, which entered into the Balkanic languages from Ottoman Turkish, carry the traces of
Turkish folklore and social life in terms of function and meaning. The functionality of the following slogans,
which are seen in Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian, are not different from their functionality in Turkish; akĢam
hajrola/may your evening be good, Allah rahmetejle/ God rest his soul, baĢun sagosum/may the head of your
family be alive, bajram mubareč ola/happy holidays, dostlar sagosum/may friends be alive, hoĢgeldum/welcome
etc. (SkajliĤ, 1965; Ġyiyol, 2010b).
The majority of the words, which entered into the Balkanic languages from Ottoman Turkish have been
identified as Turkish as a result of the researches. Arabic and Persian words, which are seen in the Balkanic
languages, in terms of phonetic and morphology,are seen to possess the phonetic and morphological features of
Turkish. The following words, which are seen in Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian, can be shown as examples of this.
Bosnian
Bardak
Çoban
Turkish
<Bardak
< Çoban
Persian
< Bârdân
<ġubân
Patlijan
Rakija
<Patlıcan
<Rakı, arak
<Bâdingan
Memur
<Memur
Sejmen
<Sey(ğ)men
Arabic
< Araq
<Ma‘mur
<Segbân
Source: SkajliĤ (1965); Vajzovic (1999).
The meanings, scopes and connotations of the words, which entered into the Balkanic languages from
and through Turkish, should be taken into consideration. With the term ―Eastern,‖ Western European and
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American researchers essentially meant the Arabic, Persian and Turkish geographies; but in broader sense, it
refers to a region from the Mediterranean to China. With ―Eastern,‖ Balkan linguists meant Turks, Arabs and
Iranians; Turkish, Arabic, and Persian by implication. In this respect, there are differences in geography and
languages, which Balkan researchers and Orientalists meant.
Secondly, according to philogists and anthropologists, such as, Silvestre de Sacy and Ernest Renan, the
basic language of Orientalism is Arabic (Said, 2006: 134). Despite the Arabic language being at the center of the
Orientalist researches; the vast majority of the words in the Balkanic languages are Turkish. It is seenthat even
non-Turkish words are used with Turkish adjuncts, they form compound words when they are combined with
Turkish words and the slogans have the functionality in Turkish culture. However, using Orientalism concept
for these words will reveal the idea that vast majority of the words, in the Balkanic languages, belonged to the
East or these words passed through Arabic culture. If the vast majority of these words in the Balkanic languages
were of Arabic origin, or if these words possessed the morphological features of Arabic language and passed on
to the Balkanic languages though Arab communities, it would be possible to call these words ―Orientalism‖ or
―Arabism.‖
The Turkish words in the Balkanic languages are naturally adopted by the Balkan communities. Like
Arabic and Persian words are naturalized in Turkish language, these words, too, became a part of the languages
of the Balkan communities. Abdullah SkajliĤ describes this situation with such expressions, ―Turkism did not
forcibly enter into our language and did not leave a negative effect on our language...‖ This natural interaction,
which SkajliĤ states, brought thousands of words into the treasures of the Balkanic languages and cultural
structures. Using ―Orientalism‖ concept for these words, whose existence in the Balkanic languages exceeds
centuries, in a sense, would mean to ―Alienate‖ these words.
It will be inconsistent to use ―Balkanizm‖ concept for these words in various aspects because these
words pass on from one Balkan language to another. The following words,such as yorgan(quilts), yastık (pillow),
döĢek (mattress), kebap (kebab), baĢka (another), tüfek (rifle), ocak (stove), sedir (cedar), yaka (collar), çakır
(greyish blue) etc., which are used in every aspect of daily life, predominate a conviction that these words passed
on from one Balkan language to another. Even though some of the Turkish words in the Balkanic languages are
same words, the number of the words in these languages are enough to refute this concept. Since the number of
Turkish words in the Balkanic languages are different, it is not possible to see all these words throughout all the
Balkanic languages. Therefore, ―Balkanizm‖ concept does not have enough scope to designate these words.
It is a case open for discussion whether it is necessary to use a concept for the words, which belong to
Islamic communities and entered into the Balkanic languages during Ottoman period. For the Arabic-Persian
words, which are present in Turkish and gradually became Turkicized, there was not any concepts used for them
or was no need for it. Gathering the Turkish words in the Balkanic languages under a concept will alienate these
words and due to political reasons, it will bring the idea of dismissing these words from the Balkanic languges
along with it. During the Yugoslavia period, significant task have been done in the name of eliminating the
cultural heritage of the Ottoman period.163 On the other hand, in order to conduct scientific studies on these
words, to analyze the effect of these words and word groups on the cultures and languages of the Balkanic
communities in various aspects, it is seen that there is a need for designation.
Conclusion
It is inconsistent in terms of linguistic, cultural and historical process to designate the words, which
entered into the Balkanic languages during the Ottoman period and still continue to preserve their functionality
today, with the concepts like ―Orientalism,‖ and ―Balkanizm.‖ There are differences between the meaning and
scope of the word Orientalism in the studies of language and culture and the Orientalism concept used for the
Turkish-Turkicised words in the Balkanic languages. It is seen that it would not be a right choice to designate
the Turkish words in the Balkanic languages with ―Orientalism‖ whether in terms of language and culture, or the
associations and scope of the word. Gathering the Turkish words in the Balkanic languages under a concept will
bring the idea of alienating and dismissing these words in question from the languge along with it. However, it
is necessary to gather these Turkish-Turkicized words in the Balkanic languages under a concept for scientific
studies. In our view, ―Turkism‖ bears the feature of the most powerful concept meeting the need for designating
these words in question. A vast majority of the words in the Balkanic languages being Turkish, passing of these
words in the Ottoman period, the use of Turkish adjuncts with these words, these words-slogans in question
having the functionality of Turkish cultural life, Arabic and Persian words in the Balkanic languages having
Turkish grammatical features and like many factors support our view.
163
In 1946, the schools in Yugoslavia were closed, children‘s reception of Koran education in the mosque was banned,
Muslim officers were warned not to have their children circumcised. (Malcolm, 2002: 195). Like the pressure on the religious
beliefs of Muslims in Yugoslavia, the similar pressure was on the Turkish words in the language (Korkmaz, 2007: 253-256).
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References
Abazi-Egro, Genciana (2002), ―Arnavutluktaki Tùrkoloji ÇalıĢmaları‖, Bilig, issue 21, Bahar, pp.1-24.
Ahmet, Oktay (1999), Makedonca Sözlükte Türk Etkileri, Unpublished Graduate Seminar Workı, Cyril and
Methodius Univ. Faculty of Philogy.
Aksan, Doğan (2006), Anlambilim, Engin Publication, IV. Edition, Ankara.
Bayraktar, Fatma Sibel (2009), ―Arnavutçaya ve Diğer Balkan Dillerine Geçen Tùrkçe Kelimelerin
KarĢılaĢtırılması‖, Turkish Studies, Vol. 4/4 summer. pp. 1083-1090.
Castellen, Georges (1995), Balkanların Tarihi, 2. Edition, Milliyet Pub., Ġstanbul.
Iyiyol, Fatih (2010a), BoĢnak Halk Kültüründe Türk Tekke-Tasavvuf Geleneğinin Ġzleri, Unpublished Doctoral
Thesis, Sakarya University, Institute of Social Sciences.
Iyiyol, Fatih (2010b), ―BoĢnak Folklorunda Tùrk Kalıp Sôzlerin Etkisi‖, International IX. Language Literature
Phraseology Sympozium Proceedings (15-17 October), Sakarya University Publicationhouse, v. II, pp. 2-10.
Kadiu Spartak, Xhemile Abdiu (2009), ―Tùrkçe Yapım Eklerinin Arnavutça Yapım Eklerine Etkisi‖, Turkish
Studies, Vol. 4/3 Spring, pp. 1229-1241.
Korkmaz, Hùseyin (2007), Osmanlının Batı Yakası Bosna, 3F Pub., Ġstanbul.
Malcolm, Noel (2002), Bosnia a Short History, Pan Book, London.
Metaj, Ilaz (2009), ―Oriantalizmat Shtrirja Leksiko-Semantike Ne Gjuhen Shqipe‖, Shtepia Botuese Drenusha,
Prishtine.
Nametak, Fehim (1989), Pregled Knjiţevnog Stvaranja Bosansko- Hecegovačkih Muslimana Na Turskom Jeziku,
El-Kalem, Sarajevo.
