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Studije o betonu 2015-2016
Author
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Džidić, Sanin
Okugić, Husein
Bajramović, Emir
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Pred Vama se nalazi knjiga “Studije o betonu 2015-2016”. U sebi sadrži tri studije iz oblasti betona i betonskih konstrukcija iz naznačenog perioda. Namjera je da ovo bude samo prva knjiga iz serije studija o betonu i betonskim konstrukcijama, koje predstavljaju istraživanja koja se trenutno rade ili će se raditi u vremenu ispred nas iz ove naučne oblasti. Prva studija nosi naslov „Šta je to beton, pojam, vrste, historija, prednosti i nedostaci i klasifikacija prema evropskim standardima“. Od koristi je prvenstveno studentima građevinskih i arhitektonskih fakulteta u objašnjavanju osnovnih pojmova iz oblasti betona, tehnologije betona i betonskih konstrukcija. Dozvolite da naglasimo, da praktično u našoj izdavačkoj praksi ne postoji ovako sveobuhvatno predstavljena historija betona i betonskih konstrukcija, kao što je to slučaj u ovoj studiji. Takođe su u studiji date najnovije evropske klasifikacije betona shodno najnovijem Evropskom standardu EN 206:2013, koji je preuzet i u Bosni i Hercegovini kao BAS EN 206:2014, pa u tom smislu je studija od koristi i inženjerima u praksi, koji uglavnom nisu upoznati sa najnovijim evropskim klasifikacijama betona, posebno što praktično vrlo malo materijala ima iz ove oblasti na jezicima naroda u Bosni Hercegovini. U studiji se daje i pregled najnovijih eveopskih standarda koji tretiraju beton kao materijal i projektovanje betonskih i drugih nosivih konstrukcija sa naznačenim međuzavisnostima između ovih standarda. Druga studija u ovoj knjizi je „Optimalizacija projektnih rješenja prednapregnutih betonskih montažnih hala sa aspekta upotrebljivosti i trajnosti“. Naime, pitanja upotrebljivosti i trajnosti betonskih konstrukcija općenito se i praktično proračunski razmatraju u istoj ravni sa graničnim stanjem nosivosti tek sa pojavom eurokodova, odnosno Eurokoda 2, koji tretira projektovanje betonskih konstrukcija. Analiza prezentirana u ovoj studiji je dovela do validnih zaključaka kada su u pitanju glavni prednapregnuti vezači montažnih betonskih hala. Izbor adekvatnih glavnih nosača, pitanja njihove upotrebljivosti i trajnosti sa proračunskim postupcima su sveobuhvatno tretirani u ovoj studiji. Studija će naći svoju čitalačku publiku kod inženjera projektanata prednapregnutih konstrukcija, inženjera zaposlenih u industriji prefabriciranih montažnih elemenata i studenata na predmetima iz oblasti betonskih prednapregnutih konstrukcija i montažnih konstrukcija
Publisher
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International Burch University
Date
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2017
Keywords
Keywords.
Book
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e36f89700bd6dfe2f8061ad182c05d10.pdf
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Text
Şanlıurfa Kültürünü Koruma ve Gelecek Nesillere Aktarma Bakımından
Sıra Gecelerinin Yapı, İşleyiş ve İçerik Olarak İncelenmesi
Cavit Gelez1Ali Rıza Özuygun
Abstract
A study on the research for ‘Sıra Geceleri’ considering its structure, mechanism and
contents in terms of maintaining the conservation of Sanliurfa Culture and its transfer to the
next generation.
This study presents the research that remarks the significance of the conservation of
the unequalled city culture, which is called Urfa Sıra Geceleri, which is still current but began
to disappear rapidly in today’s global world and its major role for the next generations. The
study comprises the history of “Urfa Sıra Geceleri” and its attribute provided with conceptual
words, the music and literature, especially ‘Divan Edebiyatı’ and ‘ghazel’ at those nights.
When considered socially and culturally, the nights, which are dating back to very old ages,
are understood to have a great role in the city culture although nowadays they are seen as a
means of entertainment. Especially nowadays, whilst social media causes diversity and gaps
between the generations, this cultural event, which is still active, has an important role in
terms of minimizing the differences.
Key Words: Sıra Gecesi, Culture, Ghazel-Ghazelhânlık, Urfa
Özet
Bu çalışmanın amacı, kültür miraslarımızdan olan ve hâlâ tertip edilen “Urfa Sıra
Geceleri”nin günümüzde hızla yok olmaya başlayan veya küresel bir kimlik kazanan şehir
kültürlerinin korunması ve gelecek nesillere aktarılmasındaki rolü; bu gecelerin tarihçesi,
mahiyeti, bu gecelere ait kavramlar, bu gecelerde müzik ve edebiyatın -özellikle divan
edebiyatı ve gazel- incelenmesidir. Sosyal ve kültürel açıdan ele alındığında çok eski bir
gelenek olan bu geceler, her ne kadar günümüzde bir eğlence aracı olarak görülse de şehir
kültüründe çok ciddi bir yer aldığı anlaşılacaktır. Özellikle sosyal medyanın kuşaklar arasında
meydana getirdiği farklılık ve uçurumların çok belirgin olduğu günümüzde, hâlâ faal olan bu
1
Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretmeni, cavit.gelez@gmail.com
�kültür kurumu kuşaklar arasındaki farklılıkları minimize etme açısından da ayrıca bir öneme
sahiptir.
Anahtar Sözcükler: Sıra Gecesi, Kültür, Gazel-Gazelhânlık, Urfa
Giriş
Yaklaşık on iki bin yıllık geçmişiyle ve kültür birikimiyle Anadolu ve
Mezopotamya’nın en eski şehirlerinden olan Urfa, geleneklerini günümüze kadar
koruyabilmiş ve yaşatmaya çalışan bir şehirdir. Kültürel zenginliğini Türk, Kürt, Arap,
Türkmen kültürlerinin bir anlamda yüzyıllar boyunca yoğrulmasıyla bugünlere taşımayı
başarmış olan Urfa özellikle mutfağı ve müzik birikimiyle de Anadolu’nun en bilinen marka
şehirlerinden biridir. Geleneklerini “şehir” olarak yaşaması da ayrıca şehir kültürünün
korunması bakımından önemlidir.
Bu geleneklerden en önemlilerinden biri de özellikle günümüzde Türkiye’nin birçok
ilinde (daha çok turistik amaçlı da olsa), televizyon kanallarında, otellerde, restoranlarda ve
çeşitli etkinliklerde sadece çiğköfte ve müzik kısmı gösterilen “Sıra Geceleri”dir. Oysa
günümüzde dar bir çerçevede ele alınan sıra geceleri tarih, misyon ve içerik olarak hiç de
bunu hak etmemektedir.
Sıra Gecelerinin Tarihi
Bu gecelerin veya bilinen adıyla “gezmelerin” tarihi hakkında bir bilgi-belge yoksa da
halkın genel kanaati yüzyılları aşan bir geçmişi olduğudur. IV. Murad’ın Bağdat Seferi
sırasında Urfa’da konaklaması ve huzurunda Kuloğlu Mustafa adlı bir aşıktan günümüzdeki
hoyrat formatında bir parça dinlemesi folklor araştırmacıları tarafından Urfa musiki
meclislerine dolayısıyla da sıra gecelerine bir referans olarak gösterilmiştir. Bu bilgiler
dikkate alındığında 17. yüzyıldan beri bu gecelerin tertip edildiği sonucuna ulaşılır. Ayrıca
Urfa’nın Fransızlar tarafından işgali sırasında bu gecelerini gizliden gizli-ye tertip edildiği, bu
gecelerde toplanan paraların Urfa’nın işgalden kurtarılması amacıyla toplandığı ve kurtuluş
mücadelesinin planlarının bu gecelerde yapıldığı da halk tarafından bilinen bir gerçektir.
“Peki, bu tarihî gelenek sadece müzik ve çiğköfteden mi ibaret? 35 yıl boyunca sıra
gecesiyle ilgili bilgiler toplayan Urfalı folklor araştırmacısı Abuzer Akbıyık, sıra gecesinin
bugünkü manâsıyla değerlendirilemeyeceğini, tarihte önemli fonksiyonlar üstlendiğini ayrıntılarıyla ortaya koyan bir çalışmaya imza attı. Akbıyık'ın "Şanlıurfa Sıra Gecesi" isimli
çalışmasında Millî Mücadele döneminde Urfa'daki direniş kararının bir sıra gecesinde alındığı
ortaya çıkıyor. Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti'nin Urfa şubesinin işgal altında bir sıra gecesinde
�kurulduğu da belgeleriyle tespit ediliyor. Sadece belgeler değil, Akbıyık şu anda hayatta
olmayan; ancak geçmişte görüştüğü şahitlerin verdiği bilgilerle de olayı teyit ediyor. Mondros
Mütarekesi'nin 7. maddesi gereğince 24 Mart 1919'da İngilizler (daha sonra Fransızlara
devredeceklerdir) Urfa'yı işgal eder. Yanlarına yörede yaşayan Ermenileri de alan işgal
kuvvetleri, halkı sindirme politikası başlatır. Bu baskıya daha fazla tahammül edemeyen bir
grup Urfalı, gözlerden ırak bir yerde buluşarak 'çıkış için' nasıl bir metod izleyeceklerini
kararlaştırmak ister. Ancak herkesin takip edildiği işgal ortamında bir araya gelmek mümkün
değildir. Ermeni işbirlikçiler, haberi anında işgal komutanına ulaştırıyordu çünkü.
Ama büyük buluşma için mutlaka bir yol bulunmalıydı. İşte tam da bu hengâmede
devreye “sıra gecesi” girer. Bir Urfa geleneği olan sıra gecesi, zaten her zaman yapılan
'sıradan' bir eğlence değil miydi? Bu fikir Binbaşı Ali Rıza Bey'in aklına yatar. Bir defasında
Urfa'nın ileri gelenlerinden Hacı Mustafa ile konuşurken sözü işgale getirir: "Urfalılardan
şüpheleniyorlar. Bilmiyorlar ki çiğköfte ile meşguller." mesajı alan Hacı Mustafa, vakit
kaybetmeden arkadaşlarını yine bir sıra gecesinde Ali Rıza Bey ile buluşturur. Güllü Osman
Efendi'nin evinde toplanan on iki kişi, çiğköfte yoğurup çalıp söyler. Aynı zamanda işgal
kuvvetlerine karşı başlatacakları hareketin planlarını da hazırlamayı ihmal etmezler. Bu
gecenin sonunda (5 Eylül 1919) Müdafaa-i Hukuk Urfa şubesi gizlice kurulur ve başkanlığına
Ali Rıza Bey getirilir. On iki arkadaş, şehirlerini düşman işgalinden kurtarmak için Kur'an-ı
Kerim'e el basıp yemin ederken maddî güçlerini de ortaya koyarlar. Eğlence bitip herkes
evine dağılırken kurtuluş hareketi için o gece 2 bin altın toplanır.”2
Sıra Geceleri ile ilgili Kavramlar
a) Sıra Günü: Geleneksel format genellikle gece yapılmasıdır. Haftanın belli bir
günü olan bu güne sıra günü denir.
b) Sıra Gezme: Arkadaş grubunun bir araya gelmesi, toplanması anlamındadır.
c) Sıra Arkadaşlığı: Sıra gecesi grubundaki kişilerin birbiriyle olan yakınlığını ifade
eder.
d) Sıra Başkanlığı: Grup üyeleri tarafında seçilen kişidir. Sırayı temsil etme, idare
etme, sıranın kasasını tutma, üyeler arasındaki koordinasyonu sağlama, üyeleri
ziyaret etme, disiplini sağ-lama gibi görevleri vardır. Başkanın bir de yardımcısı
olur. Başkan olacak kişinin örnek bir kişiliğe sahip olması gerekmektedir.
2
SÖYLEMEZ, Haşim. Aksiyon Dergisi, 2006, sayı 620
�e) Sıra Kasası: Sırada toplanan paralara denir. Toplanan paralar sıra başkanı veya
görevlendirilen biri tarafından muhafaza edilir. Bu paralar gerekli yerlere, ihtiyaç
sahiplerine, maddi sıkıntıya girmiş üyelere harcanır.
Sıra Gecelerinin İcra Metodu ve Kuralları
Her şeyden önce, Sıra geceleri Urfa kültür hayatında önemli bir yere olup “sıradan
gece” değildir. Arkadaş guruplarının her hafta olarak birinin evinde sıra ile yaptıkları için bu
gecelere sıra, sıra gezme veya sıra gecesi denilmektedir. Sıra geceleri; sohbet, muhabbet ve
musiki geceleridir. Geleneksel oyunların oynandığı, çiğköfte, tatlı ve mırra kahvesinin ikram
edildiği, tanışma, yardımlaşma ve dayanışma geceleridir.
Bu gecelerin yazılı kuralları barındıran bir metni olmasa da halk arasında belli olan ve
çok az değişkenlik gösteren bazı kural ve kalıpları vardır:
a) Başkan: Sıra geceleri ya da sıra gezmelerinin olmazsa olmazlarından birincisi bir
başkanın seçilmesidir. Başkan olan kişi genellikle ilk sıra gecesinde oy birliğiyle
seçilir. Grubu toparlama, yer ve zamanı tayin etme, toplanan yardımlara nezaret etme
bakımından faal olması gereken başkanının bilgi ve görgüsüyle de bilinip tanınması
gerekmektedir. Başkan sıra gecesinin disiplinin sağlama, geç gelen veya gelmeyen
üyelere ceza verme gibi görevleri de yapar.
b) Geliş Saati: Çok önemli bir kuraldır. Buna uymayan üyeler genellikle cezalandırılır.
Bu saat genellikle akşam saatleridir. Yılın ilk sıra gecesinde kararlaştırılır.
c) Oturma Düzeni: En yaşlı kişi, varsa sohbet yapacak kişi ve çağrılan misafirler en baş
köşeye oturur. Geleneksel Urfa ev salonları uzundur. Yöresel halı ve yastıklarla döşeli
olan bu odalarda yere oturulur. Uzanmak, ayak uzatmak, yerini bilmemek ayıp
karşılanır. Ev sahibi kapıya yakın oturur. Büyüklerden gerekli terbiye görsün diye
getirilen çocuklar ve gençler de kapıya yakın oturur.
d) İkramlar: Eğer yemekli olması daha önceden kararlaştırılmışsa yöresel yemekler
ikram edilir. Ama böyle bir karar yoksa genellikle çiğköfte, ayran, bostana, mırra, çay,
künefe, şıllık tatlısı, baklava gibi ikramlar sıra gecelerinin sofralarında yer alır.
e) Misafir Çağırma: Başkanın ve üyelerini bilgisi dahilinde zaman zaman sıra
gecelerine misafirlerin davet edildiği söz konusu olabilir. Ancak başkan ve üyelerin
onayı olmadan misafir getirenler cezalandırılır.
�f) Cezalar ve Disiplin: Kurallar herkse tarafından bilinir ve onaylanır. Bunun dışında
çıkanlar para cezası gibi, sıranın kendisine verilmesi gibi cezalar alınır.
Sıra Gecelerinin İçeriği
Urfa halkı kış gelince gruplar halinde sıra gezme geleneğini halen sürdürmektedir.
Halkın kendi arasında ve kendi evlerinde gezdiği sıralarda herhangi bir sorun yoktur. Kendi
tabii seyrinde gitmektedir. Evlerde yapılan sıra gecelerinde sıranın içindeki etkinlikler
değişmektedir. Bazı sıra gecelerinde ağırlıklı olarak memleket meseleleri, bazılarında siyaset,
bazılarında mesleki konular veya dini mevzular konuşulur, bazılarında ise hem sohbet edilir
hem de musiki icra edilir. Yani sıra gezenlerin meslekleri, tahsilleri ve ilgi alanlarına göre
sıradaki etkinlik değişiklik gösterir.
Sıra gecelerinde çoğu zaman sohbet olur. Sohbetler daha çok dini konularda olsa da
grubun sosyal ve kültürel statüsüne göre değişkenlik arz edebilir. Konusunda uzman olan
kişiler tarafından sohbet verilir. Bu sohbetlerin özellikle gençlere yol gösterme, onları terbiye
etme gibi önemli fonksiyon ve amaçları da vardır.
Sıra Gecelerinin Kültüre Katkısı
UNESCO bünyesinde 2003 yılında imzalanan bir sözleşmeyle ülkeler için uluslararası
bir sorumluluk alanı haline getirilen Somut Olmayan Kültürel Miras, gelecek kuşaklar için
korunması gereken kültür varlığı olarak tanımlanmakta ve “toplulukların, grupların ve kimi
durumlarda bireylerin, kültürel miraslarının bir parçası olarak tanımladıkları uygulamalar,
temsiller, anlatımlar, bilgiler, beceriler ve bunlara ilişkin araçlar, gereçler ve kültürel
mekanlar” olarak kabul edilmektedir. 2006 yılında attığı imza ile Türkiye de bu sözleşmeye
taraf olmuş ve böylece bu mirasın araştırılması, derlenmesi, etkin bir bicimde
değerlendirilmesi vs. gibi koruma önlemlerini yerine getirme konusunda yükümlülük almıştır.
Urfa Sıra Geceleri, çok işlevli ve çok boyutlu bir folklor olayı olarak Türkiye’nin önemli bir
somut olmayan kültürel mirası olduğu gibi Aralık 2010’da “İnsanlığın Somut Olmayan
Kültürel Mirasının Temsili Listesi‘ne girmeye de hak kazanmıştır.
Sıra geceleri içinde çırak-usta ilişkisi, müzik, yöresel oyunlar, yöresel kıyafetler,
yöresel yemekler ve en önemlisi de dil olarak Urfa ağzını barındırdığından bir nevi kültür
merkezleri gibidir. Popüler kültüre karşı belli bir duruşu olan muhafazakar bir yapısı vardır.
Sosyal yardımlaşmaya önem veren ta-rafıyla da bir bakıma vakıflar gibi, Âhilik Teşkilatı gibi
bir işlevi vardır. Ayrıca çoğu zaman kadınların da kocalarıyla birlikte aynı evde fakat kendi
aralarında toplanması bakımından da aile kurumunu göz ardı etmeyen bir işlevi vardır.
�Bu tarz gecelerin bir şehirde yüzlerce belki binlercesinin haftalık tertip edilmesi bir
toplum için çok önemli olan birlik ve beraberliğin sağlanması adında yadsınamaz bir öneme
sahiptir.
Sıra Gecelerinde Müzik: Gazeller ve Gazelhânlık
Günümüzde sıra gecelerinde ve medya organlarında icra edilen gazelhânlık
geleneğinin geçmişini 17. yüzyıla kadar dayandıranlar vardır. Hatta Kuloğlu Mustafa adlı bir
âşıkla IV. Murat arasında geçtiği rivayet edilen bir öykü anlatılır. Büyük olasılıkla âşık
edebiyatının 17. yüzyılda yetiştirdiği Kuloğlu Mustafa’nın gazelhânlık geleneğinin ilk
temsilcisi sıfatına büründürüldüğü Urfa folklorunda anlatılan bu rivayete göre IV. Murat
Bağdat seferinden dö-nerken Urfa’da konakladığı sırada Kuloğlu Mustafa’yı dinlemek ister.
Ancak Kuloğlu Mustafa padişahın huzuruna çıkmayı kabul etmez. Bunun üzerine kılıç
zoruyla kendisini padişahın hu-zuruna çıkarırlar ve padişaha mahur makamına yakın maya ile
başlayan “ Ya bülbül güle kon dikene konma” adlı türküyü okur. Padişah hiç duymadığı bu
türkünün makamını sorduğunda Kuloğlu Mustafa, “Kılıçlı makamıdır.” diye cevap verir. O
günden sonra Urfa’da bu makamda okunan eserlere “Kılıçlı Makam” adı verilmiştir.
19. yüzyılda Urfa’da gazelhânlık geleneğinin en önemli temsilcisi Mihiş’in oğlu Ali
Hafız’dır. Bütün makamları çok iyi bildiği söylenir. Tasavvuf erbabından Dede Osman
Avni’nin müezzinliğini yapmıştır.
20. yüzyılın başından itibaren Dede Halil, Kirişçi Halil, Cürre Mehmet, Saatçi Yusuf,
Hacı İbiş, Kekeç Muhittin, Damburacı Derviş, Kuşcu Yusuf, Mukim Tahir, Herli Ahmet Ağa,
Hafız Ahmet, Bekçi Bakır, Tenekeci Mahmut, Hacı Mahmut Ağa, Kazancı Bedih, Halil
Hafız, Kel Hamza, Demir İzzet gibi gazelhânları yetiştiren Urfa’da bu gelenek günümüzde
sürdürülmektedir.
Sıra gecelerinde gazelhânlar ve okudukları gazeller musiki faslının olmazsa olmazıdır.
Öyle ki içinde gazel okunmayan bir meclise pek de itibar edilmez. Herhangi bir resmi formatı
olmamasına karşın bu meclislerin teknik olarak icrâsı hemen hemen aynıdır. Urfa Divanı ile
başlayan fasıl daha sonra gazel, hoyrat ve türkülerle devam eder. Gazel ve hoyratlar bir kişi
tarafından okunurken türküler koro halinde ve cura, çöğür, kanun, keman, ud, Urfa tanburu,
kaval, zurna def, dabruka, bağlama gibi zengin bir enstrüman birlikteliğiyle söylenir. Ancak
gazel ve hoyratlar daha çok kemanla okunur.
Urfa musiki meclislerinde icra edilen gazeller arasında Abdî, Kânî gibi mahallî
klasiklerin, Kuddusî gibi mutasavvıfların, Ahmet Paşa, Nabî ve Fuzulî gibi divan şairlerinin
şiirleri de yer almaktadır. Aşağıda Urfalı gazelhanların okuduğu gazeller şairlerinin
mahlaslarına göre alfabetik olarak verilmiştir:
�Abdî (1857-1941)
1.
Söyle ey nâzik beden kastın mı vardır cânıma
Ahd ü peymânı unuttun gelmez oldun yanıma
2.
Hüsnün senin ey dilber-i nâdîde kamer mi
Hûri misin ey âfet-i can yoksa beşer mi
3.
Nice bir narı askınla ciğer yansın kebaba olsun
Bu ateşle nasıl cisme-i nizaımı zevk-yâb olsun
4.
Güzeldir sevdiğim ağyâre akran eylesem azdır
Hayâl ü fikrim hasr-ı cânân eylesem azdır
5.
Nice bir mastaba-i dehrde nâşâd olalım
Çıkalım çille-i gamdan yeter âzâd olalım
6.
Zâhidâ sanma ki nev-güfte makâlât okuruz
Mey-i aşkı içeriz hüsn-i makâmât okuruz
Ahmed Paşa (?-1497)
Bir dil mi kalmıştır bu tîr-i gamzeden kan olmamış
Bir cân mı vardır ol kemân ebrûya kurban olmamış
Fehîm (1837-1900)
Yanıp bir lale ruhsâre çerâğ olduğun var mı
Seni pervâne veş şem‘e şebistân olduğun var mı
Furûğî (1877-?)
Karadan ağa dönüp ders-i dilârâ okuruz
Mekteb-i aşka varıp şimdi elifbâ okuruz
Fuzulî (ö.1556)
1.
Meni candan usandırdı cefâdan yâr usanmaz mı
Felekler yandı âhımdan murâdım şem‘i yanmaz mı
2.
Hâsılım yoh ser-i kûyunda belâdan gayrı
Garazım yoh reh-i aşkında fenâdan gayrı
�3.
Kerem kıl kesme sâkî iltifâtın bî-nevâlardan
Elinden geldiği hayrı dirîğ etme gedâlardan
4.
Mende Mecnûndan füzûn âşıklık isti‘dâdı var
Âşık-ı sâdık menem Mecnûnun ancak adı var
5.
Cân verme gam-ı aşka ki aşk âfet-i cândır
Aşk âfet-i cân olduğu meşhûr-ı cihândır
6.
Öyle ser-mestem ki idrâk etmezem dünyâ nedür
Men kimem sâkî olan kimdür mey-i sahbâ nedür
Hatâyî (1823-1900?)
Bugün gam tekye-gâhında fedâ bir cânımız vardır
Gönül abdâl-ı aşk olmuş gelin kurbânımız vardır
Kânî (1845-?)
1.
Gam-ı askınla ahvâlım perîşân oldu gittikçe
Cefâ vü cevr-i hicrinle ciğer kan oldu gittikçe
2.
Nûş etmediğim dehrde peymâne mi kaldı
Yaslanmadığım gûşe-i meyhâne mi kaldı
Kuddusî (1769-1849)
Aldanma gönül devlet-i ikbâle güvenme
Vârislere âhir kalacak mâla güvenme
Leylâ Hanım (1850-1936)
Rahm eyle bu dil-haste-i nâ-çâra İlâhî
Zahm-ı dilime senden olur çâre İlâhî
Lûtfî (1888-1938)
Nice bu hasret-i dildâr ile giryân olayım
Yanayım âteş-i aşkın ile büryân olayım
Nâbî (1642-1712)
Sakın terk-i edebden kûy-ı mahbûb-ı Hudâdır bu
Nazargâh-ı İlâhîdir makâm-ı Mustafâdır bu
�Nezihe Hanım (1880-1971)
1.
Aşkım ebedîdir erecek sanma zevâle
Dönsem elem-i kahr-ı firâkınla hilâle
2.
Gül-ruhlarını gonca-i zibâya değişmem
Endâm-ı dil-ârânızı tûbâya değişmem
3.
Bir perînin aşkına düştüm çok efgân eyledim
Râz-ı aşkı çok zaman kalbimde pinhân eyledim
4.
Dil-i nâ-şâdımın ne sabrı ne ârâmı kalmıştır
Ne yârin lutfu ne bahtın bana in’âmı kalmıştır
5.
Gönül bir bî-vefâ bir âfet-i bî-dâda düşmüştür
Hülâsâ gayr-ı mümkün gamze-i cellâda düşmüştür
6.
Sabret gönül eyyâm-ı safâ yâre de kalmaz
Gam çekme ki vuslat demi ağyâre de kalmaz
7.
Mecnûn isen ey dil sana Leylâ mı bulunmaz
Bu goncaya bir bülbül-i şeydâ mı bulunmaz
8.
Lâyık mı bu hicran ile ömrüm keder etsin
Gelsin melekü’l-mevt beni mahv u heder etsin
Râsih (?-1731)
1.
Süzme çeşmin gelmesin müjgân müjgân üstüne
Urma zahm-ı sineme peykân peykân üstüne
2.
Tükendi nakd-i ömrüm dilde ser-mâyem bir âh kaldı
Ne vasl-ı ârız-ı dilden ne yârândan nigâh kaldı
Ruhî (?-1605)
Terkib-bend
Sûretde eger zerre isek ma‘nide yûhuz
Rûhu’l-kudüsün Meryeme nefh etdiği rûhuz
�Sabrî (1800-1871)
Şerh ederken yine tahrîr-i derûn-ı sitemim
Yakdı evrâk-ı dil-i sûzu zebân-ı kalemim
Safvet (1866-1950)
Erbâb-ı safâ taht-ı Cemi bâğda kursun
Sultân-ı kadeh elden ele hükmünü sürsün
Şem‘î
Ben beni bilmem neyim dünyâ nedir ukbâ nedir
Söyleyen kim söyleten kim aşk nedir sevdâ nedir
Ziya Paşa (1829-1880)
Terkîb-bend
1.
III. Bend
Bir katre içen çeşme-i pür-hûn-ı fenâdan
Başın alamaz bir dahi bârân-ı belâdan
2.
Âsâfın mikdârını bilmez Süleymân olmayan
Bilmez insan kadrini âlemde insân olmayan
Bir Gazel İcrası Örneği
Tenekeci Mahmut tarafından bestelenen ve daha sonra Kazancı Bedih ile ünlenen
aşağıdaki gazel Şair Fehîm’e aittir:
(Nevrûz)
Yanıp bir nar-ı ruhsâre çerâğân olduğun var mı
Senin pervâne ve şem’a şebistân olduğun var mı
(Hüseynî)
Demişsin ey sabâ yok bağ-ı dilde sümbül-i efkâr
Hevây-ı zülfü yâr ile perişân olduğun var mı
(Kürdî)
Gürûh-i zenperestânın demişsin pîriyim zahid
Senin beyt-i senemde Şeyh-i Sen’an olduğun var mı
(Tâhir)
Visal-i iyd-i atâyı nice ümmid edersin sen
O şuhun vaslına iydinde kurban olduğun var mı
�(İbrahimî)
Niceler tâlib-i feyzi muhabbet olmak isterler
Senin o tekkey-i uşşâke mihmân olduğun var mı
(Kürdî)
Züleyhâ-yı murade nail olmak hayli müşküldür
Azizim Yusuf-âsâ bend-i zindân olduğun var mı
(Hüseynî)
Per-i rü’yâyı teshir eylemekse maksadın ey dil
Fehimâ mülk-ü Belkıs’e Süleymân olduğum var mı
Yukarıdaki gazelin icrâ biçiminde de görüldüğü üzere Urfalı gazelhânların müzik
eğitimi almış ve belli bir sanat disiplini ile sanatlarını icrâ eden İstanbul gazelhânlarından
aşağı kalır bir yanı yoktur. Gazellerin musiki ile okunması her ne kadar Osmanlının payitahtı
olan İstanbul’da Klasik Türk musikisi kalıpları içinde ve bu sanatın eğitimini ciddi olarak
almış gazelhânlar tarafından yapılmışsa da asırlardan beri Türk müziğine en çok katkı yapan
ve sanatçı kazandıran şehirlerden biri olan Urfa’da da devam etmektedir.
Sonuç olarak Urfa kültürüne ve müziğine; halkın birlik ve beraberliğine katkılarıyla
günümüzde hâlâ faal olarak devam eden sıra geceleri çok değerli bir kültür hazinesidir.
Kaynaklar
1. AKBIYIK, Abuzer. Şanlıurfa Sıra Gecesi, Şanlıurfa: Elif Matbaası, 2006
2. ÖZDEM, Filiz - Güler, Ara - Güllüoğlu, Fahri. Uygarlıklar Kapısı Urfa, İstanbul:
YKY, 2002
3. YILMAZ, Dr. Muge. Geleneksel Bir Sohbet Toplantısı & Urfa Sıra Geceleri, Grafiker
Yayınları, 2012
4. MACİT, Prof. Dr. Muhsin. Urfa sıra Gecelerinde ve Musiki Meclislerinde Okunan
Gazelleri İşlevi ,Millî Folklor, 87. Sayı, s. 86-73, 2010
5. AKBIYIK, Abuzer - KÜRKÇÜOĞLU, Sabri - GÜZELGÖZ, Osman. Şanlıurfa Halk
Müziği, Ankara: Şanlıurfa Valiliği Kültür Yayınları, 1999
6. SÖYLEMEZ, Haşim. Urfa Şanını Sıra Gecelerine Borçlu, Aksiyon Dergisi, 620. Sayı,
2006
7. ÖZGÜ, M., S , Turhan, K. Dökmetaş “Notaları İle Uzun Havalarımız”, Kültür
Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara, 1996
8. ÖZBEK, Mehmet, Türk Halk Müziği El Kitabı I Terimler Sözlüğü, Atatürk Kültür
Merkezi Başknalığı Yayınları, Ankara, 1998
��
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
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3590
Title
A name given to the resource
Şanlıurfa Kültürünü Koruma ve Gelecek Nesillere Aktarma Bakımından Sıra Gecelerinin Yapı, İşleyiş ve İçerik Olarak İncelenmesi
Author
Author
Gelez, Cavit
ÖZUYGUN, Ali Rıza
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Abstract A study on the research for ‘Sıra Geceleri’ considering its structure, mechanism and contents in terms of maintaining the conservation of Sanliurfa Culture and its transfer to the next generation. This study presents the research that remarks the significance of the conservation of the unequalled city culture, which is called Urfa Sıra Geceleri, which is still current but began to disappear rapidly in today’s global world and its major role for the next generations. The study comprises the history of “Urfa Sıra Geceleri” and its attribute provided with conceptual words, the music and literature, especially ‘Divan Edebiyatı’ and ‘ghazel’ at those nights. When considered socially and culturally, the nights, which are dating back to very old ages, are understood to have a great role in the city culture although nowadays they are seen as a means of entertainment. Especially nowadays, whilst social media causes diversity and gaps between the generations, this cultural event, which is still active, has an important role in terms of minimizing the differences. Key Words: Sıra Gecesi, Culture, Ghazel-Ghazelhânlık, Urfa Özet Bu çalışmanın amacı, kültür miraslarımızdan olan ve hâlâ tertip edilen “Urfa Sıra Geceleri”nin günümüzde hızla yok olmaya başlayan veya küresel bir kimlik kazanan şehir kültürlerinin korunması ve gelecek nesillere aktarılmasındaki rolü; bu gecelerin tarihçesi, mahiyeti, bu gecelere ait kavramlar, bu gecelerde müzik ve edebiyatın -özellikle divan edebiyatı ve gazel- incelenmesidir. Sosyal ve kültürel açıdan ele alındığında çok eski bir gelenek olan bu geceler, her ne kadar günümüzde bir eğlence aracı olarak görülse de şehir kültüründe çok ciddi bir yer aldığı anlaşılacaktır. Özellikle sosyal medyanın kuşaklar arasında meydana getirdiği farklılık ve uçurumların çok belirgin olduğu günümüzde, hâlâ faal olan bu kültür kurumu kuşaklar arasındaki farklılıkları minimize etme açısından da ayrıca bir öneme sahiptir. Anahtar Sözcükler: Sıra Gecesi, Kültür, Gazel-Gazelhânlık, Urfa
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2016
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ffb5734712a6fb15ef4273c3df92937d.pdf
f7b30ba1766e8684647e902e89cdbc97
PDF Text
Text
COLLEGE STUDENTS’ FIELDWORK IN THE NATIVE-AMERICAN
RESERVATION
Article History:
Submitted: 10.06.2015
Accepted: 08.08.2015
Abstract: This is the narrative of the fieldwork conducted by the Global Citizenship Studies
Department at Seisen University. The fieldwork in the Native-Americans reservation was
started in 2008 in Colville in the State of Washington. Since 2008, we have sent average of 10
students every year for 7 years. The aims of this fieldwork are:
1) to understand history, culture and life of the Native-Americans
2) to learn the importance of symbiotic relation between people and the nature
3) to acquire English skills through communicating with local people
Keywords: Native-American Reservation, multi-cultural understanding, service learning
�I. INTRODUCTION
Seisen University is a women’s college established by Catholic nuns from Spain in 1950.
The name of the department I belong to is Global Citizenship Studies Department and probably
the only department that has this name in the world. I would like to introduce one of the
fieldworks that our department is conducting.
Before I start elaborating on the fieldwork, let me briefly explain the department and its
curriculum. The department was established in 2000 with the aim to foster the women who can
contribute to global society with global perspective. Our motto is “Think globally, act locally.”
This is the structure of our curriculum. At the bottom as you can see, first things students
are expected to gain in their first year classes are basic knowledge, fundamental learning skills,
and communication skills.
In the second year, they start taking classes in the three major areas, namely, Social
Sciences and Humanities, Global Communication and Fieldwork. In the area of Social
Sciences and Humanities, students study, for example, history, sociology, economics, politics,
culture, religion and so on. In the area of Global Communication, they learn not only English
and other foreign languages but also cross-cultural communication, interpretation, translation,
presentation skills and so on. And in the Fieldwork, students are expected to see, find out and
feel at first-hand what they learned in the Social Sciences and Humanities and Global
Communication areas.
In the third year they decide the research theme and survey the literature and make
�research for the theme. And finally in the fourth year, they complete their thesis and make
presentation based on the thesis.
I hope the explanation made it clear where the fieldworks are placed in our curriculum.
Two overseas fieldworks are usually offered in addition to the fieldworks in the United States
and England and two within the country every year. So far we have sent our students to India,
Indonesia, the Philippines, Nepal, Bhutan, Malawi, the USA, England, New Zealand, Korea,
Taiwan, and we will start a new program in Malaysia this summer. We have our domestic
fieldworks in Okinawa, farming area in Ibaraki, the forestry area in the central part of Japan.
All these fieldworks are aiming at researching the specific area and understanding its
culture. The purpose of these fieldworks is far from that of the sightseeing tours. Before they
actually participate in the fieldwork, the students study about the host country receiving the
guidance of the professor who has experience living in the area and has a strong network in the
community. The people from the host country are often invited as resource persons so that our
students could gain as much information as possible before they leave for the fieldwork site.
II. THE FIELDWORK IN THE NATIVE-AMERICAN RESERVATION
The fieldwork in the Native-Americans reservation was started in 2008 in Colville in the
State of Washington.Since 2008, we have sent average of 10 students every year for 7 years.
The aims of this fieldwork are:
1) to understand history, culture and life of the Native-Americans
2) to learn the importance of symbiotic relation between people and the nature
3) to acquire English skills through communicating with local people
1. The site of the fieldwork
According to the national census in 2010, the population of the United States is approximately
308,750,000 out of which 0.9 % is Native Americans. That is about 3,000,000. There are 566
reservations acknowledged throughout the country. 229 are in Alaska and the rest of 337 are
scattered in 33 states. The American government approves of each tribe’s right of
self-government.