Nametak, Fehim (1997), Divanska Knjiţevnost Bošnjaka, Orijentalni Institut u Sarajevu, Sarajevo.
Nurkic, Kemal (2007), Bosna-Hersek'te ĠslamlaĢma Süreci, Unpublished Graduate Thesis, Ondokuz Mayıs Univ,
Institute of Social Sciences.
Öztekten, Özkan (2004), ―Tùrkçenin Dùnya Dillerine Etkisine Genel Bir BakıĢ‖, Türkçenin Dünya Dillerine
Etkisi, Prepared by: KARAAĞAÇ, Gùnay, issue. 11-37.
Said, Edward W. (2006), Orientalizm,trans. Belma Ülner, Metis Pub., III. Edition, Ġstanbul.
ŃkaljiĤ, Abdullah (1965), Turcizmi u SrpsoHrvatsom Jeziku, Svjetlost, Sarajevo.
Todorova, Maria (2006), Balkanları Tahayyül Etmek, 2. Edition, ĠletiĢim Pub., Ġstanbul.
VajzoviĤ, Hanka (1999), Orijentalizmi u Knijiţevnom Djelu-Lingvistička Analazia, Orientalni Istitut, Sarajevo.
Yalçın, Emrullah (2009), ―Tùrk-Bulgar Ortak Kùltùrù‖, Ankara University Institute of the History of Turkish
Reformation Atatürk‘s Path Magazine, Issue. 43, Spring, pp. 555-576
478
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The Findings upon the Designation of Turkish Words among Balkan Languages
Author
Author
İYİYOL, Fatih
KESMECİ, Ahmet Musab
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The presence of the Turks in the geography of Balkans can be track back to the centuries before Ottomans. The actual impact of the Turkish language and culture began with the start of Ottoman conquests. With the Ottoman conquest, there have been great changes on the structure of the Balkan communities. As a result of this comprehensive and large impact, thousands of Turkish words entered into the Balkanic Languages. The quantity of Turkish words, their effect of the Balkanic Cultures and Languages have directed the researchers to search these words. The researchers who investigated the Turkish words in the Balkanic Languages faced a fundamental problem. The main problem that the researchers faced was the issue of designation of these words in question. Due to the appearance of the words of Arabic and Persian origin along with Turkish, some researchers have applied the term ―Orientalism‖ for these words in question. Since the vast majority of words in the Balkanic Languages are Turkish, the researchers, considering the fact that Arabic and Persian words entered into the Balkanic Languages through Turkish, have preferred the concept ―Turkism‖ for these words. Researchers, without making a detailed evaluation on either ―Orientalism‖ or ―Turkism,‖ have stated their more general preferences. However, the designation issue of these words, which have such effect on the Balkanic Languages and their numbers getting closer to ten thousand in some languages, requires a detailed analysis in order to formulate an opinion. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the words in question in terms of grammatical, cultural and historical process and to contribute to the issue of designating through Ottoman institutions and community life. Within the scope of this study, the emphasis is given, in addition to all the Balkanic Languages, on the Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian and Albanian Languages where Turkish words are dominantly present.
Date
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
German and French Borrowings in an EFL Context – A Serbian
Perspective
Biljana ĥubroviĤ
English Department, Faculty of Philology
University of Belgrade, Serbia
biljana.cubrovic@fil.bg.ac.rs
Abstract: This paper looks into the nature, some specificities of interlanguage usage and
the phonetic adaptation (or the lack of it) in the area of some recent French and German
loanwords and their teaching in a Serbian EFL classroom. It is a commonplace to say that
French, German and English have been in intensive contact for many centuries now, but
the level and direction of influence have by no means been constant. The two main
extralinguistic criteria that trigger the borrowing process, need and prestige, are taken into
account, with the aim of deciding to what extent such newer lexical acquisitions have
been nativised in contemporary English. The nature of the linguistic contact between
French and English, on the one hand, and German and English, on the other, conditions
the selection process in which a loanword enters the English lexicon, and an EFL
classroom. Lastly, a justification for the teaching of borrowings is provided and some
guidelines for their teaching offered, which could easily be implemented in any EFL
context.
Key Words: Loanword, borrowing, pronunciation, French, English, German, Serbian
EFL learner
Introduction
The linguistic developments of English and French have been intertwined for quite a long time. The
intensity of the contact seems to be susceptible to constant changes, but the contact produced many important but
also less significant influences, especially in the domain of lexical borrowings. Lexical borrowings are most
prone to permeate another language, and they can be seen as mere additions, or rather enrichments to the lexical
inventory of the recipient language, depending on the reasons of their introduction into the recipient language.
The intermittent linguistic contact between English and French resulted in the expanse of the lexical inventory of
English. No matter how dominant English seems to be today, its vocabulary is still growing and many new
additions come from across the Channel. According to Merriam Webster‘s Collegiate Dictionary (MWCD, for
short), as many as 8,324 entries are still listed as French borrowings, or at least having something to do with
French. The corpus extracted from MWCD by an advanced search tool this electronic dictionary has to offer,
ranges from very simple vocabulary like arrive, letter and vase, but also contains a number of clichéd phrases
like vers libre, premier danseur and Nez Percé. It is important to note that not all entries listed in MWCD as
originating from French have a French origin. Many words have the Latin root and in some cases it is unclear
how a word found its way into the lexical inventory of English. It should be borne in mind that the number given
above is by no means exact, but it still can be used as a starting point and a rough estimate.
Although German and English are both Germanic languages, their linguistic contact is less intense,
judging by the number of German borrowings in English. According to MWCD, German lexical additions
amount to 2,522 entries, but many lexical items only have vague traces of German, and can be seen as indirect
borrowings (especially from Yiddish and also Latin). Still, there is a number of strictly German borrowings
present in the corpus, e.g. Festschrift, hausfrau, kitsch, wunderkind and verboten, but also gastronomic terms
like schnitzel, strudel and wurst.
The Nature of the Linguistic Contact
There is virtually no language that has not borrowed words from other languages, and the reasons for
lexical importation are manifold. To name just a few, Weinreich‘s (1953) pioneer study on contact linguistics is
used. Some kind of cultural influence may trigger the borrowing process. It may also occur when rare native
words are lost and then substituted by borrowings, or when two native words sound so similar that substituting
one by a foreign lexical item eliminates possible misunderstandings in a given speech community. One of the
roots of lexical borrowing is a constant need for synonyms, especially in those cases where native words have
lost their expressive force. By way of adding new lexical items from a foreign language, new, subtle semantic
nuances may become possible. Furthermore, a word may be taken over from a low-status language and be used
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pejoratively, or quite on the contrary, a word may be taken over from a high-status language and be used to
achieve an effect of prestige. Even though lexical borrowing is the most widespread type of borrowing, mainly
due to the fact that new lexical acquisitions cannot affect the language system as a whole, languages do not
utilize it without limitations. In other words, the speakers of English do not borrow randomly, but when they do
import, they do it for a reason. All the situations mentioned above cannot apply to any language contact.
Weinreich studied the process of borrowing taking many language communities into account, and an attempt is
made here to check his reasons having English as a recipient language, and German and French as donor
languages.
Later contact linguistics studies, such as Thomаson & Kаufmаn‘s (1988: 72-7) hold that the social
factor they labelled the ―intensity of contact‖ between the two languages is of great importance for the typology
of borrowing. This factor assisted them in proposing a unique borrowing scale that ranges from a very casual
contact, on one hand, to a very intense cultural pressure, on the other end of the scale. I will now look into the
nature of the linguistic contact between English and French, but also English and German.
The linguistic contacts between English and French in the last two centuries have resulted mostly in
lexical borrowing, thus enriching the lexicon of English as the recipient language. This kind of borrowing may
be referred to as a casual contact, without any serious consequences to the language system. Borrowings that are
introduced into the recipient language do not have a great impact in L2, and there is a minimum of cultural
interference associated with them. Furthermore, the intensity of the linguistic contact may change with time, and
this is exactly what happened during the development of English and French. These two languages repeatedly
borrowed lexemes, and the intensity of contact changed according to the status of the donor language. French
seemed to be a dominant language in the Middle English period, but more recently English has offered French
many newer lexical acquisitions. Interestingly enough, some loanwords entered the recipient language twice,
denoting various concepts. For instance, a recent French loanword chаise has the same root (but a completely
different lexical status) in contemporary English, if compared to an earlier French loanword chair. Similarly, the
newer French loanword pâté has a ring of prestige to it (this may be due to its unchanged orthography), unlike an
earlier cognate that is very common in the lexical inventory of English, pastry.