Colville reservation is located 115 kilometers (71 miles) north of Spokane, Washington. It
covers the southeastern part of Okanogan County, the southern half of Ferry County and the
southern tip of Stevens County. The population is about 8,700 which consists of 12 different
tribes. Their native language is Salish, however, there are less than 100 people who can use the
language.
�In order to enter the reservation, the ferry boat is the only way and that is why the area is
called Ferry County. The ferry boat can accommodate 12 cars at a time and runs from 6:45 in
the morning to 9:30 in the evening free of charge. There are no street lights or traffic signal. As
you can easily imagine, you don’t have Wi-Fi access, either. There is only one small gas station
and a tiny supermarket.
The natural environment is just wonderful. They don’t have any kind of pollution. There
are lots of different kinds of wild animals. You can find many beaver dams in the Twin Lakes
and you can see ospreys flying high above the sky and diving in the lake to catch fish. Deer
come very close to where people live and wild turkeys march in line. If you are lucky, you will
see a moose and if you are unlucky you will meet a skunk. We should never leave food out in
the house because bears would come in to get it. You hear them roar at night and you may run
into them. The reservation is just like a safari park.
�Our students appreciate the beautiful nature. They enjoy canoeing and swimming in the lake
and meeting the various wild animals. Rick, one of the Native-American rangers in the
reservation told us the ecology of the wildlife. He told us that animals do not attack us unless
we do some harm to them and that the Native Americans do not catch animals more than they
need. In the reservation, one has to have an ID as a Native-American to shoot animals or catch
fish.
2. The History of the Native-Americans
It may be easy to associate Native-Americans with Pocahontas in Walt Disney’s
animation. They have dark skin and dark braided hair wearing leather clothes and ride their
horses very well. However, the Native-Americans we met in the reservation are not at all like
them. Blue jeans and T-shirt is the most typical outfit. They live in a common house, drive a car
and cook whatever other Americans eat other than authentic food such as wild deer meat stew,
wild huckleberry jam, and fried bread.
�However, we should not forget the history of the Native-Americans. We take our
students to three museums nearby to acquire general idea of the reservation and tribes. They
look around the exhibits and ask the curators questions about history, lifestyle, culture, and art
of the tribes. These pieces of knowledge help the students gather information through hands-on
experience exchanging with local people.
It is a very famous story that Columbus left Spain in 1492 bound for Japan sailing the
Atlantic Ocean and he ended up landing on the United States. He believed it was India and
therefore called the native people Indians. After Columbus, for 400 years, many Europeans
came and repeated the brutal act and also they brought them such diseases as smallpox, the
measles and tuberculosis. The Native American population decreased drastically. In addition,
alcohol and guns had undesirable effects to the large extent the life of the Native-Americans.
In 1830, the American government decided to set forth administrative policy to assimilate
the Native-Americans into mainstream of the American society. They had to change their
names, religion, language and way of life. They were told to change their hunting life to
agricultural life and driven to the unproductive land. Children were sent to Indian schools many
of which had dormitories so that they were forced to live apart from their parents.
Our students learned the Native-Americans’ regrettable history, traditions and culture
�and at the same time the problems they are facing: poverty, unemployment, lack of education,
alcohol and drug dependence, destruction of family and so on. They try to find the solutions to
these problems. They become aware of the link between what they learned in the classroom
and what they actually see and feel through their experience outside of the classroom.
3. Ihchelium School and More
Students spend most of the time with children and students at Inchelium School in the
reservation. Ms. Denise Seeley, the teacher who teaches the 5th graders, really likes the idea of
this cultural exchange program and she is very cooperative. Our students and the 5th graders
exchange letters and emails prior to their visit and they introduce themselves with each other so
that they feel familiar when they meet. When they visit the class, they answer whatever
questions the Inchelium students have and help them do the assignment. They also play games
together.
Inchelium School has always been ranked in the worst 40 in the States in terms of academic
standard and the very worst among 500 schools in the State of Washington. The children are
not very good at writing and even the 5th graders could not write more than 5 lines. However,
those who had our students in class and spent quite a while with wrote beautiful essays. Let me
share with you some of them.
��As you can see, they have so much to write about and willing to write. When children have
some feelings and emotions, they want to express them. They enjoy changing font and giving
a designed title. Ms. Denise Seeley commented that these essays seem to be love letters from
Inchelium children to Seisen girls.
Not only in composition class but in math class, too, there was a big change. Their grades
in math jumped up only in this class among all the 12 classes in Inchelium School. Again Ms.
Seeley said she did not do anything special but that each child came to have self-respect and
became aware that it is importance to be considerate to each other. The change of behavior in
their everyday life and the change of attitude toward study had a great influence on their
�grades.
A boy who had to go to the principal’s office 45 times a year as punishment for doing
something wrong went there only 5 times this year. Another boy was very violent and
sometimes Ms. Seeley had to evacuate all other students out of the classroom, but after
experiencing this exchange program, he never caused a single problem.
These changes were such remarkable phenomena that those teachers who were reluctant to
invite our students to their classes had to change their mind. They were afraid of running out
of time to teach composition or math if these Japanese college students come and the class will
be doing something extra other than the regular curriculum.
The older students have such questions as what young people are most interested in, what are
the most popular fashion, music, and cartoon. They play basketball and cook typical dishes of
their own culture for each other. Inchelium School is kind enough to let our students have
lunch with the students in the cafeteria. They usually serve salad, bread, milk, and meat, fish,
pasta, and so on. It is not a fancy food but children could have as much as they want. Some
parents with alcohol or drug dependence do not cook for their children and so the lunch they
have at school could be important nourishing food for them.
Outside of Inchelium School, the community holds friendship pow wow, a kind of prayer
meeting while we are there. The Native Americans dance, sing, and play the drums in their
native costumes and our students also dance and sing in yukata, a kind of kimono. They show
how to dance with each other. Other than the pow wow, we had chances to share a very good
time with local people at family night out and parties held by church. Our students showed and
told how to do folding paper and let the children try on Yukata.
�Recently only a few people attended pow wow and family night out, and people don’t get
together and spend time together, however, the pow wow and family night out held while our
students were there became the biggest ones in the past.
4. Impacts of the Fieldwork on the Native-American Reservation
What our students brought to the Native-Americans may be only a fragment of our culture and
not a common culture shared by many Japanese.
It could be very personal, however, we could say that the impact that they made on the
community was quite huge. Very few non-Native-Americans, if any, enter the reservation and
needless to say, there are hardly any foreigners’ visits there. The small children always gathered
around our students and some high school students came to see us every night at our lodge. The
adults extended hospitality to us to offer places and food for our cultural exchange in spite of
the fact that they live in poverty. It seems as if we made a big ventilation hole in the society for
a wind of change to go through.
The children from the very beginning were so curious and came closer to us, talked to us and
played with us without any hesitation, while adults were cautiously stood by without showing
any emotion at first. However, once they realized that we were harmless and doing our best to
communicate with them because we really wanted to know about them and be friends with
them, they started asking so many questions and extended hospitality to us.
We often heard the words to express their gratitude by adults by saying that our visits to the
reservation reminded them of importance to protect their identity and strengthen the solidarity
�of the tribe. They also helped the people there make a step forward to know that there is a world
different from their own.
Our students noticed that they could change the world around them, and they became more
eager to learn about what they don’t know. I discussed the impact of the fieldwork on the
Native Americans from the perspective of service learning. We also conducted questionnaire
on the impact of the fieldwork on Seisen students and my colleague, Kathy wrote about the
findings. Of course our students learned so much through this fieldwork and we found the
comments of our students very interesting and inspiring.
III. CONCLUSION
There is one thing that we have to keep in mind about conducting fieldwork in Colville
because of its uniqueness. As it was mentioned above, thisreservation is closed to non NativeAmericans and therefore the people there did not open their mind at first. But once they opened
their heart to us, it seems that they had complete trust in us. Most people there have given up
establishing long-lasting relationship with outsiders and therefore we should keep our program
to visit them regularly in order to sustain and strengthen our bond. Especially we should not
disappoint the children who are expecting Seisen students to come and visit them every
summer. The 4th graders are so anxious to become 5th graders because they can have our
students in their class. It is our hope that this fieldwork will be of any contribution to make the
community a better place to live.
�Lastly two episodes will be introduced before I finish my presentation. There is one
Native-American college student who has been assisting our fieldwork. His name is Neil. He is
always wearing a cap with “Native Pride” on. He was studying information technology at a
university in Texas. Few young people in this reservation go to university since the academic
level is extremely low, most of the families cannot afford it, and they cannot get accustomed to
a new environment because the life in the reservation is very different from the life elsewhere.
He is a graduate from Inchelium School and young children seem to respect him and envy him.
He said he is proud to be a Native-American and his plan was to become a teacher at Inchelium
School after graduating from college.
In the spring of 2009, Neil came to Tokyo. He was staying with our students’ families and
faculty members. While he was supporting our fieldwork, he became more and more interested
in Japan and he chose this country for his first travel overseas.
He came back again in 2011 for the second time. He changed his major to TESOL and now he
is planning to teach English in Japan. Nobody was expecting this. It is sure that the impact of
this young man as a role model on the children in the reservation is great and many of them will
be determined to go to college and choose to visit Japan as the first destination of their overseas
travel. In fact, lots of boys and girls were saying that they want to go to Japan.
We met a boy when we were visiting Pascal Sherman Indian School which is located in
the other end of the reservation in March this year. He used to go to Inchelium School a few
years ago and when he found us he came up to us and took out a wrinkled piece of paper from
his pocket and showed it to us. On the paper were some expressions in Japanese he learned
from our students when he was in the 5th grade. Since he never knew that we were visiting his
�school that day, it is sure that he carries the piece of paper all the time.
Finally let me introduce the words by Margaret Mead, a famous American anthropologist.
It is not exaggeration to say that her words literally mean what this fieldwork is aiming at:
“Never doubt that a small highly committed group of individuals can change the world:
indeed it is the only thing that ever has.”
�
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COLLEGE STUDENTS’ FIELDWORK IN THE NATIVE-AMERICAN RESERVATION
Author
Author
Aikyo, Mikiko
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This is the narrative of the fieldwork conducted by the Global Citizenship Studies Department at Seisen University. The fieldwork in the Native-Americans reservation was started in 2008 in Colville in the State of Washington. Since 2008, we have sent average of 10 students every year for 7 years. The aims of this fieldwork are: 1) to understand history, culture and life of the Native-Americans 2) to learn the importance of symbiotic relation between people and the nature 3) to acquire English skills through communicating with local people
Publisher
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International Burch University
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2015-12
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MEETING STUDENTS' DIVERSE NEEDS FOR READING THROUGH
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION STRATEGIES
Iranda Bajrami
South East European University
Article History:
Submitted: 04.06.2015
Accepted: 05.07.2015
Abstract: The focus of this research is on meeting South East European University (SEEU)
students’ diverse needs for reading. Although in English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
classroom, all four language skills are important, reading becomes most important when students
enter university without enough strategies for reading. Therefore the reading material presented
should be differentiated to suit everyone’s needs. According to Biancarosa & Snow (2006) "a
full 70 percent of U. S. middle and high school students require differentiated instruction (DI),
which is instruction targeted to their individual strengths and weaknesses" (p.8). Consequently,
since it is difficult for native learners to read in their mother tongue then it can be imagined how
difficult it might be for EFL learners to read in English. Thus, differentiation in reading
classrooms becomes an important responsibility for EFL lecturers.The methods of data collection
used in this research wereteacher questionnaires and classroom observations to help discover the
level of knowledge and application of DI reading strategies among SEEU EFL lecturers to meet
diverse learners’ needs. The results of the study conducted showed that there is a discrepancy
between the researcher’s observations and lecturers’ responses regarding the application of DI
strategies and also there is some inconsistency between some lecturers’ own responses that claim
to have applied DI strategies but fail to provide examples of such tasks. Hopefully, this research
will help raise teachers’ awareness that DI reading strategies should be implemented in their EFL
classes generally as well as in their reading classes to enhance diverse students’ reading skills
and help them with their academic development.
Key words: diverse needs, differentiation in reading classrooms, EFL learners, differentiated
instruction strategies, EFL lecturers
�1 INTRODUCTION
Learning a foreign language encompasses the inclusion of all four language skills, which
are crucial for becoming a proficient speaker of a particular language. In EFL classes, the
importance is also on covering all language skills because they all form a mosaic of helping
learners master the language more competently. Although paper acknowledges the significance
of including all four language skills in a lesson, meeting students’ diverse needs for reading is
the main aim of this research, especially focusing on applying differentiated instruction strategies
to meet this aim.Moreover, the reason this paper focuses on differentiating reading instructions is
related to Ankrum & Bean’s (2007) statement that “the process of reading is so complex that
instruction tailored to individual needs is difficult for practitioners to attain”(p.136), therefore,
lecturers are inclined to avoid it.
As an EFL lecturer who has done research on the topic of differentiation and as a member
of the central observation team for many years at SEEU, the researcher was intrigued to discover
more about the knowledge and application of DI strategies among EFL lecturers at SEEU.
Previously conducted observationswere an impetus for the researcher to undergo a more
thorough study on DI strategies by observing an absence of application of DI strategies in the
observed classes.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
This study focuses on providing both the information based on literature study on DI in
general and on reading classes in particular. There are many definitions provided about
differentiation but the one which is more related to this study is Tomlinson’s (2010) definition
which states that “a teacher proactively plans varied approaches to what students need to learn,
how they will learn it and/or how they can express what they have learned” (p. 155). This tells
us that lecturers need to think about differentiation since they are planning their lessons in order
to be prepared for reaching every student in their classroom and meeting their needs. Another
reason for applying differentiation is stated in the following statement that “students do not come
to school with the same background experiences, knowledge, and abilities; these differences
greatly impact the content the teachers can provide and the instructional strategies they can use”
(Levy, 2008 cited in Ross & Johnson, 2012, p. 4).
In terms of applying differentiation in reading classes, Ford (2005),states that “anyone
who thinks there is one right way to teach reading has never worked with two children (p.1). As
a consequence, lecturers should widen their spectrum of thinking and always have in mind
student diversity rather than perceivingstudentsas a group because if the tasks are not appropriate
to students’ level they will not achieve success. In relation to this, Tomlinson (2001) relies on the
writings of Howard (1994) and Vygotsky (1962) in explaining the rationale for applying DI:
�We know that learning happens best when a learning experience pushes the learner a bit
beyond his or her independence level. When a student continues to work on
understandings and skills already mastered, little if any new learning takes place. On the
other hand, if tasks are far ahead of a student's current point of mastery, frustration results
and learning does not (Tomlinson, 2001, p.8).
Moreover, whether differentiation happens in other classes or in reading classes, the tasks should
be adapted to match students’ level. Helping students with their reading skills is very crucial,
especially for struggling EFL learners who find it even more difficult to read in a foreign
language. Consequently, Richardson, J. S., Morgan, R. F. & Fleener, C. (2012) claim that
Good readers read because it gives them pleasure and they do it well; consequently, they
get practice in reading and become better at it. However, the research on Striving Readers
(Ayers & Miller, 2009 cited in Richardson, J. S., Morgan, R. F. & Fleener, C. , 2012)
provides evidence that many poor readers get so discouraged that they lose the will or
desire to read and thus to succeed (p.10).
As a result, in order to encourage poor readers to read more and not get frustrated, the lecturers
should “provide support for struggling readers by asking reading specialists for help and
providing strategic instruction that engages all learners—even struggling readers—in rewarding
learning experiences” (Richardson, J. S., Morgan, R. F. & Fleener, C., 2012, p.10).
3 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
3.1 Participants
The participants, who took part in this research conducted in the summer semester 2015, were 16
EFL Lecturers from SEEU, Tetovo/Skopje, Macedonia. The participants were mainly involved
in responding to the teacher questionnaires. However, regarding the observations conducted, the
number of participants is not specified because the research relies generally on the data gathered
from the classroom observations conducted throughout the years in SEEU EFL classes as part of
regular classroom observations. The researcher, being a member of the Central Observation
Team at SEEU for many years, had collected data for many peer observed classroom
observations already, another observation was not necessary for this particular research.
�3.2Instruments
Teacher questionnaire (see Appendix 1), which consisted of 8 questions related to
teachers’ knowledge about DI in reading classes, were the main instrument of this research
which helped gather the data about teachers’ knowledge and application of DI strategies in their
EFL classes, especially in their reading classes. The questionnaire was designed by the
researcher, after consulting the literature on DI generally and in reading classes in particular, and
after consultations with experienced lecturers as well as based on the needs of the present
research.Six questions, were perceived as crucial in providing the necessary data.The
questionnaire consisted of both closed and open questions, which required teachers to choose one
of the given options, provide their comments as well as match the given choices.
Moreover, classroom observations, conducted regularly at SEEUas part of the Central
Observation Team at SEEU (explained above), were another important part of this research
because the data was an essential asset which added reliability and validity to the research. The
results from classroom observations functioned as anendorsement to the findings obtained from
this study because they were used to compare the teacher responses with the researcher’s data
from classroom observations, therefore what the teachers said about their use and application of
DI strategies could be easily compared with the reality observed in the classroom, where two
observers were available (an observer and a co-observer).
4 DATA ANALYSIS
In order to analyze the data gathered for conducting this research, it was required that
both qualitative and quantitative data analysis is used. Quantitative analysis included the answers
requiring rating and matching, whereas qualitative analysis required teachers to provide
definitions and comments for certain questions. Consequently, teachers were asked to respond to
the questionnaire, which consisted of closed questions e.g. Yes a lot; Yes, a little; Not at all,
which were followed by questions requiring teachers to present their own examples of their
experience with DI in EFL classrooms. In addition, one of the questions asked teachers to match
three scenarios with the type of a lesson, which provided information to check lecturers’
knowledge about differentiation if it was incidental or academic.
Regarding the observations, the focus was on the application of DI strategies and tasks in
the observed EFL classes throughout the years.
�5 RESULTS
The findings of this study focus mainly on the responses gathered from the teacher
questionnaires, which are explained in details below, whereas the results from the classroom
observations are summarized.
5.1 Questionnaire Responses
5.1.1 Question 1: Are you aware of the term differentiation?Yes, a lot __
Not at all__
Yes, a little__
Regarding the first question which asked participants about their awareness of
differentiation, there were mixed responses as follows. Two of the participants said Yes, a lot; six
participants said Yes, a little and eight participants responded with Not at all.
5.1.2 Question 2: In what ways do you know about differentiation? Workshop__
Conference__ The Internet__ Formal education__ Other (specify)_______
Those who either answered a lot or a little in question 1 appeared to know about
differentiation from conferences, workshops and the Internet. However, only one respondent
knew about differentiation from formal education.
5.1.3 Question 3: If you answered question 1 with yes, then answer this question.Could you
give a brief definition of differentiation?
Definitions of DI given by teachers:
1. The efforts of the teacher to respond to variances of learners’ needs in the classroom. 2. Using
a various range of pre and post reading techniques according to students’ proficiency level. 3.
Instruction that is tailored to meet specific students’ needs. 4. Adjusting your teaching to meet
the students’ needs. 5. Using a wide variety of teaching strategies for different students. 6. Using
different activities, adapting to students’ needs and proficiency level.
5.1.4 Question 4: Do you attempt to differentiate in your class?
little__ Not at all__
Yes, a lot __
Yes, a
In relation to the application of DI in their EFL classes, lecturers responded as follows.
Two of them stated Yes, a lot, five lecturers said Yes, a little and nine participants responded with
Not at all regarding DI applied in their classes.
5.1.5. Question 5: If you answered question 4 with yes, then answer this question.If you
attempt to differentiate, what tasks would you give in different ways?
�Concerning DI tasks provided in EFL classes, the lecturers responded in the following
manner:
1.Tasks with more open outcomes are given, so each student can do the task at the level of ability
and knowledge they have.2.Activities in the introductory stage when presenting new grammar or
vocabulary item by exemplifying in more than one way and in the production stage not expecting
or insisting on the same outcome from students.
5.1.6 Question 6: Do you attempt to differentiate in your reading classes? Yes, a lot __ Yes,
a little__ Not at all__
In regards to the lecturers’ application of DI in their reading classes specifically, the
results are much different than previous ones. As a result, there were two responses stating Yes, a
lot, two responses stating Yes, a little and twelve responses stating Not at all.
5.1.7 Question 7: If you answered question 6 with yes, then answer this question. If you
attempt to differentiate, what reading tasks would you give in different ways?
In relation to the DI tasks provided in reading classes the lecturers suggested the
following tasks:
1. Adapting reading comprehension questions to students level of proficiency.
2. Different
reading comprehension questions. 3. Reading for gist and detail to less proficient readers.
Reading for gist, detail, inference, summarizing to more proficient learners.
5.1.8 Question 8:Below are provided 3 scenes of a reading class. Match the scenarios I-III
with the type of a lesson a-c.
a. No differentiation
b. Little differentiation
c. A lot of differentiation
I.
The teacher has a passage about reading and uses a PowerPoint including
images, illustrations and lecture notes to explain the main points to
students. Students read the passage and then they are given one set of closed
questions related to the text. ______
II.
The teacher has a passage about reading and uses a PowerPoint including
images, illustrations and lecture notes to explain the main points to
students. Students read the passage and then they are given three activities that
fit each student’s reading ability; students participate. _______
III.
The teacher has a passage about reading. Students read the passage and then
they are given one set of closed questions related to the text. _______
�The last question required the teachers to match the scenarios with the type of a lesson.
Regardless of the teachers’ knowledge and application of DI in their classes all the teachers were
able to answer this question. As a result, there were thirteen correct answers, whereas there were
only three incorrect answers.
5.2 Observation Findings
From many classroom observations conducted across SEEU and especially in the EFL
classes in the past semesters, it was observed that DI strategies were not applied proactively
neither generally in EFL classes nor specifically in reading classes in the observed classrooms.
Even though, there were some instances where teachers have tried to retreat from the
main course book and use additional resources either printed or electronic, still it was not done
with an aim to meet the needs of diverse students in their classroom, but it was done to provide
more practice for students. The researcher can certainly claim this because not in any
circumstanceneitherwhen the lecturers submitted their lesson plans nor discussed with the
observers either before or after the observation have mentioned any intention of applying
differentiated instruction strategies in their classes.
6 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The questionnaire results indicate that the answers provided in the questionnaire did not
completely match researcher’s observationsand even some lecturers contradicted themselves
with their responses.
Firstly, lecturers’ claimed to have knowledge of DI, and although most teachers who
attended workshops and conferences knew a little about differentiation,not all of them could
define it correctly. Then, although some teachers claimed to have applied DI in their classes, they
failed to provide explanation of the DI tasks they give students, which is questionable because if
they have applied it then they should be able to provide an explanation of the tasks they used.
Also,some teachers tried to provide some tasks by claiming that they were differentiation tasks
but the examples provided did not have any similarity to differentiated tasks.As a result, those
tasks were not even shown in this research under lecturer’s responses in the results chapter.
Regarding the application of DI in reading classes, even fewer teachers responded to have
applied DI strategies and there were only few tasks provided. Finally, regardless of various
responses provided throughout the questionnaire, out of sixteen surveyed participants, thirteen
matched the tasks and scenarios correctly, whereas only three respondents matched them
incorrectly. This shows that lecturers’ knowledge about DI is more incidental than academic.
�The last question was not only useful for the researcher to collect the required data, but it also
helped the participants who knew a little or not at all about differentiation become acquainted
with some DI tasks that might be applied in their classes. This question was left as the last one in
the teacher questionnaire in order not to let participants see examples of DI tasks while
completing the questionnaire. There was even a comment made by one of the respondents that if
that question was put earlier then that respondent could have answered all previous questions,
which he apparently failed to answer.
The findings from the classroom observation were really helpful in comparing the
questionnaire findings with the results from the observed classrooms. Despite the fact that the
lecturers claimed that they have applied differentiation in their classes, the data from classroom
observations (which included both this observer plus a co-observer) show the opposite.
Although, in some of the observed classes there were attempts made to put students in groups,
then adapt some tasks from the main course book, or additional resources were used like the
internet and other visual data, these tasks were mostly used to enhance the lesson, not
differentiate learning. No lesson plan received or in any pre or post observation meetings held
with lecturers, demonstrated that while preparing for the lesson or while teaching they tried to
differentiate their instruction. As a result, it was concluded that those tasks were not designed to
meet each individual students’ diverse needs, but they matched teaching to the middle or one size
fit all approach which is not what differentiated instruction, defined as “teaching with student
variance in mind” (Hall, 2009, p.1) promotes.
7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This research provides very useful data that helps not only the researcher to discover the
level of knowledge and application of DI strategies among SEEU EFL lecturers, but also it
should be useful for lecturers themselves because they can hopefully understand the importance
of application of DI in their EFL classes generally and in their reading classes too so they can
understand how the lack of its application might hinder students from gaining success. The
observations reveal that teachers generally care about their students and try to help them by
providing additional exercises and tools, but they are not doing it in the appropriate way.
Therefore, instead of planning the lesson for students as a group having the same needs, they
should step back from those margins and think about their students as individuals and then plan
and teach the lesson by applying differentiated instruction strategies.
In conclusion, lecturers should get more information about DI and start applying it in
their EFL classes as well as in their reading classes if they want their students to genuinely
succeed.
�References
Ankrum, J.W. & Bean, R. M. (2007). Differentiated Reading Instruction: What and How?
Reading Horizons 48(1), 133-146.
Biancarosa, C. & Snow, C. E. (2006). Reading next—A vision for action and research in middle
And high school literacy: A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York (2nd
ed.).Washington, DC:Alliance for Excellent Education.
Ford, M.P. (2005). Differentiation through flexible grouping: Successfully reaching all readers.
(Government Contract No. ED-01-CO-0011). Naperville, IL: Learning Point Associates.
Hall, B. Differentiated instruction: reaching all students. Retrieved
from:http://assets.pearsonschool.com/asset_mgr/current/20109/Differentiated_Instruction
.pdf
Howard, P. (1994). An owner’s manual for the brain. Austin, TX: Leornian Press.
Richardson, J. S., Morgan, R. F. & Fleener, C. (2012, 8th ed). Reading to learn in the
Contentareas. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ITP.
Ross, J.D & Johnson, L. (2012). Support for differentiation: Implementing eSpark. Virginia
department of Education.
Tomlinson, C. A . (2001). How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms, (2nd
ed. ). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Tomlinson, C. A.(2010). Differentiating Instruction for Academic Diversity. (9thed). In
Cooper. J.M. (Ed). Classroom Teaching Skills. (p.156). Belmont, USA: Cengage
Learning.
Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
�APPENDIX 1
Teacher Questionnaire
Please answer the following questions related to differentiation in reading classes. Your
contribution is appreciated.
1. Are you aware of the term differentiation? Yes, a lot __ Yes, a little__
Not at all__
2. In what ways do you know about differentiation?
Workshop__
Conference__
The Internet__
Formal education__
Other
(specify)_______
3. If you answered question 1 with yes, then answer this question.
Could you give a brief definition of differentiation?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Do you attempt to differentiate in your class? Yes, a lot __ Yes, a little__ Not at all__
5. If you answered question 4 with yes, then answer this question.
If you attempt to differentiate, what tasks would you give in different ways?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Do you attempt to differentiate in your reading classes? Yes, a lot __ Yes, a little__
Not at all__
7. If you answered question 6 with yes, then answer this question.
If you attempt to differentiate, what reading tasks would you give in different ways?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. Below are provided 3 scenes of a reading class. Match the scenarios I-III with the type of
a lesson a-c.
b. No differentiation
b. Little differentiation
c. A lot of differentiation
IV.
The teacher has a passage about reading and uses a PowerPoint including images,
illustrations and lecture notes to explain the main points to students. Students read the
passage and then they are given one set of closed questions related to the
text. ______
�V.
The teacher has a passage about reading and uses a PowerPoint including images,
illustrations and lecture notes to explain the main points to students. Students read the
passage and then they are given 3 activities that fit each student’s reading ability;
students participate. _______
VI.
The teacher has a passage about reading. Students read the passage and then they
are given one set of closed questions related to the text. _______
�
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MEETING STUDENTS' DIVERSE NEEDS FOR READING THROUGH DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION STRATEGIES
Author
Author
Bajrami, Iranda
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The focus of this research is on meeting South East European University (SEEU) students’ diverse needs for reading. Although in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom, all four language skills are important, reading becomes most important when students enter university without enough strategies for reading. Therefore the reading material presented should be differentiated to suit everyone’s needs. According to Biancarosa & Snow (2006) "a full 70 percent of U. S. middle and high school students require differentiated instruction (DI), which is instruction targeted to their individual strengths and weaknesses" (p.8). Consequently, since it is difficult for native learners to read in their mother tongue then it can be imagined how difficult it might be for EFL learners to read in English. Thus, differentiation in reading classrooms becomes an important responsibility for EFL lecturers. The methods of data collection used in this research were teacher questionnaires and classroom observations to help discover the level of knowledge and application of DI reading strategies among SEEU EFL lecturers to meet diverse learners’ needs. The results of the study conducted showed that there is a discrepancy between the researcher’s observations and lecturers’ responses regarding the application of DI strategies and also there is some inconsistency between some lecturers’ own responses that claim to have applied DI strategies but fail to provide examples of such tasks. Hopefully, this research will help raise teachers’ awareness that DI reading strategies should be implemented in their EFL classes generally as well as in their reading classes to enhance diverse students’ reading skills and help them with their academic development.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
International Burch University
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A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015-12
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)
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Text
READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES & MOTHER TONGUE USE
IN EAP COURSES IN ISRAELI ACADEMIA
Galina Gordishevsky & Ira Slabodar
Ashkelon Academic College, Israel
Article History:
Submitted: 18.06.2015
Accepted: 11.08.2015
Abstract: The goal of this paper is two-fold. First, we outline the various reading
comprehension strategies employed in teaching EAP courses in Israel, and discuss
challenges faced by students- native speakers of various Semitic languages (Hebrew,
Arabic, and Amharic). Second, we advocate the use of L1 in our L2 classrooms and
explore the contexts in which this practice is most beneficial for the learner.
The ultimate goal of an EAP course in Israeli academia is to equip students
with tools for coping with academic texts in English, thus rendering a central role to
teaching a wide array of reading comprehension strategies (cf. Raftari, Seyyedi, &
Ismail, 2012; Rraku, 2013 for similar views). Proficient readers need to employ a
variety of reading strategies (Anderson, 1991, 2005; Block, 1986, 1992; Carrell, 1998;
Hock & Mellard, 2005), including word-, sentence-, paragraph-, and text-level
strategies. In order to achieve high level of proficiency, reading strategies are
explicitly taught and practiced by means of authentic academic texts of varying length
and structure/complexity.
The need to teach and train students in the various text-coping techniques
brings us to the second challenge: the use of L2 vs. L1 in our EAP classrooms.
Efficient teaching involves imprinting reading strategies in the students'
metacognition (Carrell, 1998; Farrell, 2001; McNeil, 2011; Song, 1998; Winograd &
Hare, 1988), hence the importance of students' understanding of the teacher's
explanations. In this context, the use of the students' mother tongue (L1) in EAP
instruction gains higher importance. Numerous advocates of L1 in ESL/EFL
classrooms have outlined a comprehensive list of efficient uses of L1 (Atkinson,
1987; Auerbach, 1993; Cook, 2001; Schweers, 1999). We strongly believe that,
especially in the case of weaker students, the use of L1 will facilitate their
understanding and internalization of various reading comprehension strategies. To this
end, we advocate presentation of (some of) text-coping techniques using the students'
L1, as well as initial exemplification of these techniques using an authentic academic
text in the students' mother tongue.
Keywords: EAP/ESP; reading comprehension strategies; L1 in L2 classroom.
�EAP REQUIREMENTS IN ISRAELI ACADEMIA
In Israel, all students in higher education are obliged to reach an exemption
level of English. This can be achieved by means of either a psychometric test or by
studying English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses in college.
Students in Israeli colleges are native speakers of Hebrew, Arabic and Amharic
(the language spoken in Ethiopia) - all Semitic languages, as well as native speakers
of Russian and French. Hebrew is the lingua franca - the main official language of the
country, and students usually exhibit high mastery of it. The students’ level of English
at the entrance level is usually low, and students have to take three annual courses to
reach the exemption level: beginners, intermediate, advanced.
At the exemption level, students are expected to answer questions following
an academic text in English which is 3,000 words long. Thus, the ultimate goal of
EAP courses in Israeli academia is to equip students with tools for coping with
academic texts in English, thus rendering a central role to teaching a wide array of
reading comprehension (RC) strategies (cf. Raftari, Seyyedi, & Ismail, 2012; Rraku,
2013 for similar views).
READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE
Proficient vs. Non-proficient Readers
Before we outline the different types of RC strategies, let us discuss their
relevance for successful coping with academic texts. It is well established that
proficient readers need to employ a variety of reading comprehension strategies
(Anderson, 1991, 2005; Block, 1986, 1992; Carrell, 1998; Hock & Mellard, 2005, to
mention just a few, and Brantmeier, 2002, for a comprehensive review of earlier
research). What distinguishes more proficient readers from less proficient ones is the
ability of the former to use appropriate strategies in a given context and to
“orchestrate” the use of various strategies rather than using one at a time (Anderson,
1991; Carrell, 1998).
“Novice readers, by contrast, often focus on decoding single words, fail to
adjust their reading for different texts or purposes, and seldom look ahead or back in
text to monitor and improve comprehension. Such cognitive limitations are
characteristic of young novices as well as of older, unskilled readers” (Carrell, 1998).
McNeil (2011) argues that low proficiency is due to, among other things, deficiencies
in lexical and syntactic knowledge. This brings us to the need to teach lexical and
syntactic strategies explicitly, along with higher-order strategies, including paragraphand text-level ones. The latter are supposed to bootstrap the weak lexical and syntactic
knowledge. Numerous studies on the topic point out that reading comprehension
strategies can be taught and their successful application will improve reading
comprehension (Carrell, 1998; Farrell, 2001; McNeil, 2011; Rraku, 2013; Singhal,
2001; Song, 1998).
�Let us now outline the groups of reading comprehension strategies that we
teach in our classes throughout the academic year, lead by the belief that these are
necessary for student success.
RC Strategies - an Outline
For the ease of categorization, we divide all the strategies into four
subcategories:
Word-level strategies: parts of speech, suffixes and prefixes, specific
terminology, vocabulary enrichment, synonyms and paraphrasing, guessing
from context;
Sentence-level strategies: sentence structure, including phrase structure
(which differs in English vs. Semitic languages), noun phrases, verb tenses,
active vs. passive, compound and complex sentences, reference words,
connectors;
Paragraph-level strategies: paragraph structure, topic sentence, connectors,
main ideas vs. supporting details, inference, prediction;
Text-level strategies: topic, main idea, introduction, subheadings,
development of the argument, author's opinion, conclusion, types of texts,
background knowledge.
Given the necessity of mastery over a great deal of reading comprehension
techniques, we devote a prominent portion of our classes to teaching and practicing
reading strategies of all levels.
How a Strategy is Taught
Winograd & Hare (1988) outline five key elements in teacher’s explanation
for successful strategy training, as follows:
What the strategy is
Why the strategy should be learned
How to use the strategy
When and where the strategy should be used
How to evaluate use of the strategy
Our course books comprise a comprehensive collection of reading strategies of
different levels (i.e. from word-level to text-level), followed by extensive practice at
all levels. Our course book explanations usually follow the same pattern. First of all, a
strategy is briefly explained and examples are provided. The explanation and example
�are followed by practice exercises of rising levels of complexity: first, the strategy is
practiced on a sentence level using sentences corresponding to the course level,
followed by practice on a paragraph level, with paragraphs taken from authentic
academic texts, and finally on a text level - when the relevant strategy is encountered
in an academic text, it is pointed out by the teacher and practiced within its context.
This way we ensure maximum exposure to the strategy taught with maximum
training provided.
THE USE OF MOTHER TONGUE IN EAP CLASSROOMS
The need to teach and train students in the different text-coping techniques
brings us to the second challenge: the use of L2 (target language, in this case English)
vs. L1 (students' mother tongue or dominant language) in our EAP classrooms.
As teaching involves not only presentation of the strategies, but also making
them part of the students' metacognitive knowledge (Carrell, 1998; Farrell, 2001;
McNeil, 2011; Singhal, 2001; Song, 1998; Winograd & Hare, 1988), the importance
of the students' understanding of the teacher's explanations should be stressed. In this
context, the use of the students' mother tongue (L1) in teachers' explanations gains
higher importance.
The students’ L1
Part of the uniqueness of Israel is that we have a high rate of immigrants. The
majority of our students speak Hebrew as their mother tongue, but there are also
native speakers of other Semitic languages, such as Arabic and Amharic (language
spoken in Ethiopia), as well as speakers of other languages, such as Russian and
French. Hebrew, the dominant language of the country, is the lingua franca for all and
one and the students are usually fluent at it.
Technically Hebrew should be called the students’ DL (dominant language),
and English - their TL (target language). For convenience, we will continue referring
to English as L2 and to Hebrew - as L1.
Native language (L1) versus English only (L2) in an EAP classroom
The "native language (L1) versus English only (L2) in an EAP classroom"
debate is not new. For the past thirty years, language teachers and researchers have
been gaining insights into the importance and unavoidability of L1 in the classroom.