Diachronically, the intensity of contact between French as a donor language, and English as a recipient
language, was the strongest in the Middle English period. The linguistic influence of French was so intense in
this period that English borrowed two new phonemes, the velar nasal //, but also the palate-alveolar fricative
//. Generally speaking, the importation of phonemes occurs very rarely, and when it has been realized
translinguistically it leads linguists to think of the language contact as very powerful. Phonological importation
is a sure indicator of a strong interlinguistic influence, even though the donor language may only fill its empty
phonological slots, that had previously not been utilized. However, linguistic history has repeated itself and the
French language enriched the phonological inventory even in the Modern English period by way of introducing
nazalized vowels into English. Wells & Colson (1971: 34) propose a term for such phonological innovations and
refer to them as ―marginal segments―. Such phonemes are used strictly in loanwords from the donor language
and do not have a tendency to reach a status a regular native phoneme has. This means that the nazalized French
phoneme will probably not be equal to native English phonemes when it comes to the distribution in English –
such vowels will retain the positions they have in French loanwords, without a tendency to gain other positions
and be employed in the words of Germanic stock, unless used jokingly.
English and German, both belonging to the same family of language, share a large percentage of the
lexicon. Words of Germanic origin in these two languages resemble one another in the domain of their phonetic
shape, but also in their semantic content. The borrowing hypothesis is that German offers its lexical items
pertaining to its cultural heritage, and that the intensity of the contact is not strong.
Most linguistis (Weinreich 1953: 79; Bolinger 1968: 90-1; Lаngаcker 1968: 177-79; Vаn Coetsem
1988: 13; Trаsk 1994: 12-15; Hock & Joseph 1996: 271; Rаdford et аl. 1999: 255) agree that two most
important trgiggering factors of borrowing are ―need― and ―prestige―. When speakers of a language are in need
of a lexeme for a new cultural, technological or religious concept, the easiest way to acquire it is by way of
borrowing. The English lexemes typhoon i monsoon (Hockett 1965: 405) entered the English language by way of
borrowing. On the other hand, words like teа, coffee, tobаcco, sugаr, cocoа, chocolаte or tomаto became an
indispensible part of the English vocabulary, although they originate from a number of different languages.
Prestige brought about many new lexical acquisitions in English. Middle English borrowed beef, veаl and pork
from the French, and used them alongside with the native items cow/bull and pig, to signal fine French culinary
concepts. French was the language of the Court at the time, and its usage signalled a noble origin.
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French: treatment of nazalised vowels
French belongs to the group of the world‘s languages (cca. 20%) whose phonological inventories use
nasal vowels (Paradis & Prunet 2000: 351). Theoretically speaking, French has four nasal vowels,
/
/, English has none. On the other hand, some phoneticians claim that American
English utilizes nazalized vowels more than French, where such vowels have the status of phonemes. This is
irrelevant for the current study, due to the fact that it mostly covers the phonological state of affairs in British
English.
The corpus analysis shows that three out of four French nasal vowels occur - /
loanwords containing French nasal vowels undergo the process of unpacking, where the nasal vowel does not
occur in the English replica. The sequence of an oral vowel + nasal consonant occurs instead, and such
pronunciations may be interpreted as anglicized. Selected examples of all three French vowels follow (for more
examples, see Cubrovic, 2005):
(1) Fr. /
/ → Eng. / / + N
gamin /
/
intern /
/
intransigeance
princesse
/
quintet
/
singleton /
/
timbale /
/
/
(2) Fr. /
/ → Eng. / / + N
aplomb /
/
blouson /
/
Cabernet Sauvignon /
crouton /
/
filet mignon /
piton /
/
raconteur /
/
(3) Fr. /
/ → Eng. / / + N
danseur /
entourage /
/
entrepreneur /
fiance, fiancee /
/
Franglais /
Montmorency /
restaurant /
/
/
/
/
Anglicized French words where vowel nasality is abandoned follow the English pronunciation patterns
and an EFL teacher is advised to teach them as such to their non-native learners. Serbian learners may at times
be confused by the pronunciation of those loanwords that Serbian also borrowed directly from French, or
indirectly through another language, e.g. ambulance, avant-garde, billion, blouson, camion, centime, debutante,
elan, hangar, panda, renaissance, restaurant. However, these words should be taught as native words of
English, as the process of anglicization seems to be completed. Special attention should be paid to the semantic
content, which may vary in English and Serbian as recipient languages. The lexeme camion is a very frequent
word in Serbian, but it is very rarely used in English in the meaning the Serbian language adopted it (Eng. truck,
lorry). This loanword may be classified as an interlinguistic false friend and an EFL student‘s attention should be
drawn to the difference, provided they come across it in a conversation or a text composed in English. This type
of problematic situation is often debated in EFL teaching, and it covers those lexical items which students make
up on the spur of the moment, drawing parallels between their native language and English. Similarly, Serbian
EFL learners very often use a nonce formation fabric to denote the concept of a factory (Serb. fabrika).
Alongside with the process of unpacking, English has phonologized a certain number of loanwords,
thus making them semi-foreign. The introduction of vowel nasality is evident in these words, but the vowel
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quality has been approximated to the phonological system of English. The three French nasal vowel /
/ are adapted to /
/ and /
/
. Selected examples from the corpus illustrate the point:
(4) Fr. /
/ → Eng. /
/
fin de siècle /
pointe /
coq au vin
(5) Fr.
→ Eng.
raison d‘etre /
Cabernet Sauvignon /
crouton /
/
marrons glacés /
montage /
nom de plume /
piton /
/
wagon-lit /
(6) Fr. /
/ → Eng. /
agent provocateur
arrondissement
croissant
debutant
elan
enfant terrible
idiot savant
pièce de résistance
séance
,
,
/
/
/
Judging by examples given in (4)-(6), these loanwords have not undergone the process of assimilation
to the full extent. This may be due to their infrequent use or prestigious aura, or the combination of these two
factors. The retaining nasality strongly resembles the French pronunciations of the models. Many of the lexemes
listed are French phrases, which may be classified as ―learned words‖. Group (5) brings about a logical
conclusion about the unstable phonetic shapes of some loanwords. If a loanword can be pronounced in two
different ways, EFL learners are best advised to use the fully assimilated form, e.g. elan, crouton. At the later
stages of EFL acquisition, EFL learners might be taught how to pronounce unassimilated forms.
Lexemes such as crouton, montage, croissant, debutant, elan and séance, among others, are also
French loanwords used in Serbian. A plausible assumption is that a Serbian EFL learner will recognize these in
English, and be able to deduce the meaning. However, the EFL learners should beware the varying level of
frequency of these words in English and Serbian, as recipient languages. Montage, for instance, is a noun that
can be characterized as highly frequent in Serbian, but not in English. Séance, on the other hand, may have
specialized meanings in Serbian and English.
German: need and prestige
The German share of loanwords in English seems to be much more moderate compared to the massive
influx of French borrowings. Some lexemes are characterized by unique German semantic contents, e.g.
auslander, autobahn, blitzkrieg, doppelganger, kindergarten, schilling, or they belong to a semantic field
specific for the German speaking territories, e.g. alpenglow, alpenhorn, alpenstock. Isolated loanwords may be
interpreted as ―learned‖ - Bauhaus, Biedermeier, bildungsroman or Ablaut. The nature of the contact between
German and English, and German and Serbian varies to a large extent, and consequently German loanwords in
English and Serbian will only occasionally strike a Serbian EFL learner. The German lexical items Biedermeier
may trap a Serbian EFL learner, but mostly with regard to the meaning. German pronunciation rules are
straightforward and very few pronunciations change significantly as a result of tanslinguistic importation.
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References
Bolinger, D. (1968). Aspects of Language. New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World, Inc.
ĥubroviĤ, B. (2005). Fonolońka struktura novijih francuskih pozajmljenica u engleskom jeziku. Beograd:
Philologia/Filolońki fakultet.
Hock, H. H. and B. D. Joseph. (1996). Language History, Language Change and Language Relationship. Berlin:
Mouton de Gruyter.
Hockett, C. (1965). A Course in Modern Linguistics. New York: Macmillan.