The somewhat “purist” L2 approach to language teaching has given way to the use of
L1 both by students and teachers. In order to understand the need of L1, we first need
to understand why and when students use their L1 in the classroom.
The Use of L1 by Students and Teachers
�Why
A number of possible reasons for L1 use in the classroom have been outlined.
First and foremost, the L1 is ever present in the minds of our L2 learners, whether we
want it to be there or not (Cook (1992) in Seng & Hashim, 2006). Translation into L1,
both conscious and unconscious, is a powerful technique which is widely preferred by
the students themselves (Atkinson, 1987; Harbord, 1992; Auerbach, 1993; Cook,
2001; Schweers, 1999). Moreover, L1 is part of the students’ culture and identity and
gives them a sense of security (Schweers, 1999).
When
Numerous advocates of the use of L1 in EAP classrooms have outlined a
comprehensive list of possible occasions for the use of mother tongue:
Eliciting language
Checking comprehension
Giving complex instructions
Co-operation among students
Discussions of classroom methodology
Presentation of language structures
Checking for sense via translation
Testing
Development of useful learning strategies
(Adapted from Atkinson (1987))
We strongly believe that, especially in the case of weaker students, L1 is an
invaluable resource. The use of the students‘ L1 will facilitate their understanding and
internalization of the various reading comprehension strategies. To this end, we
advocate presentation of (some of) text-coping techniques using the students' L1, as
well as exemplification of these techniques using an authentic academic text in the
students' mother tongue. The latter possibility will be outlined in the concluding part
of this paper.
The Uses of Hebrew in an EAP Classroom
Our observations show that Hebrew is used in our EAP classrooms mostly for:
Classroom management
Revoking background knowledge
Presentation of grammar rules
Presentation of RC techniques
�
Assessment of comprehension
Group and pair work
Whereas the uses outlined above are self-explanatory, we would like to discuss
two of them in the context of teaching reading comprehension strategies, i.e.:
Presentation of grammar rules
Presentation of RC techniques
Grammar Rules and RC Techniques
The students’ L1 is crucial in presentation of word-level and sentence-level
reading strategies, both in terms of deeper comprehension and comparison between
languages. Language and grammar points can serve as points of comparison and
contrast between the learners’ L1 (mother tongue) and L2 (target language). In this
connection, Harbord (1992: 354-5) writes about using L1 to facilitate learning of L2:
This final category will be concerned principally with the evaluation of
strategies which aim specifically at aiding L2 acquisition through comparison
with L1. These strategies have two purposes: the first is to make students
aware of the dangers of translation and teach them to exercise a conscious
check on the validity of their unconscious translation; and the second is to
teach them ways of working towards what Danchev (1982: 55) calls
'functional translation' (i.e. transferring meaning into L2) rather than the wordfor-word translation that occurs when the learner's unconscious need to make
assumptions and correlations between languages is ignored.
Similarities and Differences Between Languages
Points of similarity and divergence between languages are numerous. Rather
ignoring these points, we decided to teach them explicitly, employing the students' L1.
In what follows, we provide a number of examples.
Connectors - similarity between languages:
One point of similarity among different languages is connectors. Every
language has ways to indicate transitions such as cause-and-effect, exemplification,
addition, similarity, contrast, etc. We first try to elicit as many connectors as possible
in the students’ mother tongue, before moving on to teaching them in English.
Sentence structure – similarity & difference:
Sentence structure is another issue at point. Whereas the basic sentence structure -
�i.e. subject-verb order - is generally similar among the languages spoken in our
classrooms, phrase structure presents a point of divergence and thus deserves special
attention and explanation. One example of such divergence are noun phrases.
Noun phrases: structure & comprehension
Consider the following noun phrase (and a title of one of the academic texts we
teach):
Bilingual children’s mother tongue
In English, the head word (the main word of the noun phrase) comes last, whereas in
Hebrew it comes first. So, translation of noun phrases into Hebrew should be done
backwards: starting with the last word and moving to the first one:
4
3
2
1
Bilingual children’s mother tongue
Vocabulary
Homonyms: Same sound, different meaning, often different parts of speech - can be
exemplified using translation into the students’ mother tongue. Examples: present
(n.), present (adj.), present (v.); abstract (adj.), abstract (n.), abstract (v.)
Another point of divergence between languages that should be stressed are so-called
“false cognates” or “false friends” (Laufer, 1997):
False cognates (“false friends”): words that sound similar/the same in different
languages, but have a different meaning in each language.
Example: factor in academic texts in English usually means “cause”; faktor in
Hebrew is usually used as a mathematical function, e.g. adding bonus points to a test
grade.
Example: effect in academic texts in English usually means “influence”; efekt (pl.
efektim) in Hebrew is usually used to describe special features, e.g. in a movie.
Other examples of “false friends” would be:
Sympathetic in English - simpati (‘nice’) in Hebrew (Laufer, 1997)
Tramp in English - tremp (‘lift’) in Hebrew (Laufer, 1997)
Severe in English - savir (‘reasonable, plausible’) in Hebrew
Actually in English - aktuali (‘relevant, topical’) in Hebrew
These differences are pointed out and repeatedly stressed in our EAP classrooms,
using comparison between the students' dominant language and the class' target
�language.
TEACHING STRATEGIES VIA AN ACADEMIC TEXT IN HEBREW
To conclude, instead of avoiding L1 in the classroom, trying to direct our
students solely to L2 - a mission destined to failure - we adopted a hands-on approach
and decided to face the L1 issue. The first class in our courses at all levels starts with
an analysis of an authentic academic text in Hebrew. It’s usually a short text, one
page long, which follows the rules and structure of academic writing and has
academic vocabulary. Lead by the belief that text-coping techniques are stronger in
the student’s dominant language, we demonstrate how these can be used with an
academic text in their L1/DL.
References
Anderson, N. J. (1991). Individual differences in strategy use in second language
reading and testing. Modern Language Journal, 75(3), 460-472.
Anderson, N. J.(2005). L2 learning strategies. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook
of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 757-771).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Atkinson, D. (1987). The mother tongue in the classroom: A neglected resource? ETL
Journal, 41(4), 241-247. doi: 10.1093/elt/41.4.241
Auerbach, E. (1993). Reexamining English only in the ESL classroom. TESOL
Quarterly, 27(1), 9-32. doi: 10.2307/3586949
Block, E. (1986). The comprehension strategies of second language readers. TESOL
Quarterly, 20, 463-494.
Block, E. (1992). See how they read: Comprehension monitoring of L1 and L2
readers. TESOL Quarterly, 26(2), 319-343.
Brantmeier, C. (2002). Second Language Reading Strategy Research at the Secondary
and University Levels: Variations, Dispartities and Generalizability. The
Reading Matrix 2(3).
http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/brantmeier/article.pdf
Carrell, P. L. (1998). Can Reading Strategies be Successfully Taught? The Language
Teacher Online 22(3). http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/issues/199803_22.3
�Cook, V. (2001). Using the First Language in the Classroom. The Canadian Modern
Language Review, 57(3), 402-423. doi: 10.3138/cmlr.57.3.402
Farrell, T. S. C. (2001). Teaching reading strategies: "It takes time!" Reading in a
Foreign Language, 13, 631-646.
Harbord, J. (1992). The use of the mother tongue in the classroom. ELT
Journal 46(4), 350-355. doi: 10.1093/elt/46.4.350
Hock, M., & Mellard, D..(2005).Reading comprehension strategies for adult literacy
outcomes. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy,49(3),192-200.
Laufer, B. (1997). The lexical plight in second language reading: Words you don't
know, words you think you know, and words you can't guess. In J. Coady &
T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for
pedagogy (pp. 20-34). New York: Cambridge University Press.
McNeil, L. (2011). Investigating the contributions of background knowledge and
reading comprehension strategies to L2 reading comprehension: an
exploratory study. Reading and Writing, 24(8), 883-902.
Raftari, S., Seyyedi, K., & Ismail, S. A. M. M. (2012). Reading strategy research
around the world. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science
Invention ISSN (Online), 1(1), 24-30. www.ijhssi.org
Rraku,V. (2013).The effect of reading strategies on the improvement of the reading
skills of students. Social and Natural Sciences Journal (Online), 7(2).
http://ojs.journals.cz/index.php/SNSJ/article/view/418/408
Schweers, W. Jr. (1999).Using L1 in the L2 classroom. English Teaching Forum, 37
(2), 6-13.
Seng, G. H., & Hashim, F. (2006). Use of L1 in L2 reading comprehension among
tertiary ESL learners. Reading in a Foreign Language, 18(1), 29-54.
http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl
Singhal, M. (2001). Reading Proficiency, Reading Strategies, Metacognitive
Awareness And L2 Readers. The Reading Matrix, 1(1).
http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/singhal/
Song, M. (1998).Teaching reading strategies in an ongoing EFL university reading
classroom. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 8, 41-54.
�Winograd, P., & Hare, V. C. (1988). Direct instruction of reading comprehension
strategies: The nature of teacher explanation. In C. E. Weinstein, E. T. Goetz,
& P. A. Alexander (Eds.), Learning and study strategies: Issues in assessment
instruction and evaluation (pp. 121-139). San Diego: Academic Press.
�
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READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES & MOTHER TONGUE USE IN EAP COURSES IN ISRAELI ACADEMIA
Author
Author
Gordishevsky, Galina
Slabodar, Ira
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The goal of this paper is two-fold. First, we outline the various reading comprehension strategies employed in teaching EAP courses in Israel, and discuss challenges faced by students- native speakers of various Semitic languages (Hebrew, Arabic, and Amharic). Second, we advocate the use of L1 in our L2 classrooms and explore the contexts in which this practice is most beneficial for the learner. The ultimate goal of an EAP course in Israeli academia is to equip students with tools for coping with academic texts in English, thus rendering a central role to teaching a wide array of reading comprehension strategies (cf. Raftari, Seyyedi, & Ismail, 2012; Rraku, 2013 for similar views). Proficient readers need to employ a variety of reading strategies (Anderson, 1991, 2005; Block, 1986, 1992; Carrell, 1998; Hock & Mellard, 2005), including word-, sentence-, paragraph-, and text-level strategies. In order to achieve high level of proficiency, reading strategies are explicitly taught and practiced by means of authentic academic texts of varying length and structure/complexity. The need to teach and train students in the various text-coping techniques brings us to the second challenge: the use of L2 vs. L1 in our EAP classrooms. Efficient teaching involves imprinting reading strategies in the students' metacognition (Carrell, 1998; Farrell, 2001; McNeil, 2011; Song, 1998; Winograd & Hare, 1988), hence the importance of students' understanding of the teacher's explanations. In this context, the use of the students' mother tongue (L1) in EAP instruction gains higher importance. Numerous advocates of L1 in ESL/EFL classrooms have outlined a comprehensive list of efficient uses of L1 (Atkinson, 1987; Auerbach, 1993; Cook, 2001; Schweers, 1999). We strongly believe that, especially in the case of weaker students, the use of L1 will facilitate their understanding and internalization of various reading comprehension strategies. To this end, we advocate presentation of (some of) text-coping techniques using the students' L1, as well as initial exemplification of these techniques using an authentic academic text in the students' mother tongue.
Publisher
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Article
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INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF MODERN
LEARNING PROCESS
Margarita Kulagina
Language Studio “4U”
Article History:
Submitted: 15.06.2015
Accepted: 08.08.2015
Abstract: The process of the world globalization leads to the enlargement of intercultural
and interlingual connections among the representatives of different countries, nations,
religions and cultures. Herewith, there is a special interest towards the study of intercultural
communication and its reflection in the educational sphere. That is why the problem of
including cultural information into modern educational programmes and compilation of
cutting edge teaching materials has acquired great importance.
Modern methodical complexes acquaint students with the changing realities of the
English-speaking countries and fixed expressions that describe various aspects of life. The
main task is to avoid misunderstanding, caused not only by purely linguistic reasons but also
by lack of cultural knowledge, misunderstanding or simply unfamiliarity with the key
concept of the culture being studied.
Taking into consideration the changing status of foreign languages as a source of
intercommunication and mutual understanding, methodology underlines the necessity of
intensification of pragmatic aspects of the language acquisition. Nowadays, the main
purpose of the educational process is to get acquainted with the foreign language as a whole
unit, including grammar and lexical data, as well as cross-cultural information. It helps to
understand natural, historical and social realia, spiritual values and assists in the formation of
the linguistic consciousness.
At the present stage educational courses solve the problem of a textbook, as well as a
reference resource, highlighting all the lexical, grammatical and cultural information, and
meeting the students’ needs. These directories support effective lesson and make it possible
to get deeper into the culture of the foreign language.
Keywords: globalization, intercultural education, modern educational courses.
�Nowadays we live in the world of fast and easy communication, dealing with people
of various cultures and backgrounds. Economic, political and historical changes have created
new forms of intercultural interaction in the process of globalization. Stanley Fischer (2001)
in his speech The Challenge of Globalization in Africa pointed out that globalization is a
multi-faceted concept, containing many important social, political, environmental, cultural
and religious dimensions, which affect every human being in this or that way. As Henry
Teune (2002) explains globalization has changed the world enough to demand serious rethinking about comparative social research in our era of globalization.
As a result of globalization world society is becoming more multicultural. It makes us
recognize, respect and value diversity. The terms cultural diversity and multiculturalism
have already become a part of our life. In this regard, the interest of researchers from all over
the world towards successful interaction between the representatives of various groups is
constantly growing. Communication that lacks appropriate cultural content can become the
source of misunderstanding and communication failure that can lead to negative effect.
Therefore, one of the most important skills of nowadays is the ability to develop
communicative competence in order to take part in the life of multicultural communities and
changing society. The interaction of representatives of different nationalities has been made
more commonplace by the fluidity of the political and economic conditions in many countries
(Kasatkina, 2010). This process continues to occur as individuals keep on feeling compelled
to take extraordinary attempts to uproot themselves from their familiar cultural and linguistic
groups and immigrate to different cultural and linguistic communities. This can be achieved
thanks to intercultural education.
First of all, it is necessary to define the term of intercultural education itself. As Harry
H. Giles, Victor E. Pitkin and Thelma Ingram (1946) notice this expression didn’t appear in
the Education Index until after 1941 and it only came out in Reader’s Guide to Periodical
Literature in 1943. They give the following definition: Intercultural education is education to
improve understandings and practices of good human relations between individuals of the
many culture groups.
It is also interesting to look at the work of historian Nicholas Montalto, who made a
research A History of the Intercultural Educational Movement, 1924-1941, where he shows
the routes of intercultural education in the USA. It appeared as a response to the changes that
took place in the society which were caused by the new coming immigrants from southern
and northern Europe. During the first two decades of the 20th century there was a foreign
language movement in American libraries, providing the new members of society with the
literature in their native languages. It was an attempt to fulfill successful communication
between the representatives of different nations and to create positive intercultural dialogue.
Active discussion about the necessity of intercultural education was connected with
the growth of immigrants coming to Western Europe, especially to France, Benelux,
Germany, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. Different approaches were introduced and
the most widely-spread were immigrant education, intercultural education, multicultural
education and anti-racist education. The main accent was made on successful assimilation
with the main focus on language learning mainly. The followers of immigrant education
organized special classes for newcomers where they studied together with other migrants
outside of the majority group. It was absolutely evident that this approach didn’t work well
�and educators had to look for new methods. Later in 1980-1990 researchers in many
European countries started active developing of multicultural education with the main
concentration on integration rather than assimilation. The focus was on tolerance and
different cultures. In many schools there were organized special cultural events on different
theme days. However, this approach led to even bigger separation underlining the division
into “ours-others” concept. Educators came to a conclusion that intercultural education
should become an integral part of learning process without subdivision of students into
minority and majority groups.
Nowadays, the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) (2005)
define intercultural education as an …education which respects, celebrates and recognises
the normality of diversity in all areas of human life. It sensitises the learner to the idea that
humans have naturally developed a range of different ways of life, customs and worldviews,
and that this breadth of human life enriches us all. It is education, which promotes equality
and human rights, challenges unfair discrimination, and promotes the values upon which
equality is built. According to the INTO (2002) it is also about “…respecting cultural
difference and promoting anti-racism, it is not simply the knowledge of a variety of cultures.
It aims to counter misconceptions and negative stereotyping of different cultures, religions
and nationalities and seeks to develop an appreciation of other cultures in the context of a
critical appreciation of local/Irish cultures. Intercultural education celebrates the positive
aspects to cultural diversity as well as drawing attention to the power differences between
groups and societies”.
The UNESCO Guidelines on intercultural education published in 2007 identifies the
key issues and challenges related to education and multiculturalism such as culture, culture
and education, culture and language, culture and religion, but also cultural diversity and
majority or minority cultures, multiculturalism and interculturalism. It also defines the role
and objectives of intercultural education as learning to know, learning to do, learning to live
together and learning to be.
The guideline presents the legal framework to which intercultural education can make
reference: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, international treaties and
conventions, covenants, declarations and recommendations. Also the outcomes of the main
international conferences are given and allow the educators to use them in forming the
programme and developing new educational concepts.
Finally three main principles that frame these guidelines are presented and followed
by indications on how to achieve them. The general issues are the following:
Principle I: Intercultural Education respects the cultural identity of the learner through the
provision of culturally appropriate and responsive quality education for all.
Principle II: Intercultural Education provides every learner with the cultural knowledge,
attitudes and skills necessary to achieve active and full participation in society.
Principle III: Intercultural Education provides all learners with cultural knowledge, attitudes
and skills that enable them to contribute to respect, understanding and solidarity
among individuals, ethnic, social, cultural and religious groups and nations.
Intercultural education has been actively discussed by world leading politicians,
researchers, educators and scientists for about four decades. The European Commission has
�created a strong legal basis on which action for intercultural dialogue and against
discrimination can also be developed in the education sector.
These are the related documents that can be used while working over the curriculum:
Racial equality directive (2000/43/EC);
Employment framework directive (2000/78/EC);
Directive COM(2008) 426;
Renewed social agenda;
Intercultural dialogue support through EU programmes.
Educators have come to a conclusion that modern learning process should be oriented
at getting new skills, especially communicative ones, rather than gathering information and
remembering facts. Teachers’ aim is to prepare students for real life in diverse society, saving
learners’ own identity and respecting the others. The number of immigrants is constantly
growing and newcomers are actively taking part in the life of communities they are coming
to. Learners’ backgrounds differ in terms of religion, socio-economic status, parents’
education, values, attitudes, lifestyles and abilities. All these factors accentuate social and
cultural pluralism. In Guidelines on Traveller Education in Primary Schools (2002), the
Department of Education and Science explains the main points of intercultural education for
children that can successfully be referred to any modern learning process, aiming to foster
conditions conducive to pluralism in society. Intercultural education raises awareness of
learners’ own culture and attunes them to the fact that there are other ways of behaving and
value systems. It helps to develop respect for lifestyles different from their own so that
learners can understand and appreciate each other.
In view of the intense spread of English in the world, its teaching becomes global.
Modern methodical complexes acquaint students with the changing realities of the Englishspeaking countries and fixed expressions that describe various aspects of life. One of the
tasks today is often to avoid misunderstanding, caused not only by purely linguistics reasons
but also by lack of cultural knowledge, wrong understanding or simply unfamiliarity with the
key concept of the culture being studied. According to professor Claire Kramsch (1993),
culture is always in the background, right from day one, ready to unsettle the good language
learners when they expect it least, making evident the limitations of their hard-won
communicative competence, challenging their ability to make sense of the world around
them. Wilga Rivers (1981) points out that we must focus on both appropriate content and
activities that enable students to assimilate that content. Activities should encourage them to
go beyond fact, so that they begin to perceive and experience vicariously the deeper levels of
the culture of the speakers of the language.
Language Policy Division of the Council of Europe has presented the detailed guide
for
the
development
and
implementation
of
curricula
for
plurilingual
and intercultural education useful for both educators and those who are responsible for
curriculum planning. The European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) of the Council of
Europe designed a programme of learning through languages aiming at developing
plurilingual and intercultural pedagogic approaches.
Educators understand the importance of intercultural education and developing
cognitive skills and abilities in their students in order to make them successful in changing
�multinational and multicultural world. At the same time intercultural education is aimed at
recognizing socio-cultural and linguistic diversity, as well as respecting and understanding
different groups in the same society. Undoubtedly, modern technologies for the creation of
educational next-generation products will improve the efficiency of formation of linguistic
and intercultural competence of the learner and help to lead a successful dialogue between
the representatives of various cultures.
References
Fisher, S. The Challenge of Globalization in Africa. Yaoundé, Cameroon, 2001.
Giles, H. Review of Educational Research Vol.16, No.1, Social Foundations of
Education (Feb.1946), pp.39-45.
Guidelines on Traveller Education in Primary Schools. Dublin, 2002.
Kasatkina, N. Analyzing Language Choice among Russian-Speaking Immigrants to
the United States. The University of Arizona, 2010.
Kramsch, C. Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1993.
Montalto, N. A History of the Intercultural Educational Movement, 1924-1941. New
York: Garland, 1982.
Rivers, W. Teaching foreign language skills. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1981.
Teune, H. Is Globalization An American Ideology? XV World Congress, International
Sociology Association, Brisbane, Australia, 2002.
INTERNET RESOURCES
https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Source2010_ForumGeneva/GuideEPI201
0_EN.pdf
http://www.ecml.at/Portals/1/mtp4/broschure-mtp4-EN-web.pdf
https://www.education.ie/en/Schools-Colleges/Information/Intercultural-EducationStrategy/mig_intercultural_education_strategy.pdf
http://www.ncca.ie/uploadedfiles/publications/intercultural.pdf
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001478/147878e.pdf
�
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Title
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INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF MODERN LEARNING PROCESS
Author
Author
Kulagina, Margarita
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The process of the world globalization leads to the enlargement of intercultural and interlingual connections among the representatives of different countries, nations, religions and cultures. Herewith, there is a special interest towards the study of intercultural communication and its reflection in the educational sphere. That is why the problem of including cultural information into modern educational programmes and compilation of cutting edge teaching materials has acquired great importance. Modern methodical complexes acquaint students with the changing realities of the English-speaking countries and fixed expressions that describe various aspects of life. The main task is to avoid misunderstanding, caused not only by purely linguistic reasons but also by lack of cultural knowledge, misunderstanding or simply unfamiliarity with the key concept of the culture being studied. Taking into consideration the changing status of foreign languages as a source of intercommunication and mutual understanding, methodology underlines the necessity of intensification of pragmatic aspects of the language acquisition. Nowadays, the main purpose of the educational process is to get acquainted with the foreign language as a whole unit, including grammar and lexical data, as well as cross-cultural information. It helps to understand natural, historical and social realia, spiritual values and assists in the formation of the linguistic consciousness. At the present stage educational courses solve the problem of a textbook, as well as a reference resource, highlighting all the lexical, grammatical and cultural information, and meeting the students’ needs. These directories support effective lesson and make it possible to get deeper into the culture of the foreign language.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
International Burch University
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015-12
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bd1fdf650e82cf35bf8f47c7e63cd4c5.pdf
68db20a42aee3d9ddf9991c6079c3f9a
PDF Text
Text
TENDENCIES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORLD'S EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS AND
PEDAGOGICAL EDUCATION IN UZBEKISTAN
Utkir Tolipov
Tashkent State Pedagogical University named after Nizami
Tashkent, Uzbekistan
Abstract:
Education as an area is most closely associated with the formation of human personality, and therefore
is the most important factor of economic and social development. The teacher was and still is the key
figure in the education system. Consequently, pedagogical education is seen as the foundation of the
education system in general. However, the importance of student-teacher relationship has become a
main issue in the post-modern society, emphasizing the role of the student in the learning process.
This research paper investigates the most common didactic models for teaching and acquiring
knowledge, while proposing the normative and methodological basis for the continuity of
organizational stages of teacher’s education. In terms of this, this paper deals with these models by
presenting the current situation in the teaching system of Uzbekistan, presenting its methodologies.
Keywords: Education, student-teacher relation, pedagogical education, Uzbekistan model
Introduction:
The current stage of development of the world community is characterized by the rapid unfolding of
innovative processes, with innovations increasingly acquiring the status of general indicator of cultural
development. One of the conditions of a modern progress is represented by the readiness of the public
as well as the counciousness of an individual in terms of changes, in all of the spheres of society.
In the conditions of modern civilization reforms in the educational system have become a
pressing issue in many countries. According to UNESCO, the main reason for this was the need for
education of the person with the planetary thinking, with the ability to participate actively in social and
cultural process, to change himself and the surrounding reality. It is education as a sphere, most
closely associated with the development of the human personality, which is considered to be the most
important factor in economic and social development. The key figure here was and will always remain
a teacher - a competent person with a broad outlook in the various fields of knowledge, socially
mature and with creative personality. Pedagogical education becomes the foundation of the education
system as a whole.
�In accordance with the position of the new socio-cultural paradigm a personality is seen as an
active subject, capable of affecting the social development, creating a spiritual world of science,
religion, culture, morality, and setting new directions for social development. In connection with this,
education with his primary goal: the development of such qualities and abilities of a person that would
allow him or not only to exist comfortably adapting to a rapidly changing social conditions, but also to
overcome difficulties related to perception of innovations for creating a qualitatively new social space
- begins to play foreground role in social progress.
It follows that the development as an alternative to the concept of “teaching” becomes the key
concept of the world's educational systems today. Almost all developed countries have already
recognized the need to reform their education systems so that the student would truly become an active
figure in the educational process and a cognitive activity of students i.e. the process of learning (not
the sum of knowledge, as it was until now, and still taking its place now during traditional teaching)
would be in the focus of the teachers
The educational institution prepares a person to vigorous activities in various fields of economy,
culture, and the political life of society. That is why the role of the school as a base level of education
is extremely important. Its ability to respond flexibly to the needs of society, while preserving the
accumulated positive experience has a great importance too.
However, not all school (university) personnel quickly respond to socio-economic changes,
scientific and technical progress. Some teachers are still following the conservative paradigm of
teaching adopted in the XIX century: the teacher - textbook (read: system of teaching aids) - student.
This system focuses on teaching, on the central role of teacher in the pedagogical process. The student
acts as the object of this activity. The statements that the learner (student) should be the subject of the
process are not implemented in practice adequately. Therefore, it is important to realize the
philosophical paradigm of democratic society “person - society – state” in all areas of society and,
above all, in the system of education.
Modern society of information technology in comparison with the industrial one of mid-late
XIX-XX centuries is in much greater degree interested in the fact that its citizens are able to act
independently and actively to make decisions and adapt to the changing conditions of life.
Respectively, all types of educational institutions must implement the task of preparing
graduates, which are able to:
• adapt flexibility to changing life situations, apply skillfully and independently acquired knowledge in
practice to solve a variety of arising problems in order to have an opportunity to find their place in life;
• think critically, being able to see problems arising in the real world; seek and find a rational way to
solve them, using modern technology; have a clear awareness of where and how the acquired
knowledge can be applied in the surrounding reality; generate new, creative ideas;
�• work competently with the information (to be able to collect facts necessary to solve certain
problems, analyze them, hypothesize solutions, make the necessary generalizations, comparing with
the same or alternative solutions, set static patterns, make reasoned conclusions, apply them to identify
and resolve new problems);
• be sociable, contact in different social groups, be able to work together in various areas, situations,
including conflict ones, preventing the latter or skillfully finding the exit from it;
• working independently to develop their own morality, intelligence and cultural level.
This is the imperative of our time. Teachers from different schools of Uzbekistan make similar
conclusions, and this has already become a constructive solution in the refined requirements of the
educational standards of the State, new curricula built on the principle of continuity, textbooks,
manuals, and most importantly - in the style of lessons and activities. Note that the new fundamental
social order to the education system from the state is really embodied in the Law "On Education" and
the National program for personnel training. The most important thing at the moment is to work
together in order to implement this public policy.
National Program Implementation and Didactic Models:
The implementation of the National Program involves the expansion of individual freedom,
increasing the responsibility of each person for the determination of his or her own destiny, which in
turn causes an increasing burden on the personality.
Primarily this concerns teachers. Educational activity requires a constant creative readiness,
continuous self-realization, self-development
Today, a kind of "core" of the teacher’s personality refers to as his or her professional and
notional potential, which defines humanistic orientation of world attitude and outlook, actions and
behavior of the teacher, his or her high adaptability, capacity of creative self-realization and spiritual
self-development.
In this context, we reviewed the following possible didactic model:
1. Communicative model is aimed at the formation and development of important professional and
semantic orientations (personal values, philosophy, the meaning of life) as well as the foundations of
creativity and sense of competence of the future teachers in the course of live communication of the
teacher and students, imbued with mutual understanding.
2. Active-search model of professional development of the individual sense of the teacher focuses on
the development of the foundations of its competence by organizing search and semantic activity of
students on practical and extracurricular classes in the course of independent educational and research
work.
�3. Reflective model aimed at creating a professional and meaningful self-student educator, the
development of its abilities to professional self-determination and self-development. This model
provides an opportunity for the teachers to reflect on themsleves in the face of the natural and social
reality, to seek answers to the many vital and relevant professional issues.
4. Simulation model of professional development of the individual sense of the future teacher
contributes to the establishment of its foundations focused on the meaning and sense of Retention
competence and basic value-oriented and professionally mediated by personality traits. It can be used
for these purposes, can be used depending on the situation and role structurally-role-playing games,
activates the process of empathy, compassion, personal identification, the main human need growth,
development, and self-improvement. All this prompts the student is already present as the subject of
training and educational processes to independent, courageous, enterprising, creative and thorough
solutions, albeit in the conditional-game, but liberating his developing personality, situation.
5. Activities and practical model has the same target orientation as the previous one, but is carried
out by the organization of independent professional sense of activity of students in the teaching
practice.
6. Model of professional sense of self-development is designed to provide first and foremost the
establishment of the meaning of the creative competence of the future teacher. As-final, she adds, it
consolidates the results of the use of all previous models and represents the transition from the
development of professionally-semantic potential of students in pedagogical high school to
professional-semantic self-development of the teacher in the course of independent professional
activity.
State educational standards include not only the training of qualified specialists in a particular area, but
also the formation of well-educated creative people, which is impossible without extensive knowledge
of the fundamentals of science. Fundament of teacher education contributes to the establishment and
development of critical thinking and creativity, as well as providing effective integration of the
humanities, natural sciences and professional knowledge.
Humanization
of
teacher
education
should
be
focused
on
distribution
coating abilities and meet the diverse educational needs of the priority of human values and harmony
in the relationship between man and the environment.
Means to achieve the formation of personality of teacher education ensures the formation of students'
holistic view of the world, high spirituality, culture, and is saturated with the components of an ethical
(moral), aesthetic, ecological, economic and legal education, regardless of the profile and
specialization
areas
of
teacher
education.
Continuity means that the output of the previous stage of pedagogical education must be on the
�organizational and substantive level "dock" with the release of the next stage, thus ensuring the
interconnection
and
interdependence
of
all
levels
of
teacher
education.
The normative and methodological basis for the continuity of organizational stages of teacher
education should be:
• Integrated state educational standards, curriculum and programs, providing close inter-subject,
interdisciplinary communication;
•
a
systematic
approach
to
determining
the
content
of
educational
programs;
• psycho-pedagogical and methodological coordination of the educational process in educational
institutions of different levels of teachers’ education. The universality of education is perhaps the most
complete set of disciplines that determine the unity of professional and general cultural aspects of
basic training for future teachers.
In the process of development and modernization of the content and structure of vocational teacher
education are starting the following provisions:
•
continuity
of
professional-pedagogical
preparation
of
personality-oriented
nature;
• priority theory object of professional activity;
• unity of theory and practice;
•
continuity
and
integration
in
building
theoretical
knowledge
and
practical
skills;
• technology training solutions for standard and special (creative) professional problems;
• training diagnosis studying the state of the pedagogical process and the use of these results in
educational work.
Conclusion:
Through the application of the acquired theoretical knowledge in the future teachers is formed by a
technique of translation of the theory in action, that is, the technology consists of professional work
and lay the foundation of professional consciousness. The most important aspect of the content of
teacher education is to enrich the creative potential of the teacher's personality on the basis of the
revival of national spiritual culture, basic knowledge of folk pedagogy in relation to the history and
culture of other peoples of our country and all mankind. The set of specific objectives will give a
unified character of the process of teacher training through the use of the capabilities of each of the
subject, as well as the complex psychological and pedagogical disciplines.
Originating in the Republic of Uzbekistan reforming processes are formed, including the teacher, as a
result of the consistent implementation of the National Program for the preparation of the sub-frames,
which are made in conditions of Uzbekistan's transition to democracy, the rule of law, and the market
economy. The essence of these processes boils down to a fundamental optimization of personnel
potential of teacher education, raising the prestige of the profession educators, teachers and
�researchers, creating a system of continuous pedagogical education in accordance with tendency world
education in the context of sustainable development.
References:
1. Problem of cognitive-constructive skills development of students in modern conditions:
Monograph/reduction. R.H.Djurayev. – Tashkent: Sharq. 2012. – 560 p.
2. Conceptual model of studying on the base of development of cognitive-constructive skills of
students as the condition of preparation the younger generation to the invocation of the XXI
century // Formation of harmoniously educated generation in modern conditions: collection of
scientifically methodically articles (second edition). – Tashkent, 2011. – Pp 13-109.
3. Formation abilities of self-expression and self realization of students as the bases qualities of
personality – order of time: scientifically-methodically book for teachers and lecturers /
R.H.Djurayev. – Tashkent, 2012. – 298 p.
�
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Title
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TENDENCIES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORLD'S EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS AND PEDAGOGICAL EDUCATION IN UZBEKISTAN
Author
Author
Tolipov, Utkir
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Education as an area is most closely associated with the formation of human personality, and therefore is the most important factor of economic and social development. The teacher was and still is the key figure in the education system. Consequently, pedagogical education is seen as the foundation of the education system in general. However, the importance of student-teacher relationship has become a main issue in the post-modern society, emphasizing the role of the student in the learning process. This research paper investigates the most common didactic models for teaching and acquiring knowledge, while proposing the normative and methodological basis for the continuity of organizational stages of teacher’s education. In terms of this, this paper deals with these models by presenting the current situation in the teaching system of Uzbekistan, presenting its methodologies.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
International Burch University
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015-12
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/376bc1d9ff65ca55c4585a5c512b2400.pdf
3334be503ee652a1f9cec9570b6d9c5c
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Text
TASK BASED LEARNING:
A COMMUNICATIVE ALTERNATIVE FOR EFL TEACHERS AND LEARNERS
Sema Turan
Middle East Technical University
Article History:
Submitted: 07.06.2015
Accepted: 15.07.2015
Abstract: TBL is an approach that makes the task the basic unit for planning and teaching. It
contrasts with approaches that are centred around grammar because it involves the
specification not of a sequence of language items, but of a sequence of communicative tasks
to be carried out in the target language. TBL aims to engage learners in real language use.
This can be done by designing tasks which require learners to use the language for
themselves. Tasks hold a central place both in current SLA research and in language
pedagogy. Tasks serve to provide learners with a natural context for language use. As
learners work to complete a task, they have opportunities to interact, which are thought to
facilitate language acquisition. The difference between traditional approaches to teaching
English, such as PPP, and TBL is that in TBL, the focus on language form comes at the end
as the communication task is the central point to the framework. Therefore, a typical TBL
lesson consists of ‘pre-task’, ‘task cycle’ and ‘language focus’ stages. This paper aims to
explain the content of the stages, giving English language teachers some ideas about the kind
of activities for each of them.
Keywords: task-based learning.
�1. TASK-BASED LEARNING (TBL)+
TBL is an approach that makes the task the basic unit for planning and teaching (Thornbury,
2006: 223). It contrasts with approaches that are centred around grammar, for example,
because it involves the specification not of a sequence of language items, but of a sequence of
communicative tasks to be carried out in the target language (Willis &Willis, in Carter &
Nunan, 2001:173).
TBL aims to engage learners in real language use. This can be done by designing tasks which
require learners to use the language for themselves (Willis & Willis, 2007). In other words, as
Thornbury (2006) suggests, according to TBL, ‘you learn a language by using it,’ not ‘in
order to use it’ (p. 223).
1.1. What is a task?
In fact, it is a bit problematic to define task as a term because as Zhao (2011) also states,
there is not a complete agreement about what constitutes a task. Willis (1996) defines a task
as an activity where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose in
order to achieve an outcome. In this definition, the outcome is important because although the
activity involves the use of language, the focus is on outcome. Language in a communicative
task is seen as a tool that brings about an outcome (Seedhouse, 1999).
Tasks hold a central place both in current SLA research and in language pedagogy (Ellis,
2003). As Larsen-Freeman (2000) points, tasks serve to provide learners with a natural
context for language use. As learners work to complete a task, they have opportunities to
interact, which are thought to facilitate language acquisition.
1.2. Background
In fact, TBL has originated from Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). It is just a
strong version of CLT (Zhao, 2011: 46). Despite the CLT’s focus on communicative
competence, there was still a tendency to see the study of language form as prior to language
use due to the need in promoting accuracy as well as fluency.
In the meantime, Prabhu headed a project in schools in South India, and this project was one
of the first experiments with TBL. In this project, learners were presented with a series of
problems and solved these through information and opinion gap activities under teacher
guidance through the medium of English. Later he argued that a focus on language form
inhibited language learning, and language development was the outcome of natural processes
(Willis &Willis, in Carter & Nunan, 2001).