Langacker, R. W. (1968). Language and its Structure: Some Fundamental Linguistic Concepts. New York:
Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.
Merriam–Webster`s Collegiate Dictionary. (1994-96). CD-ROM. Merriam-Webster Inc.
Paradis, C. and J-F Prunet. (2000). Nasal Vowels as Two Segments: Evidence from Borrowings. Language,
76(2): 324-357.
Radford, et al. (1999). Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge: CUP.
Thomason S. G. and T. Kaufman. (1988). Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
Trask, R. L. (1994). Language Change. London: Routledge.
Van Coetsem, F. (1988). Loan Phonology and the Two Transfer Types in Language Contact. Dordreht: Foris
Publications USA, Inc.
Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistics
Circle of New York.
Wells, J. C. & G. Colson. (1971). Practical Phonetics. London: Pitman Publishing.
248
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Title
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German and French Borrowings in an EFL Context – A Serbian Perspective
Author
Author
Čubrović, Biljana
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This paper looks into the nature, some specificities of interlanguage usage and the phonetic adaptation (or the lack of it) in the area of some recent French and German loanwords and their teaching in a Serbian EFL classroom. It is a commonplace to say that French, German and English have been in intensive contact for many centuries now, but the level and direction of influence have by no means been constant. The two main extralinguistic criteria that trigger the borrowing process, need and prestige, are taken into account, with the aim of deciding to what extent such newer lexical acquisitions have been nativised in contemporary English. The nature of the linguistic contact between French and English, on the one hand, and German and English, on the other, conditions the selection process in which a loanword enters the English lexicon, and an EFL classroom. Lastly, a justification for the teaching of borrowings is provided and some guidelines for their teaching offered, which could easily be implemented in any EFL context.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3fff0733b769eeb08342477c704695e7.pdf
baf6c924b310e3053a18833ec1cb9f7c
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
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Teaching English as a ―lingua franca‖ to achieve intercultural
communicative competence
Neva ĥebron
University of Primorska, Faculty of Humanities, Koper, Slovenija
neva.cebron@fhs.upr.si
Abstract: Raising intercultural communicative competence has gained a
central place in many considerations and discussions in the globalized
world. The present paper therefore examines and analyses approaches to
achieving intercultural competence proposed by a number of prominent
authors from the American and European cultural environment, such as
E.T. Hall, Gert Hofstede, R.D. Lewis, Anna Wierzbicka, Elsa Oksaar,
Michael Byram, Manuela Guilhelme. They base their theoretical and
applied methods of teaching, as well as their approaches to raising
intercultural awareness in the intercultural dialogue, while highlighting
slightly different levels of communication, thus also suggesting somewhat
different conclusions. As a consequence two approaches have been
developed: cross-cultural and intercultural communicative approach. We
could say that even considerations about the intercultural dialogue show
signs of cultural conditioning.
Furthermore, the paper deals with the application of such theoretical
premises in the English classroom at the tertiary level. Building on
language teaching methods, the paper suggest ways of extending the theme
to cross-curricular units, since actualization of theoretical insights in the
classroom lends itself nicely to intertwining both a critical cultural
awareness of multilingualism in ones own environment and the
intercultural communicative competence, leading thus to an "intercultural
citizenship".
Key words: intercultural communicative competence, cross-cultural
communication, multilingualism, plurilingualism.
1 Promoting Multiligualism and Intercultural Awareness in the EU
The main cohesive principle binding together the nations and states forming the European
Union is regarded to be a high level of respect for cultural and linguistic heritage of all the peoples
living within its boundaries. These core values are clearly stated in the Preamble to the EU Treaty,
which declares to be »drawing inspiration from the cultural, religious and humanist inheritance of
Europe, from which have developed the universal values of the inviolable and inalienable rights of
the human person, freedom, democracy, equality and the rule of law«. Article 151 further
elaborates on this integration principle by asserting that »the Community shall contribute to the
flowering of the cultures of the Member States, while respecting their national and regional
diversity and at the same time bringing the common cultural heritage to the fore«. Moreover,
Article 149 points to the importance of promoting and protecting the inherent linguistic variety
within the EU by claiming that »the Community shall contribute to the development of quality
education by encouraging cooperation between Member States and, if necessary, by supporting and
supplementing their action, while fully respecting the responsibility of the Member States for the
content of teaching and the organisation of education systems and their cultural and linguistic
diversity.«
The document that suggests to streamline the above tennets into a set of standards for
classroom application is the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFF).
It proposes that »that the rich heritage of diverse languages and cultures in Europe is a valuable
common resource to be protected and developed, and that a major educational effort is needed to
convert that diversity from a barrier to communication into a source of mutual enrichment and
understanding«, as a consequence »it is only through a better knowledge of European modern
languages that it will be possible to facilitate communication and interaction among Europeans of
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different mother tongues in order to promote European mobility, mutual understanding and cooperation, and overcome prejudice and discrimination.« The CEFR thus advances standars for
learning, teaching and assessing modern language skills and competences, while similar standards
for learning, teaching and assessing intecultural communicative skills and competences are still
being explored and shaped. Furthermore, it is important to consider how these principles and
guidelines apply to communication and interaction with peoples beyond the boundaries of the EU.
2 Approaches to Raising Intercultural Awareness
Intercultural awareness and competence is at the centre of many aspects of life in a
globalized world. Amidst constant technological advancement daily contacts, real or virtual, with
culturally and linguistically diverse groups have become a normal event for pupils from an early
age. It is therefore important for teachers and promoters of intercultural communicative
competence to consider which teaching approach can best help them to cope with the challenges
presented by multicultural environments and how to integrate it into our teaching practices. A
brief examination of theoretical trends dealing with the development of intercultural sensitivity and
intercultural communicative competence will help us grapple with these aspects of education.
In the field of research of communication between people from different cultural
backgrounds two quite distinct approaches have been adopted to raising awareness and sensitivity
of otherness, namely, the cross-cultural approach and the intercultural approach. They both share
common tenets and principles. Indeed, although they even intersect in many aspects, they tackle
the common field of research from different angles. The cross-cultural approach originates in the
USA and draws mainly on anthropological research principles. In fact in American universities
courses on cross-cultural communication are normally offered within departments of anthropology
and communication studies. The intercultural approach, on the other hand, derives its methods
from the teaching of languages and has developed within European universities mostly within
departments of applied linguistics.
2.1 Cross-cultural approach
The cross-cultural approach to analysing communication in multicultural settings draws
on insights offered by anthropological, culturological, psychological and communication research.
It started developing in response to the needs of diplomats and businessmen for a better
understanding of foreign cultural environments and it, therefore, tries to contrast cultures and
identify their distinctive features.
An early attempt to map the distinctive features of cultures can be found in the work of E.
T. Hall (1959: 190-192), who introduced concepts such as high context and low context cultures
(1977: 35-52), as well as cultures functioning within monochronic and polychronic time systems
(1966: 25-32). According to this theory, communication in a high context culture is highly
ritualised and encodes little explicit information in a message, requiring thus a deeper
understanding of behavioural patterns; whereas in a low context culture messages are rather
explicit and straightforward. In terms of the embeddedness of culture in a time system, Hall
suggests that people from various societies have different ways of managing time requirements.
The monochronic time system is characteristic of cultures that expect people to compartmentalize
and plan their activities one at a time, while the polychromic time system describes cultures in
which people tend to engage in several activities at the same time.
Further tools for a cross-cultural analysis were provided by Hofstede's (1980) five
dimensions of culture, namely, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus
collectivism, masculinity versus femininity and long versus short term orientation, which condition
our behaviour, norms, values and beliefs, forming a different software of the mind of individuals
from each cultural background and thus defining a person's expectations or responses inculcated by
the cultural environment. While Hofstede's analysis instruments are based on a large-scale
investigation and his approach has had a large following in business circles, it has also been
criticised in terms of promoting an oversimplified view of behavioural patterns and can, therefore,
lead to stereotyping.
The above approach can also be criticized for neglecting the role of language as a salient
and informing element of each culture, for overlooking language‘s centrality for anthropological
research, a facet of culture defined by Whorf in the first half of the previous century with the claim
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that "the linguistic relativity principle which means /.../ that users of markedly different grammars
are pointed by their grammars toward different types of observations and different evaluations of
externally similar acts of observation, and hence are not equivalent as observers but must arrive at
somewhat different views of the world." (John B. Carroll 1956: 221).