TBL gained official popularity when Jane Willis published A Framework for Task-based
Learning in 1996. In the book, she stated that she had been into TBL since the early 1980s
not only because she was unhappy and unsatisfied with the traditional PPP method, but also
because she was influenced by Prabhu’s procedural syllabus experiment.
�1.3. Principles of TBL
According to Willis (1996) there are three essential conditions, which are exposure, use, and
motivation; and one desirable condition, which is instruction for successful learning.
Chowdury (2014) summarizes Willis’ ideas as follows:
Exposure involves a comprehension of meaning and the conscious observation of other
people’s use of the target language. It is when such features are noticed and processed in the
learners’ minds. Through exposure learners get the necessary input.
Use is basically concerned with speaking and writing unlike exposure that is mainly
associated with reading and listening. Through the use of the target language, learners are
pushed to make the expected output. The use of language through tasks prepares learners to
make free and meaningful use of the target language.
Motivation is needed to process the exposure. It enables learners to benefit from the
exposure and use. The TBL framework can be used to motivate learners. For example,
students get motivation through success. If they see that they can accomplish the tasks easily,
they will be motivated and look for more tasks.
Instruction should motivate learners to engage in language use rather than teacher control.
Instructed language learning should primarily involve natural language use, based on
activities concerned with meaning rather than language.
1.4. Procedure
According to Willis (1996), the difference between PPP and TBL is that in TBL, the focus on
language form comes at the end (p. 52). As the communication task is the central point to the
framework, such a procedure is more useful than the PPP cycle. A typical TBL lesson is
structured as follows:
Pre-Task:
Language Focus:
Introduction to topic
Analysis and Practice
and task instructions
Exposure- ExposureFocus on Form-
Task Cycle:
Task > Planning > Report
-Use-
-
-Exposure-Focus on Form-
Feedback-Feedback-
-
�Pre-Task: Introduction to topic and task instructions: This stage provides exposure to
teacher talk, but brainstorming useful topic words and phrases is a way of involving students.
Task Cycle: At this stage, learners use language in varying circumstances and are exposed to
others using it. In the Task Phase, learners can use language interactively and spontaneously
in pairs, and mistakes don’t matter. The Planning Phase is when the teacher provides input
and advice, so there is some focus on form and feedback. At this stage, learners plan what to
say at the report stage by trying to use accurate language. The Report Phase encourages a
combination of accuracy and fluency.
Language Focus: Analysis and practice: At this stage, learners have a chance to focus on
form and ask questions about language features as they get exposure to the language from the
task cycle. For example, there can be consciousness-raising activities such as identifying,
classifying, and focusing on specific language features. These help learners systematise what
they already know while noticing new things about language and the way it is used (Willis,
1996).
1.5. Criticism
Proponents of TBL favour the way it combines fluency and accuracy. However, some others
criticize TBL due to some factors. One criticism is about the issue of feedback. Some
criticize the fact that learners get no correction or feedback during the task phase and argue
that the feedback that learners get while on task is more effective than post-task. To
overcome this limitation, Thornbury (2006) suggests the use of recasts, which is the teacher’s
reformulating learners’ statements in a more target-like way.
Some others criticize the fact that there is no focus on form at the pre-task stage although it
might be necessary to pre-teach grammar items that might be needed during the task.
According to Willis (1996), this is one difference of TBL from PPP.
Finally, TBL is criticized for being a influential more at the theoretical and research level
than actual classroom practice because it requires a totally different course design and testing
procedures. In addition, it presents a management challenge because it is difficult to set up
and monitor tasks in large classes. Also, it might be difficult to deal with language problems
that emerge spontaneously from the task performance (Thornbury, 2006: 224).
2. RELEVANCE OF TBL TO LEARNING CONTEXTS
TBL is applicable in a variety of teaching and learning contexts. According to TBL, learners
are free to use any language they can to achieve the outcome. Language forms are not
prescribed in advance. Language learners, who are human beings, have an innate capacity to
work out the ways of expressing meanings. In real life, people do not simply take note of the
new linguistic input and copy or reproduce it. Instead, they put language to use to achieve
�purposeful communication. Therefore, they adjust or adapt input to create new meanings
(Willis &Willis, in Carter & Nunan, 2001). TBL aims to achieve this through principles that
are parallel to SLA principles. This way, learners can be encouraged to create a meaning
system in TBL. Thus, the fact that its principles are realistic and naturalistic is the reason why
TBL would suit a variety of learning circumstances.
In order to overcome what was criticised about TBL as its limitations, teachers need to
prioritize their purposes with regards to the facilities they have. That is, they need to
determine whether they want to incorporate the communicative element in their classes along
with the form and accuracy or they want to continue with the traditional PPP approach. If
they prefer the former, then, it is possible to involve tasks to overcome these limitations. For
instance, as Larsen-Freeman (2000) suggests, teachers can add information-gap, opinion-gap
(reasoning-gap), or problem solving tasks in their courses and overcome limitations
regarding the management or course design. The variety that these tasks offer can provide the
base for a lot of teaching contexts and.
Finally, according to TBL, working with upper-level learners whose needs can be clearly
defined, it is possible to offer pedagogic tasks which relate directly to real-world tasks. Also,
the idea that language emerges out of the relationship between exposure, use, focus on form
and feedback makes a lot of sense. Therefore, TBL is applicable and a better alternative to
PPP.
�References
Chowdhury, M.Y.U.K. (2014). The Task-Based Learning Framework and Its
Implications in Language Learning and Teaching. Journal of Education and Practice.
5(2): 111-117.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. OUP. Oxford, UK.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. OUP.
Oxford, UK.
Lebeau, I., Rees, G. (2008). Language Leader Pre-Intermediate Course Book.
Pearson. UK
Willis, J. (1996). A Framework for Task-based Learning. Longman. London, UK.
Willis, J., Willis, D. Task-based Language Learning. in Carter, R., Nunan, D. (Ed.s)
(2001). The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages.
CUP. Cambridge, UK.
Willis, J., Willis, D. (2007) Doing Task-Based Teaching. OUP. Oxford, UK.
Seedhouse, P. (1999). Task-Based Interaction. ELT Journal. 53(3): 149-156.
Thornbury, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT: A Dictionary of Terms and Concepts.
Macmillan. Oxford, UK.
Zhao, H. (2011). How Far Do the Theories of Task-Based Learning Succeed in
Combining Communicative and from-Focused Approaches to L2 Research. Journal
of Cambridge Studies.6(1): 41-56.
�APPENDIX: A SAMPLE TBL LESSON
Time Stages & Procedure
Aims
5
Pre-Task
min.s
20
Task
min.s
Planning
1. T. shows pictures to elicit the
topic of the lesson (Festivals).
Timing Interaction
of the
Activity
T-Sts
Sts-T
St-St
5 min. s
2. Sts. talk in pairs about what
activities are there at a festival (1
min.). Later, they tell their ideas
to T. T. aims to elicit words such
as theatre, cinema, poetry,
fireworks, dance, comedy, etc.
1. In groups, sts. plan their night 5 min.s
out at this festival by expressing
their preferences and making a
conversation. T. does not provide
any help. Sts. do what they can 5 mins.
do.
Materials
Pictures
Board
Board
marker
T-Sts
Sts-T
T-St
St-T
St-St
Sts-Sts
2. In groups, sts. plan what to say
Reporting when they come on the stage to 10
report their night out at this min.s
festival. Sts. are focused on
accuracy. T. is ready to provide
input and advice if sts. need.
3. 2-3 groups come on the stage
and report what they have
planned. They speak out the
conversation they got ready. By
the way, other sts. provide
feedback about the content of
their friend’s conversation. They
answer questions such as Do you
agree? Would you like to attend
the same events? etc.
25
Post-Task 1. Sts. listen to a sample
min.s
conversation and complete the
statements in the handout
individually (Appendix A). Then,
10
min.s
T-Sts
Sts-T
T-St
St-T
Listening
Handout
s
(Appendi
�Analysis
they compare with their peers. T.
hands out the key.
Practice
2. T. elicits statements to focus
on the form.
3. Sts. do the practice handout in
pairs. T. provides the key
(Appendix B).
10
min.s
5 min.s
St-St
Sts-Sts
x A)
Practice
Handout
s
(Appendi
x B)
Board
Board
marker
�LESSON APPENDICES
Appendix A: Listening Handout
A. Listen and complete the sentences with the words in the box.
than (x2)
rather (x2)
prefer
keen
love
fancy
I don’t ________________ that.
I’d ________________ to go to the classical concert.
I’d ________________ see the film.
I’m not that ____________ on the concert.
I’m more interested in the Japanese drummers ______________the one-man theatre
show.
6. I’d ________________ to see the drummers.
7. I’d _______________ see that _______________ a play about Shakespeare.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
B. Which sentences in Exercise A:
a. mean you like one thing more than another thing:
b. mean you don’t like / prefer something:
c. mean you like / prefer something:
�KEY:
A. Listen and complete the sentences with the words in the box.
than (x2)
rather (x2)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
prefer
keen
love
fancy
I don’t fancy that.
I’d prefer to go to the classical concert.
I’d rather see the film.
I’m not that keen on the concert.
I’m more interested in the Japanese drummers than the one-man theatre show.
I’d love to see the drummers.
I’d rather see that than a play about Shakespeare.
B. Which sentences in Exercise A:
a. mean you like one thing more than another thing: 5, 7
b. mean you don’t like / prefer something: 1, 4
c. mean you like / prefer something: 2, 3, 6
�Tape script:
�Text:
EDINBURGH FESTIVAL
AFTER DINNER EVENTS (8 p.m. – 11 p.m.)
CASTLE CLASSICS
Great music, great orchestra, great location.
Tonight: The world famous National Orchestra perform Beethoven’s Symphony No.3 in the
main hall of the wonderful Edinburgh Castle.
MOVIES IN THE PARK
Enjoy movies from around the world in the festival’s outdoor cinema – the popcorn is free!
Tonight: Hum Tum – an Indian film made in the true Bollywood style. This is a romantic
comedy filled with great songs and dances
LATE NIGHT EVENTS (11 p.m. –2 a.m.)
MINI-THEATRE
Powerful plays with the smallest of casts.
Tonight: Shakespeare – A Writer’s Life. One actor performs the full story of Shakespeare’s
life. He acts as Shakespeare, his mother and father, his wife and even his children. You’ll
laugh out loud.
WORLD BEATS
Music and dance from all around the world.
Tonight: Japanese Drumming. An incredible performance by 45 drummers that you’ll never
forget. Powerful and unique.
�Appendix B: Practice Handout
�
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Title
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TASK BASED LEARNING:A COMMUNICATIVE ALTERNATIVE FOR EFL TEACHERS AND LEARNERS
Author
Author
Turan, Sema
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
TBL is an approach that makes the task the basic unit for planning and teaching. It contrasts with approaches that are centred around grammar because it involves the specification not of a sequence of language items, but of a sequence of communicative tasks to be carried out in the target language. TBL aims to engage learners in real language use. This can be done by designing tasks which require learners to use the language for themselves. Tasks hold a central place both in current SLA research and in language pedagogy. Tasks serve to provide learners with a natural context for language use. As learners work to complete a task, they have opportunities to interact, which are thought to facilitate language acquisition. The difference between traditional approaches to teaching English, such as PPP, and TBL is that in TBL, the focus on language form comes at the end as the communication task is the central point to the framework. Therefore, a typical TBL lesson consists of ‘pre-task’, ‘task cycle’ and ‘language focus’ stages. This paper aims to explain the content of the stages, giving English language teachers some ideas about the kind of activities for each of them.
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2015-12
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Academic CV
Mine Biniş
Public Finance, University of İzmir Katip Çelebi
Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences
İzmir Katip Çelebi Üniversitesi Çiğli Ana Yerleşkesi İzmir 35620
Tel: +90 232 329 35 35
elifasahin@gmail.com
EDUCATION
2007-2011 DOKUZ EYLUL UNIVERSITY, IZMIR
Doctoral Degree, Public Finance
2005-2007 SULEYMAN DEMIREL UNIVERSITY, ISPARTA
Master of Public Finance
2000-2004 SULEYMAN DEMIREL UNIVERSITY, ISPARTA
Bachelor’s Degree
Master Thesis:
Title: Effectiveness of Public Financial Decision Making Process and the Function of Internal
Audit
Doctoral Thesis:
Title: Performance Based Budgeting System as an Instrument of Performance Management in
the Public Sector: The Examples of Metropolitan Municipalities
WORK EXPERIENCE
2013-
Izmir Katip Çelebi University
Public Finance Department-Assistant Professor
2005- 2007 Suleyman Demirel University
Public Finance Department-Research Assistant
ACADEMIC EVENTS
-
ŞAHİN İPEK, Elif Ayşe ve İbrahim Attila ACAR (2014), “Kamu İnovatif Satın Alma
Politikası ve Bölgesel Kalkınma”, içinde: Türkiye’de Bölgesel Kalkınma ve Teşvik
Politikaları, (ed. Mine Nur Bozdoğan), Nobel Yayıncılık, 1. Basım.
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ŞAHİN İPEK, Elif Ayşe (2014), “Türkiye’de Mahalli İdare Bütçeleri ve Sorunları”,
içinde: Mali Yerinden Yönetim: Teori, Kavramsal Açıklamalar ve Türkiye’ye İlişkin
Değerlendirmeler, (ed. Mustafa SAKAL, Ahmet KESİK, Tekin AKDEMİR), Nobel
Yayıncılık, 1. Basım, Nisan, 332-354.
ÇİÇEK, Hüseyin Güçlü, Elif Ayşe ŞAHİN İPEK, Süleyman DİKMEN (2014),
“Terörün Kamu Finansmanındaki Etkisinin Vergi Cennetleri Kapsamında
Değerlendirilmesi”, içinde: Prof. Dr. Şükrü Kızılot’a Armağan, Gazi Üniversitesi İİBF
Yayını, Ocak, 404- 425.
ŞAHİN İPEK, Elif Ayşe ve Mustafa SAKAL ve Hüseyin Güçlü ÇİÇEK (2014),
“Performans Esaslı Bütçeleme Sistemi ve Diğer Bütçeleme Sistemlerinden
Farklılıkları Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme”, Soyoekonomi, 2014-2, July-December.
ACAR, İbrahim Attila ve Elif Ayşe ŞAHİN İPEK (2014), “Kamu Kurumlarında İç
Denetim Faaliyetinin Etkinliği: Ege Bölgesi Alan Araştırması”, Kamu Mali Denetimi
konulu 29. Türkiye Maliye Sempozyumu (16-20 Mayıs), değerlendirme ve yayın
aşamasında.
ŞAHİN İPEK, Elif Ayşe (2013), Kamu Kesiminde Performans Yönetim Aracı Olarak
Performans Esaslı Bütçeleme Sistemi: Büyükşehir Belediyeleri Örneği, Türkiye
Belediyeler Birliği Yayınları, Ankara.
ÇİÇEK, Hüseyin Güçlü ve Elif Ayşe ŞAHİN İPEK (2013), “Performans Yönetiminin
Amaç- Araç Uyumu Tartışması ve Performans Esaslı Bütçeleme Sistemi”, Maliye
Dergisi, S. 165, Temmuz-Aralık, 290-315.
ŞAHİN, Elif Ayşe (2011), İç Denetimin Kamu Mali Karar Alma Süreçlerine Etkisi,
Seçkin Yayınları, Ankara.
SAKAL, Mustafa ve Elif Ayşe ŞAHİN (2011), “Stratejik Yönetimin Geleceği
Açısından Performans Esaslı Bütçeleme Sisteminin Uygulamada Etkinliği Sorunu”,
içinde: Küreselleşme ve Kamu Yönetiminde Dönüşüm, (ed. Ahmet KESİK ve Hasan
CANPOLAT), Seçkin Yayınları, Ankara.
ŞAHİN, Elif Ayşe (2010), “Anayasal İktisat Perspektifinden Gelişmiş Ülkelerde
Kamu Borçlanmasını Sınırlayıcı Kurallar”, içinde: Mali Kurallar Maliye Politikası
Yönetiminde Yeni Bir Eğilim: Vergi, Harcama, Borçlanma vs. Üzerine Kurallar ve
Sınırlamalar, (ed. C.C. AKTAN, A. KESİK, Fatih KAYA), T.C. Maliye Bakanlığı
Strateji Geliştirme Başkanlığı Yayın No: 2010/ 408, Ankara, 229- 46.
SAKAL, Mustafa ve Elif Ayşe ŞAHİN (2009), “5018 Sayılı Kanun Çerçevesinde
Gelir İdaresinde Değişim Çalışmalarının Değerlendirilmesi”, Prof. Dr. Mualla
Öncel’e Armağan Cilt II, (ed. E. AKÇAOĞLU ve İ.S. AKMAN), Ankara Üniversitesi
Hukuk Fakültesi Yayını, Ankara, 557- 93.
ACAR, İbrahim Attila ve Elif Ayşe ŞAHİN (2009), “Plan-Bütçe İlişkisi Açısından İç
Denetim”, Maliye Dergisi, S.156, Ocak- Haziran, 83- 103.
SAKAL, Mustafa ve Elif Ayşe ŞAHİN (2009), “Anayasal İktisatın Temel Felsefesi ve
Türkiye’de Uygulanabilirlik Koşulları”, Osmangazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler
Enstitüsü Dergisi, C.10, S.1, Haziran, 75- 114.
SAKAL, Mustafa ve Elif Ayşe ŞAHİN (2009), “Küresel Mali Kriz Ekonomide
Paradigma Değişiminin Sinyali Mi?”, Uluslararası Davras Kongresi (24- 27 Eylül)
Bildiriler Kitabı, Isparta, 51- 76.
SAKAL, Mustafa ve Elif Ayşe ŞAHİN (2008), “Kamu Kurumlarında Performans
Ölçümü ve Sayıştay Denetimi İlişkisi: Türkiye’deki Uygulamalar Bakımından Bir
Değerlendirme”, Sayıştay Dergisi, S.68, Ocak- Mart, 3- 28.
ACAR, İbrahim Attila ve Elif Ayşe ŞAHİN (2008), “Yerel Yönetimlerde Mali
Yönetim-Stratejik Planlamadan İç Denetime Arayışlar”, Sakarya Üniversitesi 1.
�Ulusal Yerel Yönetimler Sempozyumu (23- 24 Ekim) Bildiriler Kitabı, Sakarya, 85104.
RESEARCH INTERESTS
Public financial management, public budgeting, internal audit and internal control.