The gap has been amply filled by Anna Wierzbicka‘s impressive body of work into crosscultural linguistics. Within the domain of contrastive semantics her research analyses the semantic
components (conceptual primitives) of core vocabulary of numerous languages and concludes that
there are only about fifty universal concepts and just one absolute semantic universal: the meaning
of the personal pronoun "I" (Wierzbicka 1996: 36-37). Within the field of cross-cultural
pragmatics, her analysis of speech acts across a wide range of languages further illustrates the
implications of cultural and linguistic conditioning on cross-cultural interactions (Wierzbicka
2003).
Another attempt to integrate both the cross-cultural and the intercultural approach to
communicating across cultural boundaries is given in M. J. Bennett's (2004) integrative approach
to global and domestic diversity. Postulating radical constructivism (Kelly, 1963) as the basis for
ethnocentrism, the author devises a model of gradual increase of intercultural sensitivity that leads
from the initial ethnocentric stages (denial of cultural difference, defence against such difference,
minimisation of its importance) to more advanced ethnorelative stages (acceptance of cultural
difference, adaptation to such difference, a final cultural integration and identification with the
adopted culture).
What sets off the intercultural approach from the cross-cultural approach, is that the
former seeks to build on the common ground, the similarities and the integrative elements of
cultures in contact while developing a deeper understanding of the defining elements of an
individual's own cultural conditioning, while the latter compares and contrasts cultures within
various parameters in order to discover and understand the differences, thus focusing on unveiling
a somewhat simplified system of behavioural features constituting the ‗otherness‘ of unfamiliar
cultural environments. Promoting distinctions between cultural circles and analytical
oversimplifications can also lead to conclusions predicting the inevitability of a future ―clash of
cultures―(Huntington 1997).
2.2 Intercultural approach
Drawing on lessons learned from the rich tradition of the language classroom the
intercultural approach focuses on understanding one's own culture, on a critical assessment of the
limits and impositions of our own cultural conditioning thus helping us to decentre and empathise
with people from other cultural environments as we engage them trying to convey our meaning or
understand theirs. Just as having a good command of our mother tongue helps us acquire a foreign
language while contrasting the two linguistic systems, intercultural awareness helps us to realize
the differences and to overcome mishaps, thus easing communication flow. Since both, the
communicative and collaborative language teaching approaches have proved successful, applied
linguists have tried to extend these methods to intercultural dialogue, extending intercultural
communicative awareness to mean language awareness and cultural sensitivity, because "language
/.../used in the context of communication is bound up with culture in multiple and complex ways"
(Kramsch, 1988: 3).
In order to achieve intercultural communicative competence (ICC) and, therefore, be
ready to actively participate in the diversified European or global community (in terms of
nationalities, cultures and languages), Michael Byram (1997 and 2008a) proposes "an integrated
framework for language, culture and citizenship education‖ based on "five orientations" that
prepare learners for interacting, understanding and empathizing with the viewpoint of people with
different values and beliefs, as well as different norms and expectations. Building on respect for
otherness and promoting a critical reassessment of ‗own‘ cultural environment this approach
emphasizes the ‗oneness‘ of humanity, positing cultural differences as a challenge that can
successfully be integrated into our classroom practices, just like learning foreign languages.
The approach is structured so as to foster mutual knowledge of interlocutors in terms of
their social backgrounds, history, practices, perceptions, products, institutions, etc., as well as the
processes of interaction as part of the cognitive orientation. Within the evaluative orientation
attitudes of curiosity and openness are promoted, as well as a readiness to suspend disbelief about
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other cultures and to question beliefs about one‘s own. The comparative orientation furthers the
skill of interpreting documents, events, tenets, customs, values from another culture by developing
the skills for explaining and relating these facets of culture to events, documents, customs… from
one‘s own culture, thus helping us to identify areas where misunderstandings can occur and
promoting empathy as an approach to overcoming potential conflict. It is mainly in this dimension
of intercultural education that insights and devices developed within the cross-cultural approach
can fruitfully be adopted. The communicative orientation leads to the development of linguistic,
sociolinguistic and discourse competences. The action orientation advances skills of discovery and
interaction, whereby these skills can be employed under the constraints of real-time
communication and interaction. Integrating all these elements into our classroom practices leads to
achieving the critical cultural and political orientation, an ability to evaluate practices,
perspectives and products critically in one‘s own environment as well as in other cultures and, on
the basis of explicit criteria, enhance efficient communication with persons from other cultures in a
foreign language with the purpose of engaging with and affecting in some way an (international)
community.
Intercultural communication thus concentrates on developing skills that can enhance
intercultural awareness, tolerance of ambiguity, openness to diversity by drawing on research in the
field of linguistics, ethnography and political science. It promotes intercultural dialogue as an
active, engaged attitude of each individual to discovering and dealing with diversity, while also
critically evaluating one‘s own cultural identity, thus building a common ground within which
communication can take place. It leads present and future members of the EU to aspire to
developing intercultural communicative competence as a precondition to adopting an intercultural
democratic citizenship, which does not postulate cultural otherness as something to observe, copy
and adapt to in contacts with foreigners as proposed by the cross-cultural approach, but prepares us
for active participation in a multicultural society and a daily engagement with a kaleidoscope of
culturally and linguistically tinged behaviour patterns, beliefs, values and world views.
3. The Role of Lingua Franca
It seems that Byram (2008b: 16) also identifies a close relationship between intercultural
communicative competence and the actual interiorisation of language use when he draws a fine
line between multilingualism and plurilingualiasm:
We need to be precise in our use of language and terminology. Another example is the
distinction between ‗multilingualism‘ and ‗plurilingualism‘, a distinction which is made in two
ways. The first way is to use ‗multilingualism‘ to refer to geographical spaces and ‗plurilingualism‘
to refer to people. Slovenia is a multilingual space in which several languages are present, some of
them used in schools as media of instruction, some of them taught as subjects, some of them not
recognized in schools. In this multilingual space, there are some people who use more than one
language and are plurilingual but there are others – probably very few, in fact – who use only one
language, and are ‗monolingual‘. This is a sociolinguistic usage.
The second way to use the distinction multi/pluri is when referring to individuals. This is a
psychological usage. The CEFR says that some people know a number of languages which are kept
separate in their minds and experience; this is sometimes referred to as ‗co-ordinate‘ capacity in
languages. Other people are considered ‗plurilingual‘ – another term is ‗compound‘ capacity –
because they do not keep their languages separate:
Plurilingualism (…) does not keep these languages and cultures in strictly separated mental
compartments, but rather builds up a communicative competence to which all knowledge and
experience of language contributes and in which languages inter-relate and interact in different
situations (…) a person can call flexibly upon different parts of this competence to achieve effective
communications with a particular interlocutor. (CEFR, p4)
Thus this second definition of integrating various languages into actual communication
proposes spontaneous ―code switching‖ between languages as a higher level of interiorization of
cultural awareness and self-awareness. On Bennet‘s (2004) scale it would probably coincide with
the highest level of ethnorelativism, namely, integration, but an integration that does not overlook
or deny cultural and linguistic distinctions and, therefore, does not lead to acculturation.
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Despite marked differences between the cross-cultural and the intercultural approach in
terms of the methods used in analyzing communication in multicultural settings and in terms of
approaches to overcoming hindrances to communication, the two approaches both contribute to a
better understanding of an area of studies that is focal in a globalised world and has been
generating increased attention so as to confirm the claim that developing intercultural
communicative competence can be defined as the tertiary socialization (Byram, 2008a: 106).
The above analysis leads to the conclusion that competent use of English as a lingua
franca would presuppose that learners achieve a plurilingual status, a ‗compound‘ capacity to
switch between their mother tongue and English, while developing a level of empathy for other
cultures which would allow them to pause and ‗decentre‘ whenever inferring the meaning of others
could be hindered or ambiguous.
4 Conclusions
In order to communicate effectively with members of other linguistic and cultural
communities we need a common linguistic code which can help us render our meaning explicit and
infer the meaning of others. Building on tenets promoted by the EU, as well as on the vast body of
research proposed by both cross-cultural and intercultural approaches, we can discern a path to a
better understanding between cultures, ethnicities and peoples of the globalised world.
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References
Bennett, Janet M. & Milton J. Bennett (2004) Developing Intercultural Sensitivity: An Integrative
Approach to Global and Domestic Diversity. In: Landis, Dan, Janet M. Bennett and Milton J.
Bennett (ed.) Handbook of Intercultural Training. (pp. 147 – 164) London, Thousand Oaks, New
Delhi: Sage Publications, Inc.
Byram, M. 1997, Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters.
Byram, Michael (2008a) From Foreign Language Education to Education for Intercultural
Citizenship. Clevedon, Buffalo, Sydney: Multilingual Matters.
Byram, Michael (2008b) Plurilingualism, education for plurilingualism and the languages in and of
education. Revija za obrazovanje i kulturu 8-9.
Carroll, John B. (ed.) (1956) Language, Thought and Reality. Massachusetts: Massachusetts
Institute of Technology Press.
Hall, Edward T. (1959) The Silent Language. New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday Dell
Publishing.
Hall, Edward T. (1966) The Hidden Dimension. New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday Dell
Publishing.
Hall, Edward T. (1977) Beyond Culture. New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday Dell Publishing.
Hofstede, Geert (1980) Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related
Values. Newbury Park, London, New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
Huntington, Samuel P. (1997) The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. Simon
& Schuster UK Ltd.
Kelly, George A. (1963) A Theory of Personality. The psychology of personal constructs. New
York: Norton.
Kramsch, Claire (1998) Language and Culture. Oxford, New York: OUP.
Wierzbicka, Anna (1996) Understanding Cultures Through Their Key Words. New York, Oxford:
OUP.
Wierzbicka, Anna (2003) Cross-Cultural Pragmatics. Berlin, New York: Mouton De Gruyter.
Treaties
EU,
Charter
of
Fundamental
Human
Rights.
(http://europa.eu/scadplus/constitution/objectives_en.htm) (25 May, 2011)
1004
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Teaching English as a ―lingua franca‖ to achieve intercultural communicative competence
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Čebron, Neva
Abstract
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Raising intercultural communicative competence has gained a central place in many considerations and discussions in the globalized world. The present paper therefore examines and analyses approaches to achieving intercultural competence proposed by a number of prominent authors from the American and European cultural environment, such as E.T. Hall, Gert Hofstede, R.D. Lewis, Anna Wierzbicka, Elsa Oksaar, Michael Byram, Manuela Guilhelme. They base their theoretical and applied methods of teaching, as well as their approaches to raising intercultural awareness in the intercultural dialogue, while highlighting slightly different levels of communication, thus also suggesting somewhat different conclusions. As a consequence two approaches have been developed: cross-cultural and intercultural communicative approach. We could say that even considerations about the intercultural dialogue show signs of cultural conditioning. Furthermore, the paper deals with the application of such theoretical premises in the English classroom at the tertiary level. Building on language teaching methods, the paper suggest ways of extending the theme to cross-curricular units, since actualization of theoretical insights in the classroom lends itself nicely to intertwining both a critical cultural awareness of multilingualism in ones own environment and the intercultural communicative competence, leading thus to an "intercultural citizenship".
Date
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2011-05
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P Philology. Linguistics
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1
The Problem of Conceptualization in Rhetoric:
A case of Ittisâl, Mülâyim and Cihet-i câmia
Abdurrahman Özkan
Kadriye Yılmaz Orak
Melike Üzüm
Department of Turkish Language and Literature
Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey
abdurrahmanozkan@sdu.edu.tr
kyilmaz32tr@gmail.com
melikeuzum@gmail.com
Abstract: Today, there are some difficulties in understanding the old
rhetoric (belâgat) books by modern people. Today, although the basic
rhetoric terms are known by the majority, the supporting terms used in the
old rhetoric books to define these terms are not known by everyone. For us,
that is the reason for our classical rhetoric not to be understood sufficiently.
Indeed, there have been many attempts to define the rhetoric terms since 20th
century, but as the supporting terms, used (that should be used) in defining
these terms, were not clearly defined, yet all those studies fill the void, as
they are not systematic, they are useless in teaching them.
In this study, we will focus on three terms, used in the definitons of
the rhetoric terms in the old rhetoric books but not known properly today,
and we will try to explain these terms in relation with their usage in rhetoric
books. Among the three terms we will deal with; (ittisâl, mülâyim) is related
with beyân (figure of speech) and cihet-i câmia with meânî (word order).
Ittisâl is a term used in the explanation of the teşbih (simile) in the
beyan chapter of the rhetoric books. It means a set of intersection to be based
on the metaphor, created by the components through which the müşebbeh
(likened) and müşebbehün-bih (likened-to) in create meaning. For example,
"Ali is a lion." In this teşbih sentence, ittisâl is made up of courage, which
exists between the components of meaning of the two elements (likened and
likened-to) and based on the this teşbih.
Mülâyim is the term used in the definition of istiâre in the beyân
chapter of the rhetorical books. In a broader sense, istiâre is the word, used
with the istiâre word and by which the metaphor is understood (İstiare is a
kind of allegory). It also indicates the feature of the metaphor belonging to
one of the two elements of the sentence.
Cihet-i câmia, a term related with vasıl and fasıl (conjuction and
disjunction) topics of meânî, is used to describe the connection of sentences
or common elements in the connected sentences and it means the partnership
between the semantic elements of to-be conected elements.
We suppose that the seeds and the principles of the meaning unit
(anlam birimciği-séme), one of the most basic branches of the modern
semantic, can be said to exist in our classical rhetorical books or at least in
ittisâl, mülâyim and cihet-i câmia by looking the descriptions below.
As we also suggest, it is quite apparent that; not only the study of
the basic terms but also the study of the terms used in their definitions will
contribute a lot to the understanding of our rhetoric.
Key words: term, rhetoric, ittisâl, mülâyim, cihet-i câmia, séme analysis
�2
Introduction
Emerged and developed in Islamic culture, rhetoric was one of the pillars of our education. It used to be
utilized to teach how to create discourse and include 3 components “meânî”, ‘beyân” and “bedî”. Meânî,
included the major principles of oral and written discourse, beyân focused on the stylistic issues of language and
bedî dealt with the decorative and argumentative structure of discourse such as contrasts, similes and cinas
(jinâs).
It is clear that rhetoric, which traditionally had a major impact in our teaching and learning, can shed
light on the current research in literature.
The theories and meaning, which could be found in old rhetoric books, and the schools of thoughts that
this knowledge was based on, is not widely known by contemporary readers therefore is difficult to understand.
As a result, the key terms and definitions found in classical rhetoric books were not made accessible to modern
readers.
The major terminology of rhetoric is somewhat known, but some key terms to make meaning of the
major terminology are not widely known. It is not possible to make sense of the basic terminology without being
familiar with the toolset used to deconstruct the basic terms. Therefore, this study will examine the terms ittisâl,
mulâyim and cihet-i câmia as a tool set to understand and explain some basic concepts in rhetoric such as tesbih,
istiâre and vasıl-fasıl. We will also address their connections to and similarities with FR analyse semique which
is widely used in semantics (Yılmaz 2009: 294).
1. Ittisâl:
Ittisâl can be defined as “reaching and proximity”. In fikih, the relationship between literal meaning and
figurative meaning of a word (causes leading to the transfer of meaning from literal to figurative) can also be
called ittisâl and examined in two subtopics.
Manevî ittisâl (virtual simile feature): The similarities between the semantic units that comprise
meaning. Istiâre (metaphor) is comprised of these connections.
Sûrî ittisâl (formel simile feature): the connections between syntactic units that make up form. Mecâzî
mürsel (metonomy) is comprised of these connections. (Atar 2002: 220)
Ittisâl in rhetoric, is the intersection between the semantic connections of two words and the metaphoric
relationship they make up.
Here is an example defition of ittisâl by Said Paşa of Diyarbakir in his work Mizânü’l-Edeb:
“The commonalities between the literal meaning of a word the figurative meaning after the
meaning is trasfered from literal to figurative can be called ittisâl. Consider, Zeyd is a lion. Zeyd
as a human, and lion as an animal, their qualities have been compared and analyzed and bravery
was something they had in common, therefore Zeyd has been transferred from the human
meaning to that of a lion on the basis of being brave.” (Diyarbakırlı Said 1305/1890: 194-195)
In the example above, Zeyd and a lion had other qualities in common too such as being present,
animate, and concrete, these do not qualify to create the simile between Zeyd and the lion. What connects these
two on the semantic plane, is the quality of being brave. Based on this example, we can claim that these are the
first examples of deconstruction of semantic units in rhetoric.