�
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SOCIAL CAPITAL INCREASE OF CONDUCT FOR SCHOOL HEAD TEACHER PERCEPTIONS
Author
Author
Berk Karacan, Emine
Karacan, Huseyin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In a society, group or institution in other words, all that is needed the cooperation of the people in the social structure and social capital important have a decisive impact. Especially intense social relationships and interactions are deemed important in schools. To reveal teachers' perception regarding the objective increase social capital they exhibit behaviors of school principals is aimed in this study. This study in our schools of social capital headmaster of investment in the school all aspects successful interaction, school culture to the development, school goals and objectives easier realization will pave the environment permits the formation of providing crucial to be seen. This research is a qualitative study. In the study science subjects design was used. Qualitative research in the tradition of the maximum variation sampling method for sampling in accordance with the working group composed of 12 teachers were selected. Data collection methods have been used as a semi-structured interview technique. In the study, "content analysis" was performed. According to the results of the study of the behavior of school principals to increase social capital, increase engagement among teachers in schools, providing collaboration, and improve communication in school will contribute to establish confidence as shown. School principals, school owners understand the social capital to protect, not to harm the accumulated capital, social capital will work to develop and manage effectively providing behaviours are required.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
International Burch University
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015
Keywords
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Article
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)
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Text
EFL ACADEMIC READING ISSUES: MANAGING READING RATE/SPEED
FRUSTRATION AND COMPREHENDING TEXTS
Igballe Miftari
State University of Tetovo, Macedonia
Article History:
Submitted: 08.06.2015
Accepted: 10.08.2015
Abstract: An issue that until recently has been “irrelevant” for me personally and for many other
English teachers, is the issue of reading rate/speed. I presumably believe that most teachers have
never thought of this issue because of limited time for classroom instruction or simply because as
teachers, the level of reading and preparation for classroom instruction is usually plenty. EFL
academic reading however, involves reading different materials in different subjects and courses
and being able to “interact” with them. The issue of interacting with books and texts depends a
great deal on the level of comprehension. At university studies, students are overloaded with
different materials and deadlines that are in fact frustrating. Students are obliged to read “thick
books” in different academic subjects and courses and are over-flooded with known and
unknown terminology, both scientific and professional in the specific field of study. They now
must get the most out of books and must perfectly understand course books in order to pass
exams and gain overall success. For such reasons, students either learn to read faster or don’t
read at all. According to Anderson (1999) “knowing how to read more efficiently and adjusting
reading speed to reading task are critical to this success. (1999:56). Therefore, “increasing
students’ reading rates makes them able to devote greater cognitive capacity to comprehension
skills” (1999:54). The study aims at testing students’ overall comprehension skills using timedreading activities and questionnaires over a period of 4 weeks (12 instruction hours). It will be
conducted with 3 and 4 year students of the English department during their English reading
instruction classes. Other matters of study will be students’ anxiety, frustration, previous
experience with reading, motivation etc.
Keywords: reading rate, frustration, cognitive capacity, comprehension etc.
�An introduction to EFL academic reading
Reading as a general term refers to the process of “decoding words and their meaning on paper,
in written text.” Moreover, it is the interaction of one’s eyes, brain and many other
accompanying factors such as previous experience with texts, imagination, creativity, vocabulary
etc. As Richardson, Morgan and Fleener (2006) put it: “the physical process of reading requires
the eyes to move in a jerky pattern, over the page, stopping to let the brain take in information,
and then moving again. These eye fixations constitute the physical process of reading.” (2006, p.
263) What is important is how readers manipulate the information taken in with a fixation, or
“what goes on between the eye and the brain” rather than from the page to the eye.” (Smith,
1988) According to Ruddell (2005), “reading is the act of constructing meaning while transacting
with text. Just as we use information stored in schemata to understand and interact with the
world around us, so do we use this knowledge to make sense of print.” (2005, p. 30) Rosenblatt
(1994) further states that “every reading is an event, or a transaction, involving a particular
reader and a particular pattern of signs, a text and occurring at a particular time in a particular
context. Instead of two fixed entities acting on one another, the reader and the text are two
aspects of a total dynamic situation. The “meaning” does not reside ready-made “in” the text or
“in” the reader, but happens or comes into being during the transaction between reader and text.
(1994, p. 1063). The major difference between reading and academic reading may be explained
accordingly to why one reads. Grellet (1981) defines two main reasons for reading: reading for
pleasure and reading for information (in order to find out something or in order to do something
with the information you get). (1981, p. 4) Pleasure reading, skimming through a newspaper, a
comic strip etc. may be defined as “ just reading” since the reader in this case is not asked to
reproduce the information afterwards, whereas academic reading is usually reading done in
academic subjects during studies, which requires retaining of information, comprehension etc.
Academic reading requires a depth analysis of the written work i.e. full comprehension and is
usually based upon certain deadlines, exam sessions etc. The extent of comprehension further
“marks” students overall success in both oral and written exams. Therefore, practicing the skill
of retrieving information, managing rate and speed and improving comprehension is the key to
overall success in FL or L2 reading. However, as a separate skill that is usually practiced along
with the other skills, reading is usually “neglected” by teachers. Grabe (2009, 2010) concludes
that: “generally, in a second language (L2) or foreign language (FL) learning context, reading
fluency has been ignored.” However, as Anderson (1999) states, “reading is one of the most
important language skills for ensuring students’ success at all educational levels…” (1999, p.56),
by which practicing reading in a foreign language is mandatory. Therefore, reading should be a
skill taught and practiced throughout the whole learning process, and its’ implementation in
language acquisition should be thought of as a primary source in effectively learning a foreign or
second language.
�Reading speed/rate
Apart from neglecting reading in general, most teachers forget to consider reading rate/speed
which are tied to comprehension and overall frustration. Reading rate refers to how much one
has actually read i.e. ones’ experience with written texts, whereas reading speed refers to how
fast one can skim, scan and retain information i.e. how many w.p.m. (words per minute),
“knowing how to read more efficiently and adjusting reading speed to reading task are critical to
this success (Anderson, 1999, p. 56). Therefore, “increasing students’ reading rates makes them
able to devote greater cognitive capacity to comprehension skills” (1999, p.54) and also “as
reading teachers reflect upon the vital role of increasing students’ reading rates, they will be in a
better position to assist students improve their reading skills.” (1999, p. 64) Failure in improving
this issue results in students’ failure to satisfy themselves and also in frustration when foreign
students must succeed in academic subjects: “when they move into content area reading tasks ,
ESL/EFL students benefit from a fluent reading rate, because they will have increased reading
demands”… and “increased reading fluency can also improve performance on standardized
tests.”(1999, p. 56). Nuttall (1996) describes frustration that may be part of slower reading in her
description of the “vicious cycle of the weak reader” (1996, p. 127) In such cases students lack
of reading rate and comprehension skills make reading a very difficult task, due to which
students’ motivation lacks because: “to many second language readers, reading is a suffocating,
slow, process.” (Jensen, 1986) The optimal reading rate-the process of reading is different for
every individual. According to my own personal philosophy and experience, I would divide
students into 3 categories: those that enjoy reading, those that are neutral and those that dislike
reading. For some (1st group), reading is an enjoyable daily activity, a preferable hobby that
amuses them, neutral reading individuals (2nd group) are those which have nothing against
reading , but which do not have a passion for reading either (this group of students when needed
to complete a term paper will actually read the book), and in the last (3rd group) are those that
simply dislike reading and might have never actually read a book (these students won’t read even
when assignments are due and usually fail the course) All these personal feelings are deeply
related to the whole reading process because rather we like or dislike reading, every subject in
schools and universities is “tied” to reading: there’s no difference in between history and
literature field of studies, since both have “readings”. What differs here is the “reading burden.”
While those that read daily need less time to read through a page, those that never read need
more time, and the reading goes slower: “readers who do not understand often slow down their
reading rate and then do not enjoy reading because it takes so much time.” (1999, p. 59). Dubin
& Bycina (1991) state that: “a rate of 200 wpm (words per minute) would appear to be the
absolute minimum in order to read with full comprehension.” (1991, p. 198). On the other hand,
Jensen (1986) suggests that “300 w.p.m. is the optimal rate and recommends that second
language readers seek to “approximate” native speaker reading rates and comprehension levels in
order to keep up with the classmates.” (1986, p. 106). Whether it is 200 or 300 w.p.m. normally
depends on the text, upon familiarity with the vocabulary items and upon students’ interest. If
students are to read a long passage which contains known vocabulary items, it would normally
�take less time to go through, on the contrary, even if a passage was shorter in length, but
contained long, unfamiliar words, it would normally take longer time to go through. If students
lack interest in the reading, then presumably, both hypotheses fail. In short, reading
comprehension in a foreign or second language requires much more then knowing how to read. It
requires a certain interest, a certain speed and certain interaction with text.
Insufficient/inefficient reading rate causes frustration
The main aim of this article is to discuss issues that have a great impact on reading
comprehension, one of which is frustration caused by insufficient reading rate and speed. I
associate frustration caused during exams, during standardized tests etc. and suggest that reading
speed/rate should be relevant factors in the overall reading process. There are cases when our
students fail because we have not taught them how to extract information, how to focus on
relevant information and how to actually deal with written texts. I personally experienced
difficulty to an extent when passing TOEFL, not because I did not understand the texts, but
because they were too many in number and my time limit was too short. This experience made
me think of time-based tasks and activities that would help learners practice their reading skills
and made me aware of the frustration my students had with readings with limited amount of time
upon which the study was conducted. The study participants were 3rd year students of the English
department, a total of 55 of both genders and between the ages of 20-21. The study lasted over a
period of 4 weeks, during which participants were asked to read different passages and texts,
(Appendix 1) with different terminology and length as fast as possible and to answer
comprehension questions afterwards. The students were previously interviewed (Fig.1) as to
whether they believed that time-based reading caused frustration and if the actual meaning of the
text was lost. Students did not believe that timed-reading actually caused any frustration and
were very self-confident at the beginning however, the results obtained were quite different.
Study procedure
Part 1
Q1. Are
you
a
fast
reader?
Q2.
How
much do
you
read?
Q3. How
many
w.p.m.do
you think
you can
read?
Yes 44
Often
23
Don’t
know 23
Q4.
Do
you think
that timedreading
would
cause
frustration?
Yes 10
Q5. Would it
cause
insufficient
comprehension?
Q6.
Would Personal
your focus be assumption
on your speed,
the time or on
comprehending
the text?
Yes 12
Speed 6
�No 11
Rarely
15
Have
No 29
never
thought of
this issue
12
Never
Am
Don’t
17
curious to know 16
know 20
Fig. 1 Whole Class Interview Questions
No 43
Time 14
Comprehension
35
Study procedure part 2
The students were previously informed about the study, were interviewed and lastly tested, in
duration of 4 weeks. Week 1 proved to be a bit difficult in terms of students’ habit-formation
with the drills. The proceeding weeks were easier, enjoyable and proved to be more successful
once students’ clearly understood their role, the task and once I had pointed out time-consuming
factors that resulted in dissatisfaction (mouthing out words, stopping too long at unknown words,
movement of pens, and other distractions).
Students were seated individually and provided with texts. All students began at the same “start”
time and were to read as fast as they could. (Texts were adopted from “Reading power: reading
faster, thinking skills, reading for pleasure, comprehension skills” Mikulecky & Jeffries, 1986,
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. Longman, pgs.201/203, 205/206 etc.).
Instructions were clearly explained. Students had to write the start time and read the passage as
quickly as possible. They had to write down the finish time when they were done reading. Start
time minus finish time equaled students’ wpm time. Calculation of time served as a minor
distraction from text. Students were afterwards required to answer comprehension questions
without referring to the text for help. This served as an instrument to actually “measure” how
much students had understood relevant information and how many correct answers they could
provide.
Study hypothesis concluded
Study hypothesis were based upon previous experience while teaching reading comprehension
skills. The following hypotheses were concluded:
H.1. Practiced reading skills develop better comprehension.
My personal assumptions tied to reading were that the more students read, the better they
comprehended. This assumption stands not only for different texts, but even in content areas
�(imagine how little students know about a subject matter during week 1 of lectures, or even
during their whole first month). Even a whole semester can be frustrating. However, the more
students read, analyze and deepen their personal theory regarding the subject matter, the more
they comprehend and the better their results become. Similarly, practicing reading in e SL or FL
would normally enhance better comprehension and develop vocabulary acquisition. Regarding
my first hypothesis, even during timed-reading, practiced reading skills did develop better
comprehension. Even though texts provided always differed in topic, terminology and length,
students scored better results during week 3 and 4 than they did during week 1 or 2.
H.2. Time-based reading results in higher level of frustration.
During students’ interview, most students had self-confidence regarding their frustration level.
They believed that the matter of time would not at all bother them or their level of
comprehension and even denied focusing on their speed rather than on the text. Others believed
that they could manage both factors. Results obtained afterwards were quite different. Students
proved to be frustrated much more with timed-reading activities than during free reading. Their
focus on their speed de-concentrated them from the actual text, resulting in incorrect answers.
H3.Most students’ current optimal reading average is lower than 200 wpm.
My personal assumption regarding students’ optimal reading average was that they were lower
than 200 wpm was basically because students rarely read. Reading rate and speed depend on
students’ experience with written works, either on paper or on screen. Results provided below in
bold (Fig. 2) show that paper based comprehension scores were in their average, even though 20
out of the total were insufficient readers, 30 were average readers and only 5 were good readers
(the term good reader defines those individuals that can read 400 wpm and can comprehend 80%
of the text). Comprehending only 50% or 60% of the text is not efficient especially when
students’ want higher marks.
Screen
Paper
Comprehension
Reader profile
100 wpm
110 wpm
50% (20/55)
Insufficient
200 wpm
240 wpm
60% (30/55)
Average reader
300 wpm
400 wpm
80% (5/55)
Good reader
700 wpm
1000 wpm
85% (0/55)
Excellent, accomplished reader
Fig.2. A general idea of average reading scores
H4. Reading speed depends on terminology, on text length, and upon the fixation of the eyes and
their movement.
In cases when students lack previous knowledge, when they lack vocabulary and do not
understand terminology in texts, the reading normally becomes slower. Students’ stumble over
�unknown words and trying to comprehend texts the reading becomes frustrating and immensely
slow. When longer length texts are used, some things occur. For starters, students tend to focus
on all the information and usually remember only some; longer length texts might contain more
unknown words than shorter texts and normally have more information to remember. There are
some habits that can also slow down the reading for instance, trying to pronounce words while
reading, mouthing them out, and stopping for a longer period of time on the same word. Students
agreed that results during their second, third and fourth time were better after they had practiced
reading with their eyes and not involving other movements. Their reading speed had normally
undergone improvement to some extent.
Limitations of the study
Throughout the years of reading, research and teaching, I have concluded that our ideology,
point of view and personal theory change. We now think deeper and analyze issues that seemed
unnecessary then. Our personal theory has changed accordingly to our students and to their
expectations i.e. their overall success. I am aware of the fact that the instruments, number of
participants and elaboration might not be enough, though I have tried to be brief and to not over
exaggerate. The texts used, I agree could have been different and covered different topics,
however this was only a first attempt and the study is at its initial phase. Since academic reading
issues are part of my PhD dissertation, I aim at specifically designing other instruments and aim
at including a whole chapter on reading speed and rate and other issues. In spite of everything, I
believe that it will still inspire those that will read it and will provide a scope of information,
experience and contribution.
Conclusion and further recommendations
The focus of this paper was to address the issues of reading rate/ speed and reading
comprehension in a detailed description. It was addressed to learners’ needs and the
improvement of reading comprehension skills, with enhancing the practice of speed. The main
aim was to actually help learners develop the preciseness of reading habit and to make them
aware of certain issues that might affect either positively or negatively their overall scores and
marks. It was especially focused on time-based readings that might be found in national exams,
placement tests, TOEFL etc. and also on overall readings in English in different academic
subjects that were time consuming and frustrating for students. I advise further elaboration of the
issue wherever the English language is taught as an SL or FL.
�References
Anderson, N. (1999). Exploring second language reading: Issues and strategies. Heinle & Heinle
Publishers, An international Thomson Publishing Company.
Dubin, F., and D. Bycina 1991. Academic reading and the ESL/EFL teacher. In M. Celce-Murcia
(ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (2nd ed.). New York: Newbury House,
195-215.
Grabe, W. (2009). Reading in a second language: Moving from theory to practice. New York,
NY: Cambridge University Press.
Grabe, W. (2010). Fluency in reading—Thirty-five years later. Reading in a Foreign Language,
22, 71–83.
Grellet, F. 1981. Developing Reading Skills. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jensen, L. (1986). Advanced reading skills in a comprehensive course. In F. Dubin, D. E. Eskey,
and Grabe (eds.). Teaching second language reading for academic purposes. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 103-124.
Mikulecky, B. S., Jeffries, L. (1996). More reading power. Reading for pleasure, comprehension
skills thinking skills, reading faster. Addison- Wesley Publishing Company. Longman.
Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language (new edition). Oxford:
Heinemann.
Richardson, J. S., Morgan, Ch. R., Fleener, Ch., (2006). “ Reading to learn in the content areas”.
Thomson Wadsworth, 6th edition.
Ruddell, M. R., (2005). Teaching content reading and writing. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Rosenblatt, L. M. (1994). The transactional theory of reading and writing. In R.R. Rudell, M.R.
Ruddell, & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (4th ed.) (pp.10571092). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Smith, F., (1988). Understanding reading: A psycholinguistic analysis of reading and learning to
read. (4th edition), Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum.
Appendix
Note: The following text serves only as an example of similar texts that were used for the study.
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Extent
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2951
Title
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EFL ACADEMIC READING ISSUES: MANAGING READING RATE/SPEED FRUSTRATION AND COMPREHENDING TEXTS
Author
Author
Miftari, Igballe
Abstract
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An issue that until recently has been “irrelevant” for me personally and for many other English teachers, is the issue of reading rate/speed. I presumably believe that most teachers have never thought of this issue because of limited time for classroom instruction or simply because as teachers, the level of reading and preparation for classroom instruction is usually plenty. EFL academic reading however, involves reading different materials in different subjects and courses and being able to “interact” with them. The issue of interacting with books and texts depends a great deal on the level of comprehension. At university studies, students are overloaded with different materials and deadlines that are in fact frustrating. Students are obliged to read “thick books” in different academic subjects and courses and are over-flooded with known and unknown terminology, both scientific and professional in the specific field of study. They now must get the most out of books and must perfectly understand course books in order to pass exams and gain overall success. For such reasons, students either learn to read faster or don’t read at all. According to Anderson (1999) “knowing how to read more efficiently and adjusting reading speed to reading task are critical to this success. (1999:56). Therefore, “increasing students’ reading rates makes them able to devote greater cognitive capacity to comprehension skills” (1999:54). The study aims at testing students’ overall comprehension skills using timed-reading activities and questionnaires over a period of 4 weeks (12 instruction hours). It will be conducted with 3 and 4 year students of the English department during their English reading instruction classes. Other matters of study will be students’ anxiety, frustration, previous experience with reading, motivation etc.
Publisher
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International Burch University
Date
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2015
Keywords
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Article
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)