The example mentioned above, is a simile. This means that ittisâl is one of the components of simile.
Similes are created when two seemingly dissimilar objects have a common quality, and this commonality is
called ittisâl. Simile is an expression used to explain an object based on a certain quality by making comparisons
with other objects which possess that specific quality. For example, in the expression “Grain is yellow like
gold”, the main point of comparison is the “yellowness of grain” which is an indication of ripeness for plants,
but this quality was not told explicitly but compared with an object gold, which is more strongly associated with
being yellow and considered invaluable by people. Therefore, the meaning was enhanced. As it could be seen in
this example, the yellowness that is common between the semantic units of these two words has been used as
ittisâl. Rhetoricians use a particulat term for ittisâl specific to simile-vechi-sebeh (point of comparison).
Rhetoricians claims 4 categories for points of comparison according to the modality of perception:
1. affective, it is about emotions. Hasan aga is as black as Arabs. The blackness mentioned here is a
quality perceived in visual modality, one of the five major senses
2. cognitive, qualities whose presence is perceived through cognition. Personal qualities such as
Knowing, authority, intelligence and ethical, righteous, proud and coward, comparing someone to
another in these areas, or comparing a useless thing to absence: Bekir aga is as brave as a lion. Bravery
can be perceived through cognition
3. imaginative connections made through imagionation, comparing knowledge with light and ignorance
with dark
�3
4. delusional comparing real objects with unreal objects
Rhetoericians also made comparisons on the basis of form of existence, according to such
categorization vechisebeh (commonalities) might emerge in zâtî (direct), vasfî (indirect) and izâfî (relative)
aspects.
Vasfî
İzâfî
The creators of the nature
meaning
Zâtî
The creators of the indirect
Additions to the asset itself, but of imagination
1. zatî (essential) a permanent quality that identifies an object. This shirt is cotton like that shirt.
2. vasfî (atributal) temporal qualities that can be shared by other objects Hasan aga is as black as an Arab.
3. izâfî (imagined) an object does not possess a certain quality but the person who creates the simile
assigns it by imagination. He is like sun in shedding light on evidence.
These three are the basic meaning bundles.
Below is the scheme, showing the approaches and categoizaions of the object in teşbih by the
rhetoricians (This classification belongs to Rıza Filizok):
1.essential 2. attributal 3. imagined
object (liked-to)
speaker
listener
1.affective 2.cognitive 3.imaginative 4. delusional
2.
All these detailed categorizations show that our semanticists were no worse than the Western
semanticists from the point
of discussing
subject. Alıcı (Algılama cihazlarına göre)
Verici
(benzetmethe
yapan)
2. Mülâyim:
1. hissî 2. aklî 3. hayalî 4. vehmî (dört ayrı
It means "suitable, expedient and soft". "Mülâyim" is used to determine the types of istiâres. It is the use
sémè)
of the meaning components of either müsebbeh or müsebbehun-bih in istiâre. The information related to the term
"mülâyim" is as follows in the "Edebiyat Lugati" by Tahirü'l Mevlevi.
It is the word that is equivalent to metaphor and it has links to the likened-to in the implicit istiâre
(istiâre-i mekniyye)
Tahirü'l Mevlevi uses the term "mülâyim" in relation with the implicit istiâre. Like Tahirü'l Mevlevi,
Cevdet Paşa also uses for implicit istiâre (Cevdet Paşa 2000: 96-97) while Ahmed Hamdi and Said Paşa use for
explicit istiâre Ahmed Hamdî 1293: 90-92, Said Paşa 1305: 344-345). Whether used for implicit istiâre or for
explicit istiâre, the implied thing is one. It is the clear expression of one the meaning components belonging to
müşebbüh-bih (liked-to; müsteârun-minh) or müşebbeh (liked; müsteârun-leh). (Note: Rhetoricans use mülâyim
for explicit istiâre, while they use "havas" (properties), the plural form of "hasse" (property), and "lâzime"
(component), the plural form of "levâzım" (components).
Istiâre is divided into categories as to whether mülâyim exists in the istare word or not, whether
mülâyim belongs to müsterün-leh (borrowed-to) or müsteraun-minh (borrowed-from). Mülâyim in istiâre;
if not present, then it is " mutlaka" (absolute metaphor),
if present, and if it is a component of borrowed-to, it is "mücerrede" (naked metaphor),
if present and if it belongs to a component of borrowd-from, it is "muraşşaha" (enhanced metaphor).
Mülâyim
The position of mülâyim and the categorization of istiâre are as follows:
+
+
+
müsteârun-leh
(borrowed-to)
müstârun-minh
(borrowed-from)
mutlaka
(absolute metaphor)
mücerrede
(naked metaphor)
muraşşaha
(enhanced metaphor)
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Let’s see this in an example. We can create such a scenario. Tom can say these for his friend John:
Today, I saw a lion in the bazaar.
Today, I saw a fluffy-maned lion in the bazaar. (John has long and fluffy hair.)
Today, I saw an iron-fisted lion in the bazaar. (John has fighted and beaten three people.)
explicit istiâre
lion
(borrowed-from)
John
(borrowed-to)
-
-
yele
(fluffy-maned)
-
-
Yumruk
(iron-fisted)
a. mutlaka (absolute)
b. muraşşaha(enhanced)
c. mücerrede (naked)
Mülâyim components are written in the related columns.
3. Cihet-i câmia
The sub-units of text are not brought together randomly, those which are in related to each other are
brought together in combination. Units that do not have this relationship will be seperate and detached. The
formation of interrelated units depending on each other is called “vasıl”, the connection of the sentences
grammatically is called “atıf” (co-ordination), and the formation of unrelated units as detached is called “fasıl”.
Rhetorically, in order to connect two or more sentences, namely “atıf”, we need an intersection set
between those sentences. This intersection set is called as “cihet-i câmia” (Fr. sémè)” (Bilgegil 1984: 145-147;
Bilgegil 1989: 105-108).
Cihet-i câmia is the common aspect to be found between element sor sentences in order to the connect
the elements of the sentences to each other or connect to one sentence to another.
Out of the two connected sentences, the first one is called as “matûfun-aleyh” and second as “matûf”.
Matûf ve matûfun-aleyh, namely the first and the second sentences are united in semantic unity (“cihet-i
câmia”). The formation of a meaningful unity of the sentences connected to each other by th way of “atıf”
depends on semantic unity, namely “cihet-i câmia”.
“Şu Efendi, hem kitâbet eder ve hem şiir söyler” (This gentelman writing in prose and saying poem.)
(Ahmed Hamdî 1293: 55). In that sentence, “kitabet” is used in the sense of writing in prose and saying poem in
the sense of writing in verse. According to that, writing creates the top concept, namely the “cihet-i câmia”
between the two sentences. That can be illustrated with a schema like that:
2nd Sentence
1st Sentence
“cihet-i câmi‘a”
(“matûfun-aleyh”)
Efendi,
hem kitâbet eder
(matûf)
(archisémème) hem şiir söyler.
Cihet-i câmia is divided into three main branches: “aklî (logical), “vehmî” (suspicional) and “hayâlî”
(fictional). “Aklî” and “vehmî” are also divided into three sub-branches.
One of the 19th century classical rhetoricans Ahmet Hamdî classifies cihet-i câmia as follow (Hamdi
1293: 55-58):
eserkind
yazmak
of cihet-i câmi‘a
a. aklî
b. vehmî
1. ittihâd
1. şibh-i temâsül
2. temâsül
2. tezâd
3. tezâyüf
eser
yazmak
3. şibh-i
tezâd
c. hayâlî
a. Cihet-i Câmia-i Akliyye: It is the type of logical relationship between the two elements (word, sentence
or sentence element) to be connected to each other. This can be in three ways; “ittihâd”, “temâsül” ve “tezâyüf”.
1) ittihad: Ahmet hem yazar hem de şairdir. In this example, there is a relationship between two species
combined in the same genus: kitabet and telling poem, writing are united in the composition and this clearly
shows the relationship between the two types that are connected to the same top cluster.
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2) temasül: Unlike ittihad, which is not united in a top category, temasül is the relationship between
different concepts, belonging to different categories, but having similarity, proximity and partnership. It can be
illsutrated as ascribing somebody to somebody other who are connected to each other in loyalty and friendship.
“Bill writer and Tom tanner ve John tailer”. In that example, three people who have a tie of friendship and
amity are ascribed to each other.
3) tezâyüf: It is the kind of relationship in which the consideration of one thin requires the
consideration of the other, too. For exmaple; virus-sick, down-up, little-many etc. Down is existent only together
with up, their existence depends on each other in logical thought. These can also be called as the relations of
"mütekabils".
Here are the tezâyüf examples shown in a schema:
father
son
Relationship(sémè)
down
up
place (sémè)
more
less
amount (sémè)
b. Cihet-i Câmia-i Vehmiyye: When no reason exists in connection of the words, sentences and the
elements of the sentences, it is the thinking of a reason in logic as if there is one. It is divided into three: Şibh-i
temâsül (so-called similarity), tezâd (contrast) ve şibh-i tezâd (so-called contrast).
1) şibh-i temâsül: It is the realization of an imaginary similarity
relationship among the elements to be connected. The world lights up with three
things: the light of sun, the light of moon and the justice of the ruler (king).
2) tezâd: The contrasts between the accidents.
This two opposite components, white and black, is associated being
colour in other words being “araz’’ (accident).
3) şibh-i tezâd: It means the opposites which are thought to be in subtance because the opposites
become among araz (accident) (Kınalızade Ali Efendi: 47-48). What it seems like the opposite among the essence
such as the opposite which is thought to be between ground and sky, is actually an illusion (şibh-i tezat). Contrast relation
becomes between the accidents and the ground and sky maybe only contrast illusion between them because of being the type
of subtance (makule-i cevher).
First sentence
Tom went to bazaar.
meaningful
Second sentence
The water boils at 100 ‘C.
meaningful
Third sentence
The weather is nice today.
meaningful
Meaningless
c. Cihet-i Câmia-i Hayaliyye: It occurs to be with proximity between two things imagining. Based on the
example of Ahmed Hamdi and Cevdet Paşa, we can say that this proximity is based on connatations. Ahmed
Hamdi implies that a proximity can be found between many things depending on customs and traditions and this
kind of relations which are overrated by Belagatçiler are based on cultural connatations. There is need to include
sub-cultures within a common culture. Also two components which there is no connection between each other in
a society, can establish a common direction in other society. These are related with connotative meanings.
Counting materials in the example of “to anyone who reads and writes needs inkpot, pencil, paper, pencil
sharpener, scissors”can be considered together because of being materials of writing and reading.
What makes possible consideration of a combination of these creates cihet-i câmia-i hayaliyye and fort
his reason they can be connected to each other with conjuctions. In fact, there isn’t any rational reason to expect
from the associative connotations. Other than those listed above no common direction is found between the two
sentences that sentences of the text seperately brought together without a conjunction.
Mean scholars (meânî alimleri) say this “the chapters”’.The term in belagat, cihet-i câmia is met with
the coherence and cohesion in the modern semantics. In terms of modern semantics we can explain the subject
with these examples:
Above each sentence has a meaning on its own but there is no connection between them. So these
consecutive sentences aren’t composed of a meaningful text. The meaning of the text isn’t in its words and its
�6
clauses, but in the connection between them. Here, meaning is neighter A, nor B and C. A+B+C is D. This
jointly created D gives the meaning of the text. The meaning comes to us with the connections of the words and
phrases of the text. The more the connections change, the more the meaning of the text changes.
A literary work consists of relating these word fields to each other as a solid hooking up. This
connnecting and combining in literary works is called “cohesion”.
In addition, a meaning area takes place under the layer of linguistic area in the texts. The links between
the semantic layers are called coherence. Cohesion and coherence are similar but different concepts of levels.
Even though cohesion can be seen on the surface of the text through the linguistic items, the coherence
is logical links between the deep structure of the meanings. Although showing the linguistic items have specific
linguistic items,not showing the consistency of cohesive ties (Onursal, www.ege-edebiyat.org ).
Conclusions and Recomendations
Considering all the explanations above and all the examples we give, it is seen that ittisâl, mülâyim and
cihet-i câmia are the whole meaning and that whole meaning is built up on the idea of meaning particles
When we note, this idea highy overlaps with the understanding of sémème analysis (meaning particles
analysis) which is one of the important stages of the modern semantics and aims to determine the characteristics
of meaning that occurs the content of a meaningful unit by utilizing phonology methods (expect for some use of
methods of modern phonology) (Vardar 1998: 22). We want to put forward this overlap in our notification
briefly.
�7
References
Ahmed Cevdet Paşa (2000). Belâgat-ı Osmâniye, Akçağ Yay., İstanbul.
Ahmed Hamdî (1293). Belâgat-i Lisân-ı Osmânî, Matbaa-i Âmire, İstanbul.
Atar, Fahrettin (2002). Fıkıh Usûlü, Marmara Üniversitesi İlâhiyat Fakültesi Yay., İstanbul.
Bilgegil, Kaya (1984). Türkçe Dilbilgisi, Dergâh Yay., İstanbul.
Bilgegil, Kaya (1989). Edebiyat Bilgi ve Teorileri, 2. Baskı, Enderun Kitabevi, İstanbul.
Çankı, Mustafa Namık (1954). “Connatation”, Büyük Felsefe Lûgatı, C. I, Cumhuriyet Matbaası, İstanbul.
Diyarbakırlı Said (1305). Mizânü’l-Edeb, İstanbul.
Kınalızâde Ali Efendi (Tarihsiz). Ahlâk-ı Alâî, Tercüman Yay.
Onursal, İrem. “Türkçe Metinlerde Bağdaşıklık ve Tutarlılık”, www.ege-edebiyat.org
Tahir'ül-Mevlevi (1994). Edebiyat Lügatı, (Haz.: Kemâl Edib Kürkçüoğlu), Enderun Kitabevi, İstanbul.
Vardar, Berke (yön.) (1998). Açıklamalı Dilbilim Terimleri Sözlüğü, 2. Bs., İstanbul.
Yılmaz, Kadriye (2009). Belâgat-i Lisan-ı Osmanî’deki Terimlerin Tanımları ve Tasnifi Üzerinde Bir Araştırma,
Basılmamış Doktora Tezi, Ege Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İzmir 2009.
�
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687
Title
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The Problem of Conceptualization in Rhetoric: A case of Ittisâl, Mülâyim and Cihet-i câmia
Author
Author
Özkan, Abdurrahman
Orak, Kadriye Yılmaz
Üzüm, Melike
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Today, there are some difficulties in understanding the old rhetoric (belâgat) books by modern people. Today, although the basic rhetoric terms are known by the majority, the supporting terms used in the old rhetoric books to define these terms are not known by everyone. For us, that is the reason for our classical rhetoric not to be understood sufficiently. Indeed, there have been many attempts to define the rhetoric terms since 20th century, but as the supporting terms, used (that should be used) in defining these terms, were not clearly defined, yet all those studies fill the void, as they are not systematic, they are useless in teaching them. In this study, we will focus on three terms, used in the definitons of the rhetoric terms in the old rhetoric books but not known properly today, and we will try to explain these terms in relation with their usage in rhetoric books. Among the three terms we will deal with; (ittisâl, mülâyim) is related with beyân (figure of speech) and cihet-i câmia with meânî (word order). Ittisâl is a term used in the explanation of the teşbih (simile) in the beyan chapter of the rhetoric books. It means a set of intersection to be based on the metaphor, created by the components through which the müşebbeh (likened) and müşebbehün-bih (likened-to) in create meaning. For example, "Ali is a lion." In this teşbih sentence, ittisâl is made up of courage, which exists between the components of meaning of the two elements (likened and likened-to) and based on the this teşbih. Mülâyim is the term used in the definition of istiâre in the beyân chapter of the rhetorical books. In a broader sense, istiâre is the word, used with the istiâre word and by which the metaphor is understood (İstiare is a kind of allegory). It also indicates the feature of the metaphor belonging to one of the two elements of the sentence. Cihet-i câmia, a term related with vasıl and fasıl (conjuction and disjunction) topics of meânî, is used to describe the connection of sentences or common elements in the connected sentences and it means the partnership between the semantic elements of to-be conected elements. We suppose that the seeds and the principles of the meaning unit (anlam birimciği-séme), one of the most basic branches of the modern semantic, can be said to exist in our classical rhetorical books or at least in ittisâl, mülâyim and cihet-i câmia by looking the descriptions below. As we also suggest, it is quite apparent that; not only the study of the basic terms but also the study of the terms used in their definitions will contribute a lot to the understanding of our rhetoric.
Date
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2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics