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IZVORNI NAUČNI RAD
Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača izazov za nacionalne zakonodavce
Transposition of the Directive 2011/83/EU on consumer
rights - A challenge to national legislators
Dr. sc. Anita Petrović
Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli, docent
e-mail: anita.petrovic@untz.ba
Sažetak: U oblasti europskog ugovornog prava, pravno
područje najviše zahvaćeno procesom harmonizacije, a
slijedom toga i procesom revizije jeste oblast zaštite
potrošača. To iz razloga što se u posljednjih nekoliko
desetljeća
najintenzivnija
legislativna
djelatnost
manifestirala u donošenju potrošačkih direktiva.
Implementacijom istih države članice su prepoznale priliku
vlastitog ekonomskog prosperiteta, s obzirom da je
unapređenje trgovinske razmjene jedino moguće ukoliko
potrošači uživaju ista prava bez obzira gdje na teritoriji
Europske unije sklapaju ugovore.
Pažnja ovog rada usmjerena je na novi horizontalni
instrument europskog prava zaštite potrošača, Direktivu
2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača. Direktiva 2011/83/EU
predstavlja pionirski korak na putu izgradnje koherentnog
europskog prava zaštite potrošača, te u tom svjetlu ukazat
će se na problemska pitanja koja se javljaju u postupku
harmonizacije propisa država članica sa Direktivom
2011/83/EU, imajući u vidu klauzulu maksimalne
harmonizacije. Također, kritički će se razmotriti i proces
harmonizacije pozitivnih propisa sa pravnom stečevinom u
oblasti zaštite potrošača.
Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1
Keywords: Consumer protection,
harmonization, Directive
2011/83/EU.
JEL Classification: K12, K39
http://dx.doi.org/
10.14706/DO15215
Article History
Submitted: 29.05.2014.
Resubmited: 18.11.2014.
Accepted: 23.01.2015.
109
�Dr. sc. Anita Petrović
Abstract: In the area of European contract law legal area
most affected by the process of harmonization, and
consequently the process of revision is the area of consumer
protection. Because in the last few decades most intense
legislative activity is manifested in the adoption of consumer
directives. Transposing consumer directives member states have
recognized the opportunity of their own economic development,
since the improvement of trade is only possible if consumers
enjoy the same rights no matter where in the territory of the
European Union conclude contracts.
This paper is focused on new horizontal instrument of
European consumer law, Directive 2011/83/EU on consumer
rights. Directive 2011/83/EU is a pioneering step towards
building a coherent European consumer protection law, and in
this light will be indicated the problem questions that arise in
the process of harmonization of regulation Member States with
Directive 2011/83/EU, keeping in mind the maximum
harmonization clause. Also critically will be considered the
process of harmonization of positive legislation with the Acquis
in the field of consumer protection.
110
Keywords: Consumer protection,
harmonization, Directive
2011/83/EU.
JEL Classification: K12, K39
http://dx.doi.org/
10.14706/DO15215
Article History
Submitted: 29.05.2014.
Resubmited: 18.11.2014.
Accepted: 23.01.2015.
Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu
�Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne
zakonodavce
1. Uvod
Unutarnje tržište Europske unije (dalje: EU, Unija) još uvijek počiva na
divergentnim pravnim sistemima država članica, što se u kontekstu ekonomske
integracije i realizacije proklamiranih gospodarskih sloboda, slobode kretanja roba i
usluga smatra bitnom preprekom. U svim svojim segmentima unutarnje tržište treba
funkcionirati kao nacionalno, i mada se već duže vrijeme provodi proces
harmonizacije propisa država članica, što je posebice evidentno u oblasti prava zaštite
potrošača, ipak ovaj proces nije rezultirao potpunim ujednačavanjem pravnog okvira
na razini EU.1 Mozaik nacionalnih propisa kojima se reguliraju ugovorni odnosi
implicira niz negativnih posljedica na razvoj prekogranične trgovine, to posebno ako
se ima u vidu da na unutarnjem tržištu djeluje oko 500 mil potrošača, a krajnja
potrošnja čini oko 56% GDP EU.2 Stoga ne iznenđuje činjenica da se
najintenzivnija legilsativna djelatnost u smislu harmonizacije propisa odvija u oblasti
zaštite potrošača, jer u tome su države članice prepoznale priliku svog ekonomskog
rasta i razvoja. Različiti nacionalni propisi u znatnoj mjeri povećavaju troškove
poslovanja, stvaraju pravnu nesigurnost, a kod potrošača izazivaju nepovjerenje.3
Mnogi razlozi zašto harmonizacija propisa koja se u oblasti zaštite potrošača
provodi od sredine 80-tih godina do danas nije polučila željene rezultate, čak vice
versa unutarnje tržište je rascjepkano divergentnim propisima država članica, mogu
se svesti na zajdnički nazivnik, a to su potrošačke direktive temeljene na klauzuli
minimalne harmonizacije.4 Primjena načela minimalne usklađenosti nije rezultirala
stvaranjem potpuno unificiranog sistema zaštite potrošača na razini EU,5 već
stvaranjem zajedničkog okvira minimalne zaštite potrošača, gdje se pravne razlike ne
uklanjaju već samo minimaliziraju tako da ne ometaju funkcioniranje unutarnjeg
1
V.: S. Weatherill, Why Harmonise?, in: T. Tridimas, P. Nebbia, (ed.) European Union Law for the
Twenty-First Century, Hart Publishing, Oxford and Portland Oregon, 2004., 11-33.
2
A European Consumer Agenda-Boosting confidence and growth, Brussels, 22.5.2012 COM(2012) 225
final.
3
Green Paper from the Commission on policy options for progress towards a European Contract Law for
consumers and businesses, COM(2010) 348 final, Brussels, 1.7.2010., 4-6.
4
O ostalim razlozima koji su detrminirali otpočinjanje procesa revizije europskog prava ugovora cfr.: E.
McKendrick, E., Harmonisation of European Contract Law: The State We Are In, in: S. Vogenauer, S.
Weatherill, (ed.), The harmonisation of European Contract Law, Implications for European Private Laws,
Business and Legal Practice, Hart Publishing, Oxford and Portland, Oregon, 2006., 14-19.
5
S. Jelinić, D. Akšamović, Ugovorno pravo Europske unije na prekretnici, Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta u
Zagrebu, 60-1/2010, 214.
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�Dr. sc. Anita Petrović
tržišta.6 Drugim riječima, na jedinstvenom tržištu ne postoje jedinstvena pravila, zato
što države imaju slobodu da prilikom transponiranja direktive odstupe od njenog
sadržaja, već upravo suprotno stvoreno je toliko harmoniziranih, a ipak različitih
pravnih područja koliko EU ima članica.7 Sektorski pristup harmonizaciji, budući da
su potrošačke direktive usvajane kao ad hoc odgovori na konkretne barijere slobodi
kretanja roba i usluga bez naročite sistematike i međusobne konzistentnosti, kao i
prethodno spomenuti problem klauzule minimalne usklađenosti, implicirali su proces
revizije consumer acquisa8 i postavljanje novog kursa u daljem razvoju prava zaštite
potrošača koncem 2000-tih godina.9 Taj zaokret predstavljaju direktive nove
generacije koje se temelje na klauzuli ciljane maksimalne harmonizacije,10 no rezultat
6
Minimalna harmonizacija omogućava stvaranje različitih sistema zaštite potrošača, stoga potrošači ne
mogu biti sigurni da li će im nivo zaštite koji uživaju u svojoj zemlji, biti osiguran ukoliko kupuju
negdje drugo na području EU. Ova nesigurnost u „jednaka prava“ implicira nepovjerenje potrošača u
prekogranične transakcije i samim tim zadržava ih u „sigurnim“ granicama nacionalnih tržišta. Stoga, za
europske potrošače najidealnije bi bilo kada bi se moglo reći „wherever you are in the EU or wherever you
buy from it makes no difference: your essential rights are the same.“ V.: Green Peper on the Review of the
Consumer Acquis, COM(2006), 744 fin., 3.
7
Sloboda koja je ostavljena državama članicama prilikom transponiranja odredaba direktiva minimalne
harmonizacije dovela je do stvaranja tzv. „sivih pravnih područja.“ C. Twigg-Flesner, The
Europeanization of Contract Law: Current controversies in law, Routledge-Cavedish, London & New
York, 2008., 105.
8
Proces revizije je usmjeren na osuvremenjavanje postojećih potrošačkih direktiva, na način da se
pojednostavi i unaprijedi pravni okvir za oba subjekta, poduzetnika i potrošača, te unaprijedi stupanj
zaštite potrošača. Revizijom je bilo obuhvaćeno 8 ključnih potrošačkih direktiva, no sama revizija nije
donijela očekivane rezultate, o čemu najbolje svjedoči i sama Direktiva 2011/83/EU. V.: Green Paper
on the Review of the Consumer Acquis, 4. O reperkusijama, koje je Zelena knjiga polučila na reviziju
consumer acquisa opširnije: Z. Meškić, Harmonizacija Evropskog potrošačkog prava – Zelena knjiga 2007.
godine i Nacrt zajedničkog referentnog okvira, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Splitu, 3/2009, 543569.; E. Čikara, Novosti u razvoju europskog prva zaštite potrošača-Osvrt na Zelenu knjigu o reviziji pravne
stečevine na području zaštite potrošača Europske zajednice, Hrvatska pravna revija, VIII:1/2008, 60-70.;
C. Poncibò, The Challenges of EC Consumer Law, European Univerity Institute Working paper Max
Weber Programme No. 2007/24, 5-9., http://ssrn.com/abstract=1028218, 12.03.2013.
9
V.: J. Karsten, G. Petri, Towards a Handbook on European Contract Law and Beyond: The Commission’s
2004 Communication ‘‘European Contract Law and the Revision of the Acquis:The Way Forward“, Journal
of Consumer Policy, 28/2005, 32-33.
10
Prva direktiva zasnovana na principu maksimalne harmonizacije jeste Direktiva 2002/65/EZ o
marketingu financijskih usluga na daljinu (Directive 2002/65/EC of 23 September 2002 concerning
distance marketing of consumer financial services and amending Directive 90/619/EEC and Directives
97/7/EC and 98/27/EC, OJ L 271/16/02), potom Direktiva 2005/29/EZ o nepoštenoj poslovnoj praksi
(Directive 2005/29/EC of 11 May 2005 concerning unfair business-to-consumer commercial practices in the
internal market and amending Council Directive 84/450/EEC, L 149/22), Direktiva 2008/48/EZ o
ugovorima o potrošačkom kreditu (Directive 2008/48/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council
112
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�Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne
zakonodavce
koji je privukao najviše pažnje jeste Direktiva 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača11
(dalje: Direktiva 2011/83/EU).
2. Transponiranje
Direktive
2011/83/EU
u
nacionalna
zakonodavstva
a) Razlozi za usvajanje prve horizontalne direktive
Antagonizam između pravnih propisa iz područja zaštite potrošača,12 koje su
država članica usvajale tijekom više decenijskog perioda, konačno bi trebao biti
otklonjen. Fragmentaran pravni okvir, dodatno pogoršan primjenom klauzule
minimalne harmonizacije nije pogodovao poslovnim subjektima, a još manje
potrošačima. To iz razloga što je poduzetnicima koji žele trgovati prekogranično
iziskivao troškove usaglašavanja propisa, a potrošačima nije davao dovoljan stupanj
sigurnosti i povjerenja u prekogranične transakcije. Poduzetnici koji žele trgovati na
tržištima drugih država članica izloženi su dodatnim troškovima koji poskupljuju
proizvode i samim tim umanjuju njihovu konkurentnost. S druge strane, nizak nivo
povjerenja u kupovinu preko granice impliciran je činjenicom da potrošači nisu
upoznati sa svojim pravima u drugoj državi i smatraju da je ista teško ostvariti u
praksi.13 Troškovi poslovanja i nepovjerenje potrošača ocijenjeni su kao ključni
razlozi koji sprečavaju da unutarnje tržište zaživi u svom punom opsegu. Nova
Direktiva 2011/83/EU ima za cilj postojeći nekonzistentni i rascjepkani consumer
acquis transformirati u jedinstven i unificiran sistem pravila, koji će svojom
koherentnošću pomoći tržišnim akterima da što bolje koriste potencijal unutarnjeg
tržišta. Ovim pravnim aktom otpočeo je proces moderniziranja europskog prava
zaštite potrošača na potpuno nov, sistematiziran i sveobuhvatan način.
of 23 April 2008 on credit agreements for consumers and repealing Council Directive 87/102/EEC, OJ L
133) i dr.
11
Directive 2011/83/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council on consumer rights, amending
Council Directive 93/13/EEC and Directive 1999/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council
and repealing Council Directive 85/577/EEC and Directive 97/7/EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council, 25 October 2011, OJ [2011] L 304/64, 22 November 2011.
12
N., Reich., Crisis or Future of European Consumer Law, in: D. Parry, A., Nordhausen, G., Howells,
C., Twigg-Flesner, C., (ed.), The Yearbook of Consumer Law 2009, Ashgate Publishing, 2008., 40.
13
V.: Flash Eurobarometer No. 299, Consumer attitudes towards cross-border trade and consumer
protection, March 2011, 6., http://ec.europa.eu/ consumers/ strategy/ docs/ consumer
eurobarometer2011en.pdf, 14.04.2014.
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Najadekvatniji način za otklanjanje ovih barijera predstavljen je u formi
horizontalne Direktive 2011/83/EU temeljene na klauzuli ciljane maksimalne
harmonizaciji. Horizontalna harmonizacija podrazumijeva usvajanje okvirnog akta u
kojem su integrirane sve zajedničke i opće odredbe sadržane u većini potrošačkih
direktiva, pritom niti jedno konkretno pitanje koje je predmet normiranja neke
posebne direktive ne bi bilo uključeno. Horizontalna direktiva predstavlja potpuni
novum u oblasti zaštite potrošača,14 jer sve direktive iz područja zaštite potrošača
imaju karakter vertikalnih mjera. Pored toga, potrošačke direktive trpile su i
prigovore međusobne nekonzistentnosti kada su u pitanju ključni pojmovi, što se čak
javljalo i unutar iste direktive,15 kao i to da predmetno polje primjene direktive
obuhvaća vrlo usko pravno pitanje (primjerice određeni ugovor, ili čak samo jedan
aspekt nekog ugovora ili nekog drugog pravnog instituta), odnosno strogo su
funkcionalno orjentirane.16
Za razliku od Prijedloga Direktive 2011/83/EU iz 2008. godine,17 koji je
trebao promijeniti i sjediniti sadržaje četiri potrošačke direktive, Direktiva
14
U naučnim krugovima javljaju se mnoge nedoumice vezano za primjenu horizontalne direktive u
praksi, kao i to da li se toliko željena puna usklađenost divergentnih pravnih propisa može postići
direktivom kao pravnim aktom, jer puno adekvatniji instrument bila bi uredba. Nadalje, kako će se ova
direktiva uklopiti u postojeći komunitarni poredak, odnosno kakav će odnos imati naspram drugih
direktiva iz oblasti ugovornog prava. V.: M., Loos, Full harmonisation as a regulatory concept and its
consequences for the national legal orders: The example of the Consumer rights directive, Centre for the
Study of European Contract Law, Working Paper Series,
No. 2010/3, 3.,
http://ssrn.com/abstract=1639436, 14.04.2014.
15
Problem nekonzistentnosti sadržaja potrošačkih direktiva, te poteškoće koje su se neminovno javljale
prilikom transponiranja njihovih odredaba u pravne sisteme država-članica, bili su predmet istraživanja
posebnog znanstvenog projekta, kojeg je Europska komisija povjerila međunarodnoj skupini pravnih
eksperata, a kao rezultat čega je nastala studija pod nazivom „EC Consumer Law Compendium“ (dalje:
EC Compendium). Nekonzistentnost je najbolje uočljiva kod pojmova potrošač (consumer) i trgovac
(business), zati trajanja i računanja prava na bezrazložni raskid ugovora (right of withdrawal), kao i
dužnosti informiranja (information duties) V.: H., Schulte-Nölke, C., Twigg-Flesner, M., Ebers, (ed.),
EC Consumer Law Compendium, The Consumer Acquis and its transposition in the Member State, Sellier,
Munich, 2008.
16
Cfr.: D., Staudenmayer, The Place of Consumer Contract Law Within the Process on European Contract
Law, Journal of Consumer Policy, 27/2004, 270-271.; Slično i: T., Josipović, Izazovi harmonizacije
građanskog prava putem direktiva, Forum za građansko pravo za jugoistočnu Europu, Izbor radova i
analiza Prva regionalna konferencija, Cavtat, 2010., Knjiga I, Beograd 2010., 291-296.
17
Naime, određeni autori Prijedlog direktive su vidjeli kao idealnu podlogu za donošenje onog što se u
znanstvenoj javnosti često naziva Europski zakonik prava potrošača (European Code of Consumer
Rights). Tako, u narednih 10 do 15 godina Direktiva o pravima potrošača na sveobuhvatan način će
regulirati sve potrošačke ugovore. Istovremeno, potrošači će se u tolikoj mjeri navići na takav oblik
zaštite, da će Komisiji postati sasvim racionalno da umjesto Direktive o pravima potrošača predloži
114
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�Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne
zakonodavce
2011/83/EU derogira samo Direktivu 85/577/EEZ o ugovorima sklopljenim izvan
poslovnih prostorija, i Direktivu 97/7/EZ o ugovorima sklopljenim na daljinu, dok u
određenoj mjeri revidira Direktivu 93/13/EEZ o nepoštenim ugovornim odredbama u
potrošačkim ugovorima, te Direktivu 99/44/EZ o prodaji potrošačke robe i povezanim
garancijama. Direktiva 2011/83/EU sastoji se iz dva dijela, općeg ili uvodnog, te
posebnog. U uvodnom dijelu sadržana su opća i zajednička načela, te definicije
ključnih potrošačkih pojmova koji su dijelom postojećih direktiva koje ovaj
instrument zamjenjuje ili dopunjava, dok u posebnom dijelu regulirane su pojedine
vrste ugovora, koji su nekad bile predmet regulacije posebnih direktiva. Pravni
pojmovi i instituti koji su zajednički svim potrošačkim direktivama prvo su
apstrahiran, a potom jednoznačno integrirani u novi dokument.
Nesporno je da Direktiva 2011/83/EU po prvi put uvodi jedinstvene
zajedničke definicije osnovnih potrošačkih pojmova, zatim sadrži iscrpna pravila o
obavezi predugovornog informiranja potrošača, o jednostranom bezrazložnom
raskidu i posljedicama, o mjerama koje trebaju spriječiti prikrivene terete za
potrošača, no činjenica da se navedeno primjenjuje samo na dvije vrste B2C (business
to consumer) ugovora umanjuje značaj koji je Direktiva 2011/83/EU trebala imati u
procesu ujednačavanja prava zaštite potrošača. No, ipak iz same strukture Direktive
2011/83/EU donekle se može nazrijeti intencija europskog zakonodavca, a to je da
Direktiva 2011/83/EU predstavlja dobru polaznu točku za buduće aktivnosti u
pravcu stvaranja jedinstvenog ugovornog prava zaštite potrošača. Ovo iz razloga što
struktura Direktive 2011/83/EU dozvoljava da se vremenom interpoliraju i ostali
segmenti potrošačkog acquisa, a da se pritom ne izgubi ratio. Na taj način bi
postepeno došlo do diferenciranja sadržaja, koji bi bio podijeljen na dva dijela, opći i
posebni. Jedinstvene, konzistentne definicije i zajedničko pravo na informiranje
potrošača i jednostrani bezrazložni raskid bi vremenom poprimili izgled općeg dijela
potrošačkog ugovornog prava, dok bi posebni dio činili različiti modaliteti
potrošačkih ugovora.18
Iako je ova horizontalna direktiva u znatnoj mjeri trebala doprinijeti
smanjivanju ukupne građe consumer acquisa i lakšoj preglednosti ove opsežne
Uredbu o pravima potrošača, a time bi izravno na snazi bio Europski potrošački zakonik. O tome: M.
W., Hesselink, The Consumer Rights Directive and the CFR: two worlds apart?, 5(3) ERCL 2009, 5-7.;
Slično i: N., Reich, A European Contract Law, or an EU Contract Law Regulation for Consumers?, Journal
of Consumer Policy, 28/2005, 398-403.
18
V.: Z., Meškić., Direktiva 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača od 25. oktobra 2011. godine, Sl. list EU
2011, L 304/64, Nova pravna revija, 1/2012., 48.
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�Dr. sc. Anita Petrović
materije, to se ipak nije dogodilo, budući da je van snage stavila samo dvije direktive.
S druge, pak, strane Direktiva 2011/83/EU je otklonila postojeće terminološke
probleme i ponudila jednoznačne definicije ključnih potrošačkih pojmova, zatim
izbjegnuto je višestruko a različito reguliranje određenih prava potrošača, te došlo je
do modernizacije određenih pravnih rješenja kako bi se uhvatio korak s razvojem
novih tehnologija. Iz tog razloga se i smatra da je horizontalni instrument najbolji
način da se reguliraju zajednički aspekti prava potrošača, kao i to da se pojednostave i
ažuriraju postojeći propisi, otklone neujednačenosti i popune praznine.
b) Ciljana maksimalna harmonizacija i njezine posljedice
Ciljana maksimalna harmonizacija19 znači da se potpuna usklađenost
pravnih propisa odnosi samo na određene, ključne aspekte potrošačkog acquisa,
odnosno države članice prilikom transponiranja direktive ne smiju odstupiti od
odredbi koje su „pogođene“ maksimalnom harmonizacijom, u smislu usvajanja i
zadržavanja strožijih mjera zaštite potrošača.20 Ciljana maksimalna harmonizacija
predstavlja svojevrsnu simbiozu između minimalne harmonizacije, gdje države imaju
slobodu transponiranja i maksimalne harmonizacije gdje je ta sloboda isključena, na
način da je maksimalna harmonizacija ublažena ciljanjem samo na određena pitanja
koja se usklađuju.21
Iako bi maksimalna usklađenost trebala obuhvatiti samo određene, ciljane
aspekte ugovornog odnosa, ipak iz analize Direktive 2011/83/EU evidentno je da su
obuhvaćeni gotovo svi segmenti predmetnih ugovora. Iz tog razloga skoro da se i ne
može govoriti o ciljanoj, nego samo o punoj harmonizaciji, ili još slikovitije rečeno
Direktiva 2011/83/EU više cilja na punu harmonizaciju, nego što stremi ciljanoj
harmonizaciji.22 Međutim, sama Direktiva 2011/83/EU predviđa niz odstupanja od
19
Izraz „ciljana maksimalna harmonizacija“, Komisija je počela prvi put upotrebljavati u svom Izvještaju
o Zelenoj knjizi o reviziji pravne stečevine (Report on the Green Paper on the Review of the Consumer
Acquis, OJ 2008 C 187/E231).
20
Princip ciljane maksimalne harmonizacije reguliran je odredbom člana 4. Direktive 2011/83/EU, što
znači da „države-članice ne smiju zadržati ili propisati u svom nacionalnom pravu, odredbe koje odstupaju
od onih propisanih u ovoj Direktivi, uključujući manje ili više striktne odredbe da se osigura različit nivo
zaštite potrošača.“
21
V.: E., Mišćenić, Usklađivanje prava zaštite potrošača u Republici Hrvatskoj, Godišnjak Akademije
pravnih znanosti Hrvatske, 1/2013, .
22
V.: G., Howells, R., Schulze, Overview of the Proposed Consumer Rights Directive, in: G., Howells, R.,
Schulze (eds.), Modernising and Harmonising Consumer Contract Law, Sellier, European law publishers,
Munich, 2009., 24.
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zakonodavce
principa maksimalne harmonizacije, tako primjerice dozvoljava se državama
članicama da reduciraju polje primjene,23 zatim da u određenim slučajevima pruže
veći stupanj zaštite potrošačima, kao i to da pojedine odredbe nisu obavezne
inkorporirati u svoj pravni sistem. Iz čega proizlazi da načelo maksimalne
harmonizacije ipak trpi niz odstupanja i da načelo minimalne harmonizacije nije u
potpunosti nestalo.24
Odlučujuća činjenica koja je generirala primjenu načela maksimalne
harmonizacije jeste nedovoljno iskorišten potencijal prekogranične elektronske
trgovine. 25 U posljednjih par godina unutarnja distanciona prodaja bilježi svoj rast,
dok se to isto ne može reći kada su u pitanju prekogranične transakcije.26 Međutim,
pored razloga navedenih u preambuli Direktive 2011/83/EU koji opravdavaju punu
harmonizaciju, treba uzeti u obzir i praktične posljedice koje će ovaj nivo
harmonizacije implicirati na nacionalna zakonodavstva.27 Drugim riječima, kako će
puna usklađenost propisa u oblasti potrošačkih ugovora utjecati na dalji razvoj
ugovornog prava država članica, posebice ako se zna da su određene države članice
23
Tako primjerice, države članice mogu odlučiti ne primijeniti, zadržati postojeće ili uvesti nove
odredbe vezano za vrijednost ugovora zaključenog izvan poslovnih prostorija trgovca, budući da se
odredba člana 3., stav 4. Direktive 2011/83/EU neće primjenjivati ako vrijednost ugovora ne prelazi 50
€. Nadalje, odredbom člana 5. propisana je lista informacija koje trgovac mora pružiti potrošaču u
predugovornom stadiju, a koja se odnosi na sve ugovore o prodaji robe ili pružanju usluga, pri tome u
stavu 4., navodi se da države-članice mogu proširiti ovu listu informacija. Odredba člana 7., propisuje
formalne zahtjeve koji moraju biti zadovoljeni kod ugovora sklopljenih izvan poslovnih prostorija, dok
države-članice imaju mogućnosti da stav 4. navedene odredbe uopće ne transponiraju u svoje
zakonodavstvo.
24
O prednostima i nedostatcima primjene principa minimalne, odnosno maksimalne harmonizacije
kroz analizu slučajeva iz prakse ESP vidi: G., Howells, N., Reich, The current limits of European
harmonisation in consumer contract law, ERA Forum, 2010.
25
V.: točku 7. preambule Direktive 2011/83/EU.
26
Kada se radi o prekograničnom sklapanju ugovora svega 25% Europljana je u 2007. godini zaključilo
ovakvu transakciju. Pritom, ove transakcije se najčešće sklapaju neposrednim kontaktom između
trgovca i potrošača (face-to-face), i to za vrijeme odmora i poslovnih putovanja (70%), organiziranih
shopping tura (36%) i sl. U posljednje vrijeme distancioni ugovori zaključeni putem interneta, pošte,
telefona i sl., sve više zauzimaju mjesto kod EU populacije. Tako, u 2008. godini 33% Europljana je
obavilo kupovinu putem interneta, 28% posredstvom pošte, 16% putem telefona, 9% Europljana je
zaključilo ugovor na kućnom pragu. Međutim, značajno je istaći da većina distancionih ugovora ipak
ima tuzemni karakter (30%), odnosno prekogranična distanciona trgovina javlja se tek uzgredno (7%).
V.: European Commision, Special Eurobarometer 298, Consumer protection in the Internal Market,
October 2008., 4., http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_298_en.pdf, 13.10.2013.
27
Cfr.: J., Smits, Full Harmonization of Consumer Law? A Critique of the Draft Directive on Consumer
Rights, European Review of Private Law, 1/2010, 8–10.
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potrošački acquis inkorporirale u svoje građanske kodifikacije, koje su iz tog razloga
već bile podvrgnute procesu modernizacije?28
Odnos između Direktive 2011/83/EU i nacionalnih pripisa može se
analizirati sa dva aspekta. Prvi aspket, jeste odgovor na pitanje koje je sve propis
potrebno ukinuti da bi se udovoljilo zahtjevu pune harmonizacije? Drugi aspekt,
jeste odgovor na pitanje da li će puna harmonizacija imati „efekat preljevanja“,
odnosno da li će njome biti zahvaćene i one oblasti prava, koje direktno ne ulaze u
predmetno polje primjene Direktive 2011/83/EU?29
No, jedno je sigurno Direktiva 2011/83/EZ će na određeni način doprinijeti
europeizaciji ugovornog prava, dok razlozi koji opravdavaju princip pune
harmonizacije, a koje je Europska komisija navela nakon ispitivanja javnog mnijenja,
su samo iluzija, jer nivo pravne sigurnosti koji se proklamira neće biti povećan, već će
zasigurno biti smanjen.30 Zato što većina država članica zahvaljujući principu
minimalne harmonizacije svojim potrošačima je pružala veću razinu zaštite nego što
to sada predviđa Direktiva 2011/83/EU.31 Jedina sigurnost koju će potrošači imati
jeste to što će se isti korpus pravila primjenjivati svugdje na području EU, dakle, bez
obzira na mjesto sklapanja ugovora. Na taj način eliminirana je glavna prepreka
prekograničnoj trgovini i nepovjerenju potrošača. Potpuna harmonizacija će značiti
kraj pravnom eksperimentiranju nacionalnih zakonodavaca, s tim da izraz
eksperimentiranje ovdje nema negativnu konotaciju kao što to ima pravna
28
Za države članice obaveza implementacije određenog normativnog akta nameće obavezu izbora
adekvatnog modela implementacije, odnosno da li sadržaj primjerice određene direktive inkorporirati u
postojeću kodifikaciju građanskog prava, ili opredijeliti se za usvajanje novog zakona (lex specialis).
Države članice da bi uskladile svoje propise sa komunitarnim aktima, a pri tome očuvale koherentnost
pravnog sistema, odnosno spriječile pojavu kontradiktornih rješenja povodom istih pravnih problema,
najčešće pristupaju temeljitim pravnim reformama. Najbolji primjer za to je izmjena njemačkog
Građanskog zakonika iz 2002. godine (Gesetz zur Modernisierung des Schuldrechts, 26. 11. 2001. (BGBl.
I S 3138), zatim noveliranje nizozemskog Građanskog zakonika iz 1992. godine (Burgerlijk Wetboek)
Međutim, usvajanje velikog broja komunitarnih akata u vrlo kratkom periodu, ukazuje na to da se
legislativne reforme vremenom pretvaraju u začarani krug. Cfr.: M. W., Hesselink, The New European
Private Law: Essays on the Future of Private Law in Europe, Kluwer Law International, 2002., 37-42.; S.,
Vogenauer, S., Weatherill, 71-83.
29
G., Howells, R., Schulze (2009), 41.; M., Loos, (2010), 15-16.
30
O implikacijama i poteškoćama s kojim će se susresti nacionalni zakonodavci prilikom i nakon
transponiranja Direktive 2011/83/EU detaljnije vidi i kod.: H. G. Howells, R., Schulze R. (2009), 5661.
31
V.: H. W., Micklitz, N., Reich, N., Crónica de una Muerte Anunciada: The Commission Proposal for a
"Directive on Consumer Rights", Common Market Law Review, 46/2009.
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fragmentacija koja nastaje kao njegov rezultat.32 Ujednačena, iako evidentno
smanjena razina zaštite potrošača, zasigurno će u velikoj mjeri pogodovati
poduzetnicima jer iako se radi o imperativnim propisima postoje mnoge pravne
praznine, koje će poduzetnici iskoristiti u svojim općim uvjetima poslovanja koji će
sada biti identičnim za cijelo tržište EU kako bi sebi osigurali ekstra profit.33
c) Problem izbora adekvatnog modela implementacije
Bez obzira na to što Direktiva 2011/83/EU nije ispunila očekivanja
projicirana nizom programskih akata koje je Europska komisija donosila posljednjih
desetak godina, ipak ne smiju se zanemariti reperkusije koje će nova Direktiva
2011/83/EU proizvesti nakon što države članice transponiraju njen sadržaja, budući
da je taj rok istekao 2013. godine.
Velike razlike u pravnim režimima zaštite potrošača ocijenjene su glavnom
preprekom za efikasno funkcioniranje unutarnjeg tržišta, a da bi se ostvarilo
jedinstvo pravnog režima izabrana je maksimalna harmonizacija.34 Primjena klauzule
maksimalne harmonizacije znači da će sada određene države članice morati sniziti
stupanj zaštite koji su osiguravale svojim potrošačima, dok će neke tu razinu podići.
U većini slučajeve države članice su pribjegavale usvajanju izuzetno strogih mjera
zaštite potrošača svaki put kada bi direktiva minimalne harmonizacije šutila o
određenom pitanju. Iako će nivo zaštite koji europski potrošači uživaju od sada biti
isti za sve fizičke osobe koje djeluju na unutarnjem tržištu, mnogo kompleksnije
32
Prema: G., Howells, R., Schulze R., (2009), 77.
Cfr.: V., Mak, Review of the Consumer Acquis – Towards Maximum Harmonisation?, TICOM,
Working paper No. 2008/6, August 2008, 12-13., http://ssrn.com/abstract=1237011, 20.04.2013.
34
Potrošačke organizacije nisu iskazale oduševljenje zbog primjene klauzule maksimalne harmonizacije,
već su svoju naklonost usmjerile mješovitom pristupu implementacije. Iz perspektive potrošača
maksimalna harmonizacija je poželjna samo ukoliko se istom osigurava izuzetno visok stupanj zaštite, a
to je jedino moguće kada su u pitanju odredbe procesnog karaktera, zatim kada se radi o pojmovima
koji se provlače kroz sve potrošačke direktive, kao što su primjerice definicije potrošač, trgovac, trajni
medij i sl., zatim u pogledu pitanja tzv. „tehničke prirode“ poput dužine roka za jednostrani bezrazložni
raskid ugovora. S druge strane, određene potrošačke oblasti bi trebale i dalje biti podvrgnute principu
minimalne harmonizacije, to se posebice odnosi na nepoštene ugovorne odredbe, odgovornost za
nedostatke na proizvodu, garancije i sl. O tome detaljnije v. istraživanje provedeno od strane Gallup
organizacije, na zahtjev DG HCP objavljeno u Special Eurobarometer, Business attitudes towards crossborder
sales
and
consumer
protection,
July
2008,
No
224,
20-28.,
http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/flash /fl_224_en.pdf, kao i reakciju organizacije za zaštitu potrošača
BEUC na Prijedlog direktive o pravima potrošača dostupnu na www.beuc.eu., 10.03.2014.
33
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pitanje tiče se samog izbora adekvatnog metoda implementacije Direktive
2011/83/EU u nacionalna zakonodavstva.
Izbor odgovarajuće normativne tehnike naročito je pogodio one države
članice koje su potrošački acquis ugradile u svoje građanske kodifikacije, koje su zbog
toga već bile podvrgnute krupnim nomotehničkim zahvatima. Direktiva
2011/83/EU neminovno će imati određeni utjecaj na opće ugovorno pravo država
članica.35
Pravo zaštite potrošača, iako u sebi sadrži i javnopravne i privatnopravne
elemente, ipak se razvija i čini sastavni dio općeg ugovornog prava država članica,
tzv. „spontana harmonizacija.“ Iz tog razloga ne može se promatrati kao izolirana
cjelina, budući da se u velikoj mjeri prava i interesi potrošača štite propisima općeg
ugovornog prava, na što upućuju i same potrošačke direktive. S obzirom da se
Direktiva 2011/83/EU temelji na principu pune harmonizacije to može dovesti do
tzv. „efekta zamrzavanja“ europskog potrošačkog prava, koje će postati statično, dok
europsko ugovorno pravo će se nastaviti razvijati prateći suvremeni gospodarski
razvoj. U budućem periodu može se dogoditi da pravni propisi ugovornog prava
budu povoljniji za potrošača, nego propisi koji su stricto sensu namijenjeni njegovoj
zaštiti. Nadalje, u samoj Direktivi 2011/83/EU navodi se da ista neće utjecati na
ugovorno pravo država članica kada su u pitanju one oblasti koje nisu predmet njene
regulacije. Direktiva 2011/83/EU ne bi smjela utjecati na određene aspekte općeg
ugovornog prava, kao što su primjerice opći uvjeti zaključenja ugovora, dejstva
ugovora, tumačenje, nevažnost ugovora, pravni lijekovi za slučaj povrede ugovornih
obaveza, naknadu štete i sl.36 Međutim, to ipak otvara određena pitanja, budući da i
sama Direktiva 2011/83/EU upućuje na primjenu nacionalnih propisa, i to ne samo
kada su u pitanju ugovorni aspekti isključeni iz predmeta njenog djelovanje, već i
kada se radi o aspektima koji su djelomično predmet njene regulacije. Iz toga
proizlazi da bez obzira što je došlo do potpunog ujednačavanja određenih segmenata
ugovornog prava iz oblasti zaštite potrošača, ipak divergentni propisi obligacionog
prava država članica i dalje će se primjenjivati kada su u pitanju potrošački
ugovori.37 Prema tome, potpuna je zabluda da Direktiva 2011/83/EU neće dovesti u
35
Opširnije: M., Loos, The Influence of European Consumer Law on General Contract Law and the Need
for Spontaneous Harmonization, European Review of Private Law, 2007/4.
36
V.: točku 14. preambule Direktive 2011/83/EU.
37
V.: G., Howells, N., Reich, 50-52.
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zakonodavce
pitanje postojeće propise ugovornog prava država članica, već upravo suprotno,38
države članice kako bi očuvale unutarnje jedinstvo i sistematičnost propisa
građanskog prava morat će pristupiti izmjenama određenih instituta. To dalje znači
da neće biti uspostavljen potpuno koherentan pravni okvir kojim se štite potrošači,
jer se propisi obligacionog prava država članica razlikuju. Direktiva 2011/83/EU o
mnogim pitanjima šuti i ostavlja državama članicama da ih urede u skladu sa svojim
propisima ugovornog prava, npr. pitanje sankcija za slučaj kršenja obaveze
informiranja potrošača, kakve su pravne posljedice bezrazložnog raskida ugovora u
slučaju da jedna od ugovornih strana ne ispuni svoju obavezu restitucije, prestanak
povezanih ugovora i sl.
U većini slučajeva da bi zadržale koherentnost općeg ugovornog prava države
članice morat će optirati u smislu da li ići u postupak izmjene općeg ugovornog
prava ili stvoriti poseban korpus pravila namijenjen isključivo potrošačima koji će
biti u interakciji s propisima općeg ugovornog prava kada se radi o
neharmoniziranim pitanjima.39 Tako, ukoliko bi se određeni nacionalni zakonodavci
ipak odlučili da Direktivu 2011/83/EU transponiraju u svoje građanske kodifikacije
to znači da su gotovo prisiljeni spontano harmonizirati i ostale propise koji se
primjenjuju na nepotrošačke, odnosno na B2B i C2C ugovore, u cilju održavanja
unutarnje konzistentnosti ugovornog prava. Mada se od država članica ne očekuje da
primjene „copy-past“ tehniku transponiranja, ipak većina njih će se odlučiti upravo za
ovaj metoda kako bi se izbjegle nepotrebne greške i previde.40 No, pored pitanja
kako, javlja se i pitanje gdje implementirati ovu okvirnu horizontalnu direktivu: u
okviru postojećih građanskih zakona ili potrošačkih zakona?41
38
V.: M. W., Hesselink, Towards a sharp distinction between b2b and b2c? On consumer, commercial and
general contract law after the Consumer rights directive, European Review of Private Law, 2010/1, 81.
39
V.: M., Loos, (2010), 3.
40
V.: Z., Čađenović, E., Čikara, et al., Transponovanje predložene Direktive o pravima potrošača u
nacionalne zakone zemalja učesnica, Forum za građansko pravo za jugoistočnu Europu, Izbor radova i
analiza Prva regionalna konferencija, Cavtat 2010., Knjiga III, Beograd, 2010., 722 i d.
41
Po pitanju izbora tehnike transponiranja države članice su pretežno prihvatile mješoviti model, tako
išlo se u pravcu izmjena i dopuna postojećih propisa o zaštiti potrošača, uključujući i građanske
zakonike, ali i donošenje potpuno novih obvezujućih akata (zakonskih, podzakonskih) u skladu sa
odredbama Direktive 2011/83/EU. Primjerice, u Nizozemski građanski zakonik (Dutch Civil Code)
interpolirani su novi dijelovi kompatibilni sadržaju Direktive 2011/83/EU, kako bi se i dalje održala
sistematizacija i struktura građe Zakonika, redaktori su vodili računa da transplantati budu u vezi sa
općim pravom ugovora. Tako, u Knjigu 6 Zakonika smješten je odjeljak o obavezi informiranja i to u
dijelu koji se odnosi na opće uvjete za sklapanje ugovora, ili Knjiga 7 Zakonika pored redovnog ugovora
o prodaji sada ima i novi odjeljak o distancionoj i prodaji na kućnom pragu i sl. O implementaciji
Direktive 2011/83/EU u Nizozemski građasnki zakonik opširnije vidi: A. J., Luzak, V., Mak, The
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Pred državama članicama je veliki izazov u pogledu izbora odgovarajućeg
modela implementacije, no postoji opravdana bojazan da će nakon što snize
nacionalne nivoe zaštite potrošača države članice se susresti s paradoksalnim
problemom da su im odredbe općeg ugovornog prava povoljnije od posebnih pravila
o zaštiti potrošača. Drugi problem s kojim se mogu susresti države članice jeste
pitanje pravnih praznina, naime Direktiva 2011/83/EU harmonizira određeno
pravno područje, ali ne do kraja iscrpno. Tako primjerice, kada je u pitanju obaveza
predugovornog informiranja potrošača, Direktiva 2011/83/EU je izričita i ne
dozvoljava državama članicama odstupanja od propisanih informacija, no s druge
strane sankcije za kršenje ove obaveze potpuno prepušta državama članicama. Što
znači da su države članice i dalje obavezne ona pitanja koja nisu potpuno
harmonizirana ipak dopunjavati propisima općeg ugovornog prava. Stoga, bi bilo
potpuno naivno misliti da će maksimalna harmonizacija povećati stupanj zaštite
potrošača kada postoje evidentni primjeri da će taj nivo biti umanjen, jer su države
članice obavezne derogirati sve propise koji prelaze maksimalnu granicu zaštite
propisanu Direktivom 2011/83/EU.
d) „Visok stupanj zaštite potrošača“ – hoće li i dalje ostati visok?
Mnoga pitanja bitna za zaštitu potrošača Direktiva 2011/83/EU je ispustila
iz predmetnog polja primjene, odnosno i dalje ih je ostavila dejstvu vertikalnih mjera
minimalne harmonizacije. Što znači da je de facto i dalje zadržan pravni
partikularizam i nekonzistentnost u ovoj oblasti i pored toga što je Direktiva
2011/83/EU puno obećavala kada je u pitanju otklanjanje ovih barijera.
Dugogodišnji napori akademske i stručne javnosti ipak nisu urodili
očekivanim plodom kada se radi o uspostavljanju jedinstvenog seta propisa koji će
biti jamac visokog stupnja pravne sigurnosti potrošača na unutarnjem tržištu. S tim u
vezi značajno je naglasiti da nakon što je Lisabonski ugovor stupio na snagu, visok
nivo zaštite potrošača „promoviran“ je na rang ustavnog načela.42 Stoga, postavlja se i
pitanje da li naziv Direktiva o pravima potrošača zaista odgovara Direktivi
2011/83/EU, s obzirom da ista regulira veoma uzak segment potrošačkog acquisa, tj.
sadrži pravila koja se primjenjuju jedino na ugovore sklopljene na daljinu i ugovore
sklopljene izvan poslovnih prostorija. Iz tog razloga sam naziv Direktive 2011/83/EU
Consumer Rights Dirctive, Centre for the Study of European Contract Law Working Paper Series No.
2013-01, University of Amsterdam, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstractid= 2192603.
15.03.2014.
42
V.: odredbu člana 114., stav 3. UFEU.
122
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�Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne
zakonodavce
lako može zavarati da se radi o Zakoniku ugovornog potrošačkog prava, što zapravo nije
slučaj, odnosno naziv direktive ne odgovara njenom sadržaju.43
Jako je teško osigurati visok stupanj zaštite potrošača naročito u onim
oblastima gdje taj nivo Direktiva 2011/83/EU snižava u odnosu na postojeće
nacionalne propise, stoga se čini da je klauzula minimalne harmonizacije ipak bila
prihvatljivije rješenje kada se radi o zaštiti potrošača. Nesporno je da je princip
minimalne harmonizacije implicirao sve one negativne pojave u smislu divergencije
materijalnih propisa država članica. Upravo iz tog razloga, države članice koje
njeguju dugu tradiciju zaštite potrošača morat će se odreći svojih visokih standarda i
usvojiti standarde propisane Direktivom 2011/83/EU.44 Nadalje, postavlja se pitanje
kako će potpuna harmonizacija utjecati na povjerenje potrošača u jedinstveno
europsko tržište. Tako primjerice, potrošači mnogih europskih zemalja će sigurno
biti razočarani kada Direktiva 2011/83/EU postane dio njihovog pravnog sistema,
zato što će se nivo zaštite značajno srozati a to nikako neće doprinijeti njihovom
povjerenju u funkcioniranje unutarnjeg EU tržišta. Upravo suprotno!
Međutim, ne smije se zaboraviti da Direktiva 2011/83/EU ima i političke
ciljeve, i to što se određene države članice moraju odreći svojih visokih standarda bit
će kompenzirano sveukupnim povećanjem razine zaštite potrošača u EU. Zaštita
koju osigurava Direktiva 2011/83/EU predstavlja na određeni način „zlatnu
sredinu“, odnosno mjeru kojom će se uspostaviti stvarna ravnoteža između zaštite
interesa potrošača i konkurentnosti poduzetnika. 45
3. Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU u domaći pravni poredak
Potpisivanjem Sporazuma o stabilizaciji i pridruživanju između europskih
Zajednica i njihovih država članica (dalje: SSP) 2008. godine, preuzeta je obaveza
ispunjenja niza političkih, gospodarskih, institucionalnih i pravnih kriterija kako bi
se Bosna i Hercegovina (dalje: BiH) pridružila europskim integracijama. Proces
43
D. A., Chirita, The Impact of Directive 2011/83/EU on Consumer Rights, 3., http://ssrn.com
/abstract=1998993, 10.06.2013.
44
V.: M., Loos, (2010) 18-19.
45
O tome cfr.: V., Reding, An ambitious Consumer Rights Directive: boosting consumers’ protection and
helping businesses, speech/10/91, European Consumer Day 2010, Madrid, 15 March 2010,
http://europa.eu/rapid/
pressReleasesAction.do?reference=SPEECH/10/91&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLang
uage=en, 10.06.2013.
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harmonizacije domaćih pravnih propisa sa pravnom stečevinom (acquis
communautaire) jedan je od temeljnih uvjeta za pristup novih država u članstvo EU.
Iz tog razloga i BiH već određeno vrijeme provodi proces usklađivanja pozitivnih
propisa sa pravnim naslijeđem EU i to u raznim oblastima. Usklađivanje domaćih
propisa odvija se na bitno drugačiji način nego u državama članicama, jer BiH nema
aktivnu ulogu u izradi uredbi, direktiva i drugih akata, već se samo radi o
jednostranoj obavezi preuzimanja već usvojene regulative.
Obaveza harmonizacije pozitivnopravnih propisa u domenu zaštite
potrošača sa zajedničkim pravom EU proizlazi iz odredbe člana 76., stav 1. SSP.
Stoga, i našem zakonodavcu predstoji obaveza transponiranja Direktive
2011/83/EU, to iz razloga što Direktiva 85/577/EEZ i Direktiva 97/7/EZ već čine
sastavni dio pozitivnog sistema zaštite potrošača. Iako se naš zakonodavac na početku
opredijelio za tzv. „mješoviti model implementacije“, s obzirom da su iste potrošačke
direktive istovremeno bile transponirane u lex specialis propis, odnosno u Zakon o
zaštiti potrošača u Bosni i Hercegovini46 (dalje: ZZP BiH), ali i u Nacrt Zakona o
obligacionim odnosima iz 2004. godine. Ovakav način „uvođenja“ komunitarnih
propisa u nacionalni pravni sistem imao bi za posljedicu unutarnji sukob zakona.
Paralelna, ali ne i istovjetna pravna rješenja, stvorila bi nepotrebnu konkurenciju
pozitivnih propisa u domenu zaštite potrošača, što bi u praksi rezultiralo mnogim
negativnim reperkusijama. To je donekle riješeno Prijedlogom ZOO iz 2010.
godine, budući da je iz istog apstrahiran znatan dio propisa o zaštiti potrošača, tako
da je ZZP BiH postao i ostao temeljni propis kojim se na sistemski način uređuje
oblast zaštite potrošača.
Kada je u pitanju transponiranje horizontalne Direktive 2011/83/EU koja
zahtijeva potpunu harmonizaciju u naš pravni poredak, važno je naglasiti da to nije
nimalo jednostavan postupak. To naročito ako se ima u vidu (ne)primjena ZZP BiH
u praksi. Tako, mada je ZZP BiH usvojen 2006. godine, a pritom je naslijedio ZZP
BiH iz 2002. godine, i dalje je ostao samo slovo na papiru. Sasvim uzgredna
primjena ZZP BiH u praksi ne znači da naši potrošači ne trebaju zaštitu, već govori o
tome da je na donošenje ovog zakona gledano isključivo kao na jedan od političkih
ciljeva koji je u datom trenutku trebalo ispuniti. No, iako pozitivne odredbe o zaštiti
potrošača trpe brojne kritike, budući da po svom sadržaju i jezičkoj formulaciji često
odstupaju od odredaba i samog cilja implementiranih direktiva, ipak i primjena
takvog pravnog propisa bolja je od njegove neprimjene. On što je evidentno jeste
46
„Sl. glasnik BiH“, broj: 25/06.
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�Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne
zakonodavce
činjenica da se na potrošačke ugovore primjenjuju opći propisi obligacionog prava,
odnosno duga tradicija Zakona o obligacionim odnosima47 nadvladala je primjenu
ZZP BiH kao lex specialisa. Na taj način odstupilo se od generalnog principa lex
specialis derogat legi generali i umjesto da potrošački ugovori čine poseban režim, i
dalje se u pravnom prometu i sudskoj praksi isti tretiraju kao „obični“ obligacioni
ugovori. Najbolji pokazatelj ignoriranja ZZP BiH jeste oskudna sudska praksa.
Bez obzira na činjenicu što je izostala primjena ZZP BiH u praksi, ipak ovo
je poseban propis namijenjen isključivo zaštiti potrošača, stoga bi nova Direktiva
2011/83/EU svoje mjesto trebala naći u istom. To našem zakonodavcu u budućem
periodu nameće obavezu korjenitih izmjena i dopuna ovog lex specialis propisa. Ovo
posebice iz razloga što se već sad većina odredbi ZZP BiH temelji na odredbama
direktiva koje su stavljene van snage, pritom se misli na Direktivu 87/102/EEZ o
potrošačkom kreditu, zatim Direktivu 94/47/EZ o timeshare ugovorima, a sada i
Direktivu 85/577/EEZ i Direktivu 97/7/EZ, dok su Direktiva 93/13/EEZ o
nepoštenim ugovornim odredbama i Direktiva 99/44/EZ o odgovornosti za
materijalne nedostatke izmijenjene i dopunjene. Imajući u vidu sve promjene koje su
se u posljednje vrijeme dogodile u oblasti zaštite potrošača, kao i činjenicu da sve
direktive nove generacije predstavljaju mjere maksimalne harmonizacije, to se i pred
našeg zakonodavca stavlja zahtjev stvaranja takvog pravnog okvira, koji će osigurati
onaj nivo zaštite koji predviđaju nove direktive.
Postupak transponiranja potrošačkog acquisa dodatno se usložnjava s
obzirom da Direktiva 2011/83/EU predstavlja horizontalni instrument, po svom
sadržaju izuzetno opsežan i kompleksan, a klauzula ciljane maksimalne harmonizacije
ne dozvoljava bilo kakva odstupanja kada se radi o odredbama koje su njome
pogođene. Pravilna implementacija Direktive 2011/83/EU nije nimalo jednostavan
zadatak, to je izazov kojem domaći zakonodavac do sada i nije baš najbolje znao
udovoljiti. Naime, i samo europsko pravo zaštite potrošača trpi brojne kritike zbog
svoje iscjepkanosti i različitosti, stoga je i domaćem zakonodavcu bilo jako teško
redigirati koherentan, homogen i sistematiziran korpus pravila o zaštiti potrošača.
Koliko se u tome uspjelo najbolje svjedoče neadekvatni prijevodi mnogih pojmova,
neujednačena terminologija, izrazi koji nisu svojstveni našoj pravnoj tradiciji,
nezgrapne i nejasne zakonske formulacije, pravne praznine i sl. Sve navedeno je
47
Zakon o obligacionim odnosima („Sl. list SFRJ”, br. 29/78, 39/85, 45/89 i 57/89), koji je preuzet u
domaće zakonodavstvo Zakonom o preuzimanju Zakona o obligacionim odnosima („Sl. list R BiH”,
br. 2/92, 13/93 i 13/94 i „Sl. novine FBiH“, broj: 29/03) i Zakonom o izmjenama i dopunama
Zakona o obligacionim odnosima, objavljenom u („Sl. glasniku RS”, br. 17/93 i 3/96).
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posljedica toga da je ZZP BiH de facto nastao „spajanjem“ odredaba pojedinih
direktiva, pritom se nije previše vodilo računa o ciljevima i dosezima tih direktiva.48
Upravo da bi se izbjegle navedene slabosti i uskladio položaj potrošača u
nacionalnom pravu sa standardima postavljenim u pravnom poretku EU, domaći
zakonodavac mora poduzeti ozbiljan korak i upustiti se u proces revizije postojećih
pravnih rješenje. Drugim riječima, potrebno je učiniti novi kvalitativni korak u
razvoju prava zaštite potrošača što je nemoguće ukoliko se ne pristupi izmjeni i
dopuni postojećih propis u svjetlu novih direktiva, a naročito Direktive
2011/83/EU. To je neophodan preduvjet za uključenje BiH u unutarnje tržište.
No, ako se uzmu u obzir mnogobrojne izmjene i dopune pravnih rješenja
koje tek predstoje, to bi puno jednostavnije i kvalitetnije rješenje bilo da se pristupi
donošenju potpuno novog Zakona o zaštiti potrošača. S nomotehničkog aspekta to je
složen postupak, ali isto tako ne kreće se od nule budući da već postoji ZZP BiH, što
zasigurno predstavlja dobar temelj da se sistem zaštite potrošača u BiH samo
nadogradi.49 Nadalje, ne bi trebalo ostati samo na općem zakonu, već određene
aspekte zaštite potrošača potrebno je regulirati i posebnim zakonima, kao što se to
primjerice već događa u oblasti financijskih usluga. Isto tako druge oblasti koje nisu
isključivo potrošačke potrebno je uskladiti s propisima općeg ugovornog prava. U
suprotnom, ukoliko bi i novi Zakon o zaštiti potrošača predstavljao samo doslovan
prijevod i spajanje odredaba Direktive 2011/83/EU sa odredbama drugih
48
Naime, svaka direktiva je samostalan pravni akt, koji ima svoje posebne ciljeve koji nisu sadržani
samo u normativnom dijelu direktive, već i u preambuli. Stoga, za razumijevanje sadržaja određene
direktive važno je uzeti u obzir i njen normativni ali i nenormativni dio, te potom ga prilagoditi
specifičnim karakteristikama i načelima konkretnog pravnog sistema. V. opširnije: S., Petrić, Kritički
osvrt na Zakon o zaštiti potrošača u Bosni i Hercegovini, Zbornik radova Aktualnosti građanskog i
trgovačkog zakonodavstva i pravne prakse, br. 2, Mostar, 2004.,195.
49
Sasvim je jasno da Direktiva 2011/83/EU u određenim situacijama i nije znatnije odstupila od
rješenja Direktive 85/577/EEZ i Direktive 97/7/EZ. Pritom, kada su u pitanju odredbe ZZP BiH koje
se tiču ugovora o prodaji izvan poslovnih prostorija trgovca i ugovora o distancionoj prodaji, pozitivna
zakonska rješenja u određenoj mjeri odstupaju od sadržaja transponiranih direktiva, ali se zato u
određenoj mjeri približavaju rješenjima nove Direktive 2011/83/EU. Tako primjerice, jedna od novina
predviđena Direktivom 2011/83/EU odnosi se na definiciju ugovora zaključenih izvan poslovnih
prostorija, koja je znatno proširena, a jedno od proširenja obuhvaća i ugovore sklopljene u sredstvima
javnog prijevoza ili nekom drugom javnom mjestu. Pritom, ova situacija je već bila redigirana odredbom
član 39., stav 1., slovo c) ZZP BiH. Nadalje, Direktiva 2011/83/EU uvodi jedinstven rok za raskid
ugovora u trajanju od 14 dana, dok i ZZP BiH također sadrži unificirani rok za raskid ugovora u
trajanju od 15 dana. Po pitanju trajanja roka za raskid ZZP BiH je već dostigao standarde zaštite koji
uvodi Direktiva 2011/83/EU.
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zakonodavce
potrošačkih direktiva, ponovno bi zakonodavac potvrdio da ne postoji jedinstvena i
do kraja artikulirana koncepcija kako regulirati ovu oblast.50 Na taj način bi i po treći
put bilo potvrđeno pravilo da ratio donošenja Zakona o zaštiti potrošača u BiH jeste
samo nastojanje da se na zakonodavnoj razini uskladimo sa standardima EU
usvojenim u oblasti zaštite potrošača, a ne i osiguranje da se usvojena pravila zaista i
primjenjuju u praksi.
4. Zaključna razmatranja
Imajući u vidu da je tek koncem 2013. godine istekao rok za transponiranje
Direktive 2011/83/EU to je još uvijek rano govoriti o posljedicama koje je ostavila
na nacionalna zakonodavstva i samim tim na položaj potrošača, a još uvijek nije
istekao ni rok kada ista postaje obvezujuća u državama članicama (13.6.2014). No, i
nakon ovog roka trebat će proći određeni period tijekom kojeg će potrošači testirati
jedinstveni regulatorni okvir u praksi, tek tada mogu se dati konkretni odgovori o
utjecaju koji je Direktiva 2011/83/EU ostavila na pitanje pravne sigurnosti i
povjerenje potrošača. Drugim riječima, ostaje da se vidi da li je ovim jednoobraznim
pravilima dovršen posao izgradnje unutarnjeg tržišta u oblasti zaštite potrošača i
otklonjena pravna fragmentacija.
Iako su države članice pribjegle različitim metodama transponiranja, neke u
okviru postojećih građanskih kodifikacija, određene su se odlučile na donošenje
potpuno novih specialis zakona kojim se implementira Direktiva 2011/83/EU, dok
su se neke države odlučile na modernizaciju i usvajanje novih kodifikacija
potrošačkog prava u svjetlu horizontalne direktive, ipak sve države su morale proći
fazu provjere i preispitivanja svog zakonodavstva kako bi se i ostali propisi usaglasili
sa Direktivom 2011/83/EU.
Pravo zaštite potrošača predstavlja funkcionalnu pravnu oblast koja se
postepeno etablira i u bosanskohercegovačkom pravnom poretku, stoga sve novine
koje se posljednjih godina događaju na europskoj potrošačkoj sceni ne smiju ostati
nezamijećene od strane domaćeg zakonodavca.
50
Cfr.: S., Petrić, 196.
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T., Josipović, Izazovi harmonizacije građanskog prava putem direktiva, Forum za
građansko pravo za jugoistočnu Europu, Izbor radova i analiza Prva regionalna
konferencija, Cavtat, 2010., Knjiga I, Beograd 2010.
T., Tridimas, P., Nebbia, P., (ed.) European Union Law for the Twenty-First
Century, Hart Publishing, Oxford and Portland Oregon, 2004.
V., Mak, Review of the Consumer Acquis – Towards Maximum Harmonisation?,
TICOM,
Working
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2008/6,
August
2008,
http://ssrn.com/abstract=1237011.
Z., Čađenović, E., Čikara, et al., Transponovanje predložene Direktive o pravima
potrošača u nacionalne zakone zemalja učesnica, Forum za građansko pravo za
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2010., Knjiga III, Beograd, 2010.
Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1
129
�Dr. sc. Anita Petrović
130
Z., Meškić, Harmonizacija Evropskog potrošačkog prava – Zelena knjiga 2007.
godine i Nacrt zajedničkog referentnog okvira, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u
Splitu, 3/2009
Z., Meškić., Direktiva 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača od 25. oktobra 2011.
godine, Sl. list EU 2011, L 304/64, Nova pravna revija, 1/2012
Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu
�
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Transposition of the Directive 2011/83/EU on consumer rights - A challenge to national legislators
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Petrović, Anita
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Abstract: In the area of European contract law legal area most affected by the process of harmonization, and consequently the process of revision is the area of consumer protection. Because in the last few decades most intense legislative activity is manifested in the adoption of consumer directives. Transposing consumer directives member states have recognized the opportunity of their own economic development, since the improvement of trade is only possible if consumers enjoy the same rights no matter where in the territory of the European Union conclude contracts . This paper is focused on new horizontal instrument of European consumer law, Directive 2011/83/EU on consumer rights. Directive 2011/83/EU is a pioneering step towards building a coherent European consumer protection law, and in this light will be indicated the problem questions that arise in the process of harmonization of regulation Member States with Directive 2011/83/EU, keeping in mind the maximum harmonization clause. Also critically will be considered the process of harmonization of positive legislation with the Acquis in the field of consumer protection.
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International Burch University
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2015
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ISSN 2303-5706
K Law (General)
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ffc13ed6a0a6d99be9f1a9df5f7cd747.docx
f76339c8ca6530728663a2baed0181b2
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Text
Pregledni naučni rad
Doc. dr Darko Radić
Docent na Pravnom fakultetu
Univerziteta u Banjoj Luci
ZAŠTITA IMOVINSKIH PRAVA I INTERESA DJETETA
Apstrakt: Autor u ovom radu raspravlja o zaštiti imovinskih prava i
interesa djeteta, preispitujući pozitivnopravni okvir kojim se ureĎuju
imovinskopravni odnosi izmeĎu roditelja i djece, odnosno kojim se utvrĎuju
mehanizmi zaštite prava djeteta imovinske prirode, nastojeći da utvrdi da li
postojeća zakonska rješenja osiguravaju efikasnu zaštitu prava maloljetnika. Pored
razmatranja cilja i sadržaja mjera kojima se ograničavaju prava roditelja na
imovini djeteta, autor ukazuje na značaj i ulogu izdržavanja djeteta, ali isto tako
identifikuje probleme u ostvarivanju ovog prava. Konačno, zaštita imovinskih
prava djeteta u značajnoj mjeri zavisi od odreĎenih institucija koje sa stanovišta
svojih ovlašćenja i odgovarajućih kompetencija mogu značajno doprinijeti pravnoj
zaštiti djeteta, pa je ovim istraživanjem obuhvaćena i analiza njihovog položaja,
mogućnosti i nedostataka u njihovom funkcionisanju.
Ključne riječi: imovinska prava djeteta, prava roditelja na imovini djeteta,
pravo djeteta na izdržavanje, institucionalni kapaciteti za zaštitu prava djeteta.
1. Uvod
Prava djeteta zagarantovana su meĎunarodnim pravnim dokumentima –
prije svega Konvencijom o pravima djeteta1, odnosno ustavima i zakonima
entiteta, dok su uslovi, način i postupak njihovog ostvarivanja ureĎeni
odgovarajućima zakonskim i podzakonskim propisima. Ipak, ostvarivanje različitih
prava djeteta, i pored pravnih garancija i društvene institucionalne podrške, u
značajnoj mjeri zavisi od materijalno-finansijskog stanja djeteta i njegovih
roditelja. Roditelji su obavezni da, pored ličnih, angažuju i imovinske resurse u
izvršavanju svojih obaveza, odnosno radi ostvarivanja prava djeteta. S druge
strane, dijete je, pod odreĎenim uslovima, dužno da doprinosi za svoje izdržavanje,
ali ima i mogućnost da u izvjesnim slučajevima zaključuje pravne poslove i tako
utiče na sopstvenu materijalnu situaciju. U tom smislu, u ovom radu preispituje se
relevantni pravni okvir za ureĎenje imovinskopravnih odnosa izmeĎu roditelja i
djeteta, naročito sa stanovišta zaštite imovinskih prava djeteta, kako bi se utvrdilo
da li postojeća zakonska rješenja obezbjeĎuju efikasne mehanizme kontrole i
ograničenja prava roditelja na imovini djeteta. Naročito važnim smatramo institut
izdržavanja djeteta, od čega u stvari u velikoj mjeri zavisi stvaranje osnove za
ostvarivanje ostalih prava i uopšte razvoj djeteta. S tim u vezi, predstavljena su
1
Usvojena je rezolucijom Generalne skupštine Ujedinjenih nacija 20.11.1989. godine - dalje:
Konvencija (Službeni list SFRJ- Međunarodni ugovori, br. 15/09).
85
�osnovna rješenja i identifikovani neki problemi u vezi sa ostvarivanjem prava
djeteta na izdržavanje.
U razmatranjima postavljenog problema, a poštujući zakonodavne
nadležnosti u oblasti ureĎenja porodičnih odnosa u Bosni i Hercegovini,
obuhvaćena su zakonodavstva Republike Srpske (dalje: RS), Federacije Bosne i
Hercegovine (dalje: FBiH) i Brčko Distrikta Bosne i Hercegovine (dalje: BD).
Pored toga, ukazano je i na sličnosti, a posebno na izvjesne razlike u odnosu na
istovrsne propise u Republici Srbiji, odnosno Republici Hrvatskoj.
2. Imovinskopravni odnosi roditelja i djeteta
2.1. Prava roditelja na imovini djeteta
Dijete kao subjekt prava ima imovinskopravnu sposobnost2, može sticati i
imati imovinu. U tom smislu važan je pravno-politički interes da se pravno uredi
upravljanje i raspolaganje takvom imovinom sve do sticanja potpune poslovne
sposobnosti titulara imovine (djeteta). Budući da dijete nema potpunu poslovnu
sposobnost, njegovi roditelji imaju dužnost i pravo da ga zastupaju. Ako
maloljetnom djetetu treba nešto uručiti ili saopštiti, to se može punovažno učiniti
jednom ili drugom roditelju, a ako roditelji ne žive zajedno, onom roditelju sa
kojim dijete živi.3 Dakle, roditelji u smislu vršenja roditeljskog prava imaju
dužnost i pravo da štite prava i interese djeteta, pa je sasvim opravdano rješenje da
roditelji imaju dužnost i pravo da u interesu djeteta upravljaju njegovom imovinom
i, pod odreĎenim uslovima, koriste prihode sa te imovine i raspolažu istom sve do
punoljetnosti ili emancipacije djeteta.4
Odnosi izmeĎu roditelja i djeteta povodom imovine djeteta ureĎeni su
zakonskim propisima koji obuhvataju pravila o pravima i dužnostima roditelja da
upravljaju i raspolažu imovinom djeteta, odnosno pravila o odgovornosti roditelja
za štetu koju oni pričine na imovni djeteta. Primjena navedenih propisa zavisi od
uzrasta djeteta i načina na koji je ono steklo imovinu.
Dakle, način sticanja imovine djeteta i njegov uzrast kriterijumi su za
(ne)primjenjivanje imovinskopravnih ovlašćenja roditelja da upravljaju i raspolažu
djetetovom imovinom. Ukoliko je dijete imovinu steklo svojim radom, onda ovako
2
O imovinskopravnoj sposobnosti opširnije Vodinelić, V., Građansko pravo (Uvod u građansko
pravo i opšti deo stvarnog prava), Pravni fakultet Univerziteta Union u Beogradu i Službeni
glasnik, Beograd, 2002, str. 332-333 i 338-342.
3
Čl. 84 st. Porodičnog zakona – dalje: PZ RS (Službeni glasnik RS, br. 54/02, 41/08 i 63/14).
4
Vid. Čl. 285 – 287PZ RS. Gotovo identično rješenje prihvaćeno je i u porodičnim
zakonodavstvima u okruženju: čl. 264 – 266 Porodičnog zakona FBiH – dalje: PZ FBiH (Službene
novine FBiH, br. 35/05, 41/05 i 31/14 ), čl. 241 – 243 Porodičnog zakona BD – dalje: PZ BD
(Službeni klasnik BD, br. 23/07), čl. 192 – 193 Porodičnog zakona Srbije – dalje: PZS (Službeni
glasnik Srbije, br. 18/05, 72/11‚i 6/15), čl. 259 – 261 Obiteljskog zakona – dalje: OZ (Narodne
novine, br. 116/03, 17/04, 136/04, 107/07, 57/11, 61/11, 25/13, 05/15). Ovde ne treba zaboraviti da
roditeljsko pravo može prestati (a samim tim i razmatrane dužnosti i prava roditelja na imovini
djeteta) ili biti ograničeno, odnosno da dijete može biti usvojeno ili stavljeno pod starateljstvo, što
ima izuzetno značajne implikacije po prava i dužnosti roditelja na imovini djeteta..
86
�stečenom imovinom dijete samostalno upravlja, ali i raspolaže.5 „Ako može više,
teže (da zaradi i stekne imovinu), onda može i manje, lakše (da upravlja i raspolaže
takvom imovinom).“6 Budući da zakonodavac u propisima koji govore o
izdržavanju djece, roditelja i drugih srodnika govori o maloljetniku koji je navršio
15 godina i koji radom ostvaruje prihode,7 te da je prema pozitivnom
radnopravnom zakonodavstvu u RS minimalna starosna granica za zaključivanje
ugovora o radu 15 godina,8 onda proizlazi da je za primjenu pomenutog pravila
neophodno da su kumulativno ispunjena dva uslova: starost maloljetnika od
najmanje 15 godina i rad maloljetnika.9
Za razliku od nekih porodičnih zakonodavstava u okruženju, porodično
zakonodavstvo RS ne pravi razliku izmeĎu maloljetnika u pogledu njihovog
uzrasta10, a koja bi se ticala sticanja ograničene poslovne sposobnosti.11 Ipak,
pozitivno pravo priznaje maloljetniku pravo da u odreĎenim slučajevima
punovažno zaključuje pravne poslove koji imaju imovinski karakter. Tako, pored
mogućnosti zasnivanja radnog odnosa i upravljanja i raspolaganja ostvarenom
zaradom, maloljetnik sa navršenih 15 godina koji je sposoban za rasuĎivanje može
raspolagati svojom imovinom mortis causa - stiče testamentarnu sposobnost.12
5
Čl. 84 st. 3 i čl. 285 st. 2 PZ RS, čl. 137 st. 3 i čl. 264 PZ FBiH, čl. 120 st. 3 i čl. 241 PZ BD, čl.
64 st. 3, čl. 192 st. 1 i čl. 193 st. 1PZS, čl. 259 st. 2 OZ.
6
Panov, S.,Porodično pravo, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu i Službeni glasnik, Beograd,
2008, str. 416.
7
Riječ je o odredbi da je dijete starije od 15 godina koje radom ostvaruje prihode i koje ima
imovinu, dužno da pod zakonom propisanim uslovima doprinosi za svoje izdržavanje i za
izdržavanje članova porodice u kojoj živi (čl. 234 PZ RS).
8
Čl. 14 st. 1 Zakona o radu (Službeni glasnik RS, br. 38/00, 40/00, 47/02, 38/03, 66/03 i 20/07), čl.
15 st. 1 Zakona o radu FBiH (Službene novine FBIH, br. 43/99, 32/00 i 29/03). U pravo BD i
hrvatskom pravu se pored ovih uslova zahtijeva da maloljetnik ima dozvolu zakonskog zastupnika
da zaključi ugovor o radu; vid. čl. 10 Zakona o radu BD (Službeni glasnik BD BiH, br. 8/03, 33/04,
29/05, 19/06 – prečišćeni tekst, 19/07, 25/08, 20/13, 31/14 i 1/15), odnosno čl. 20 st. 1 – 3 Zakona
o radu (Narodne novine, br. 93/14)
9
Maloljetnik mlaĎi od 15 godina, u pravu RS, ne može zaključiti ugovor o radu, ali ne može
punovažno zaključiti niti bilo koji drugi ugovor, jer nema ni ograničenu poslovnu spospobnost, a u
tom smislu otpada mogućnost da svojim radom stiče imovinu, odnosno istom upravlja i raspolaže.
10
Mada je tako bilo previĎeno Nacrtom zakona o izmjenama i dopunama Porodičnog zakona.
MeĎutim, ove odredbe nisu našle svoje mjesto u prijedlogu istog zakona, odnosno u noveli PZ RS
iz 2014. godine (Službeni glasnik RS, br. 63/14).
11
U PZ FBiH maloljetnik koji je navršio 14 godina može sam sklapati pravne poslove kojima stiče
prava, dok pravne poslove kojima raspolaže imovinom ili preuzima obaveze maloljetnik može
sklapati samo uz saglasnost roditelja (čl. 137 st. 2). U PZ BD prihvaćeno je gotovo isto rješenje, uz
različito odreĎenu starosnu granicu - 16 godina, mada je istim zakonom propisano da maloljetnik
sa navršenih 14 godina stiče ograničenu poslovnu sposobnost (vid. čl. 120 st. 2 i čl. 139 st. 5). U
porodičnom zakonodavstvu Srbije pravne poslove kojima se stiču prava, pravne poslove kojima se
ne stiču ni prava ni obaveze i pravne poslove malog značaja može preduzimati i maloljetnik mlaĎi
od 14 godina, dok maloljetnik stariji od 14 godina može preduzimati sve ostale pravne poslove uz
saglasnost roditelja, odnosno organa starateljstva (čl. 64 st. 1 i 2 PZS). Opširnije Bubić, S.; N.
Traljić, Roditeljsko i starateljsko pravo, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u sarajevu, Sarajevo, 2007,
str. 154 i 155 ; Panov, S., op. cit., str. 412 – 416.
12
Čl. 64 st. 1 Zakona o nasljeĎivanju (Službeni glasnik RS, br. 1/09), čl. 62 st. 1 Zakona o
nasljeĎivanju FBiH (Službene novine FBIH, br. 80/14).
87
�U pogledu imovine djeteta koju ono nije steklo svojim radom, vrijedi
pravilo da tom imovinom upravljaju roditelji djeteta, u njegovom interesu.13 Od
roditelja se očekuje da postupaju sa pažnjom dobrog domaćina (bonus pater
familias).14 Razumije se, roditelji, u slučaju zajedničkog vršenja roditeljskog prava,
imovinom djeteta upravljaju sporazumno. Ako meĎu njima postoji nesporazum o
ovom pitanju, onda će spor riješiti sud na zahtjev jednog od njih. U slučaju da
roditeljsko pravo vrši samo jedan od roditelja, onda isti roditelj ima dužnost i
pravo upravljanja i raspolaganja imovinom djeteta.
Za razliku od poslova upravljana imovinom djeteta u pogledu kojih je
zakonodavac roditeljima dao „indikaciono upustvo“ – da upravljaju u interesu
djeteta, poslovi raspolaganja djetetovom imovinom trpe veća ograničenja. Tako,
prihode sa imovine djeteta roditelji mogu koristiti za njegovo izdržavanje,
liječenje, vaspitanje i obrazovanje.15 Dakle, u svrhu zaštite života i zdravlja,
odnosno u svrhu ostvarivanja ostalih prava i interesa djeteta. Izuzetak u odnosu na
citirano pravilo predstavlja mogućnost da se pomenuti prihodi koriste za
izdržavanje članova porodice, što predstavlja dosljednu primjenu načela porodične
solidarnosti, ali i principa uzajamnosti.16
OtuĎiti ili opteretiti imovinu djeteta roditelji mogu samo uz odobrenje
organa starateljstva i kada je to radi izdržavanja djeteta, njegovog liječenja,
vaspitanja i obrazovanja, ili kada to zahtijeva drugi važan interes djeteta.
Smatramo da bi pravno korektna formulacija trebala da umjesto termina
„odobrenje“ sadrži pojam „dozvola“, jer to proizlazi iz ciljnog tumačenja norme.17
Ovo pravilo vrijedi kada se radi o vrijednijim stvarima iz imovine djeteta, što u
praksi najčešće podrazumijeva nepokretnosti i pokretne stvari veće vrijednosti.18
MeĎutim, efikasna zaštita imovinkih prava i interesa zahtijeva da se polje dejstva
razmatranog propisa proširi na cjelokupnu imovinu djeteta, osim kada se radi o
pokretnim stvarima male vrijednosti, što je ujedno i prijedlog de lege ferenda.
13
Čl. 285 st. 2 PZ RS, čl. 264 PZ FBiH, čl. 241 PZ BD. Isto rješenje, osim navoĎenja „interesa
djeteta“ kao kriterijuma za preduzimanje akata upravljanja, prihvaćeno je u PZS (vid. čl. 192 st. 2)
14
Bubić, S,; N. Traljić, op. cit., str. 167.
15
Čl. 286 st. 1 PZ RS, 265 st. 1 PZ FBiH, čl. 242 st. 1 PZ BD.
16
Čl. 286 st. 2 PZ RS, 265 st. 2 PZ FBiH, čl. 242 st. 2 PZ BD.
17
Prema odredbama čl. 29 Zakon o obligacionim odnosima (Službeni list Socijalističke
Federativne Republike Jugoslavije, br. 29/78, 39/85, 45/89 i 57/89; Službeni glasnik RS, br. 17/93,
3/96, 39/03 i 74/04), dozvola je saglasnost koja se daje prije zaključenja ugovora, dok je odobrenje
saglasnost koja se daje nakon zaključenja ugovora.
18
Čl. 287 PZ RS, čl. 266 st. 1 PZ FBiH, čl. 243 st. 1 PZ BD. Kada se u PZ RS (čl. 191 st. 1) govori
o pravu staraoca da raspolaže imovinom štićenika, onda se saglasnost organa starateljstva zahtijeva
za: otuĎenje ili opterećenje nepokretne imovine štićenika; otuĎenje iz imovine štićenika pokretne
stvari veće i posebne lične vrijednosti, ili raspolaganje imovinskim pravima veće vrijednosti;
odricanje od nasljedstva, legata ili odbijanje poklona; preduzimanje drugih mjera odreĎenih
zakonom. Zakonodavc u Srbiji primjenu ovog pravila vezuje za „nepokretnu imovinu i pokretnu
imovinu veće vrijednosti“ (čl. 193 st. 3 PZS), dok se u Hrvatskoj saglasnost organa starateljstva
zahtijeva u svakom slučaju raspolaganja imovinom djeteta, „ne sužavajući“ polje dejstva
posmatranog ograničenja u vidu saglasnosti organa starateljstva na samo vrijedniju imovinu, ili
vrijednije dijelove imovine djeteta (čl. 261 st. 1 OZ). Isto tako, u pogledu preduzimanja procesnih
radnji pred sudom ili drugim organima, a koje se odnose na imovinu djeteta, vrijedi pravilo da ih
roditelji mogu preduzimati samo sa odobrenjem organa starateljstva (čl. 266 st. 2 PZ FBiH, čl.
243 st. 2 PZ BD, čl. 261 st. 2 OZ).
88
�Dakle, za razliku od prihoda sa imovine djeteta, gdje se jasno postavljaju razlozi
radi kojih se mogu koristiti (trošiti), ovde se pored navedenog uvodi i dodatni
uslov, a to je saglasnost organa starateljstva. Na ovaj način zakonodavac je
smatrao da bi prije otuĎenja ili opterećenja imovine djeteta organ starateljstva
trebao da ispita nužnost i/ili opravdanost namjeravanog pravnog posla kojim se
raspolaže imovinom djeteta, štiteći tako privatni interes (interes djeteta) i, budući
da se radi o kategoriji lica koja prema ustavu i zakonu uživaju posebnu zaštitu,
opšti interes (interes društva).
Konačno, forma pravnih poslova kojima se raspolaže imovinom
maloljetnika potvrĎuje stav da je zakonodavac imao intenciju da se obazbijedi
efikasna zaštita prava i interesa djeteta i pravna sigurnost u pravnom prometovanju
imovine djeteta. Sljedstveno tome, novelom porodičnog zakonodavstva RS iz
2008. godine, propisano je da pravni poslovi raspolaganja imovinom maloljetnika
moraju biti notarski obraĎeni.19 U suprotnom, pravni posao je ništav.20
2.2. Mjere zaštite imovinskih prava djeteta
Propisi kojima se ureĎuje upravljanje i raspolaganje imovinom djeteta već
sadrže izvjesna ograničenja za roditelje, koji bez saglasnosti organa starateljstva ne
mogu da preduzimaju pravne poslove raspolaganja nekim dijelovima dječije
imovine, odnosno koji ne mogu prihode iz imovine djeteta koristiti za potrebe
drugačije od zakonom propisanih.
MeĎutim, pored pomenutih ograničenja prava roditelja i ustanovljene
obaveze roditelja da imovinom djeteta upravljaju u njegovom interesu,
zakonodavac je predvidio i niz posebnih mjera kojima se štite imovinska prava
djeteta. Ovakav set mjera zapravo upotpunjava pravnu zaštitu djeteta, jer su pored
navedenih, zakonom propisane i mjere zaštite ličnih prava djeteta. Izricanje i
primjena mjera kojima se štite imovinska prava djeteta u nadležnosti su suda i
organa starteljstva, zavisno od vrste mjere.21
U okviru vršenja pojačanog nadzora roditelja, organ starateljstva može
zahtijevati od roditelja u svako doba da polože račune o upravljanju imovinom
djeteta.22 Na ovaj način, organ starateljstva nastoji preventivno djelovati i spriječiti
19
Čl. 288 st. 1 PZ RS,odnosno čl. 68 st. 1 t. 2 Zakona o notarima RS (Službeni glasnik RS, br.
86/04, 2/05, 74/05, 91/06, 37/07, 50/10, 78/11, 20/14). U zakonodavstvima FBiH i BD forma
navedenih pravnih poslova propisana je zakonima kojima se ureĎuje notarijat. Vid. čl. 73 st. 1 t. 2
Zakona o notarima FBiH (Službene novine FBIH, br. 45/02), čl. 47 st. 1 t. 2 Zakona o notarima BD
(Službeni glasnik BD, br. 9/03 i 17/06).
20
Čl. 288 st. 2 PZ RS.
21
Razumije se, organ starateljstva nadležan je da preduzima mjere za zaštitu imovinskih prava i
interesa djeteta kada se dijete nalazi pod starateljstvom. Tako organ starateljstva: vrši popis i
procjenu imovine prije nego što je preda staraocu na upravljanje; preduzima mjere za osiguranje
imovine štićenika prije donošenja rješenja kojim se ono stavlja pod starateljstvo, odnosno
zahtijeva zabilježbu u zemljišno-knjižnim evidencijama o pokretanju postupka za stavljanje pod
starateljstvo; odlučuje o davanju saglasnosti na akte raspolaganja imovinom štićenika. Vid. čl. 187,
188 i 191 PZ RS; čl. 172, 173 i 179 PZ FBiH, čl. 153, 154 i 160 PZ BD.
22
Čl. 100 st. 1 PZ RS. Isto rješenje je prihvaćeno i u drugim porodičnim zakonodavstvima - čl.
155 st. 1 PZ FBiH, čl. 137 st. 1 PZ BD, čl. 118 st. 1 OZ, čl. 80 st. 2 t. 3 PZS.
89
�nastupanje štetnih posljedica po imovinska prava i interese djeteta ili reagovati na
već preduzete pravne poslove od strane roditelja u pogledu kojih činjenice ukazuju
na nepravilnosti i/ili nesavjesno upravljanje imovinom djeteta.23 Izricanjem ove
mjere roditelji se dovode u položaj vrlo sličan položaju staraoca, jer su u smislu
polaganja računa obavezni da predstave stanje u kojem se nalazi imovina djeteta,
da evidentiraju sve prihode i rashode, obrazlože korišćenje prihoda sa imovine
djeteta.24
Druga mjera, u pogledu čije nadležnosti mogu da se iznesu različiti
argumenti, podrazumijeva da organ starateljstva, a radi zaštite imovinskih interesa
djeteta, može zahtijevati od suda da odluči da se roditelji u pogledu upravljanja
imovinom djeteta stave u položaj staraoca.25 U zakonodavstvima FBiH i BD
prihvaćeno je drugačije rješenje. Ovu mjeru izriče organ starateljstva, a ne sud, što
smatramo opravdanim, jer efikasnost i pravovremnost ove mjere u smislu efekata
njene primjene zahtijevaju jednostavan postupak, brzo odlučivanje i brzo
djelovanje.26 Iako u pravu RS o prijedlogu organa starateljstva da se roditelji u
pogledu upravljanja imovinom djeteta stave u položaj staraoca odlučuje sud, ipak
će njihov rad i postupanje, u slučanju usvajanja ovog prijedloga, biti kontrolisani
od strane organa starateljstva, što u smislu pravnog finala ovog rješenja govori o
(ne)cjelishodnosti uspostavljene nadležnosti suda.27 S druge strane, razmatrana
mjera predstavlja ograničenje vršenja roditeljskog prava, što je u nadležnosti
organa starateljstva, dok se za sud rezerviše oduzimanje i vraćanje roditeljskog
prava. Uvažavajući princip najmanjeg posezanja, organ starateljstva će se odlučiti
za konzumiranje ovog ovlašćenja u situacijama kada primjenom prethodne mjere
nije ostvarena adekvatna zaštita imovinskih interesa djeteta, odnosno kada je
izvjesno da zahtijevanje od roditelja da polože račune o upravljanju dječijom
imovinom neće predstavljati dovoljnu zaštitu imovinskih interesa djeteta in
concreto.
Konačno, sud na zahtjev organa starateljstva, radi zaštite imovinskih
interesa djeteta, može dozvoliti mjere obezbjeĎenja na imovini roditelja.28
Izricanju ove mjere pristupa se u slučajevima kada su imovinska prava i interesi
djeteta ozbiljno ugroženi ili povrijeĎeni, odnosno kada su roditelji nasavjesnim
upravljanjem ili raspolaganjem dječijom imovinom prouzrokovali štetu. Popisom i
procjenom imovine roditelja, konstituisanjem hipoteke i založnog prava na
pokretnim stvarima, polaganjem kaucije od strane roditelja, nastoji se pružiti
efikasna zaštita imovinskih prava djeteta, odnosno omogućiti obeštećenje djeteta u
slučaju nesavjesnog ponašanja njegovih roditelja.
23
Cvejić – Jančić, O., Porodično pravo, Pravni fakultet u Novom Sadu, Novi Sad, 2009, str. 327.
Iako nije zakonom propisano u kojoj formi i koje elemente mora da sadrži „polaganje računa“,
nema prepreka da se primjeni zakonska odredba kojom je propisano koje elemente treba da sadrži
izvještaj staraoca koji se odnosi na imovinu štićenika (čl. 195 st. 3 PZ RS, čl. 180 st.3 PZ FBiH, čl.
161 st. 3 PZ BD).
25
Čl. 100 st. 3 PZ RS.
26
Čl. 155 st. 2 PZ FBiH, 137 st. 2 PZ BD.
27
Ovo zakonsko rješenje preuzeto je iz ranije primjenjivanog Porodičnog zakona SRBiH (Službeni
list SR BiH, br. 21/79 i 44/89).
28
Čl. 100 st. 2 PZ RS, čl. 155 st. 3 PZ FBiH, čl. 137 st. 3 PZ BD.
24
90
�2.3. Odgovornost roditelja za štetu
Roditelji osim prava na imovini djeteta, mogu imati i graĎanskopravnu
odgovornost, i to za štetu koju pričine na imovini djeteta, odnosno za štetu koju
dijete prouzrokuje trećem licu.
Prilikom preduzimanja akata upravljanja i raspolaganja imovinom djeteta,
roditelji mogu pričiniti štetu svojom krivicom. 29 Ukoliko su, dakle, roditelji
namjerno ili nepažnjom prouzrokovali štetu na imovini djeteta, roditelji će
solidarno odgovarati za naknadu štete. Solidarna odgovornost u ovom slučaju je
graĎanskopravni izraz zajedničkog vršenja roditeljskog prava. Odgovornost za
naknadu štete snosiće jedan roditelj, ukoliko samo on vrši roditeljsko pravo i
upravlja imovinom djeteta.30 Roditelji će odgovarati i bez njihove krivice, prema
pravilima o objektivnoj odgovornosti, ukoliko šteta na imovini djeteta potiče od
opasne stvari ili opasne djelatnosti čiji su imaoci, odnosno vršioci upravo roditelji
djeteta.31 U smislu ostvarivanja potraživanja koje glasi na naknadu štete, važno je
ukazati i na pravilo prema kojem izmeĎu roditelja i djece ne teku rokovi
zastarjelosti sve dok traje roditeljsko pravo.32
Roditelji odgovaraju i za štetu koju prouzrokuje njihovo maloljetno dijete
trećem licu, i to prema pravilima o odgovornosti za drugoga. Ukoliko štetu
prouzrokuje dijete mlaĎe od 7 godina, njegovi roditelji odgovaraju bez obzira na
krivicu.33 Roditelji se ne mogu osloboditi odgovornosti dokazujući da su vršili
potreban nadzor nad djetetom, odnosno pretpostavka krivice je neoboriva
(praesumptio iuris et de iure). OslobaĎanje roditelja od odgovornosti je moguće,
ako postoje razlozi za isključenje objektivne odgovornosti ili ako je dijete u
vrijeme prouzrokovanja štete bilo povjereno drugom licu i ako je to lice odgovorno
za štetu.34
Za razliku od prethodne situacije, odgovornost roditelja za štetu koju
prouzrokuje dijete starije od 7 godina i mlaĎe od 14 godina temelji se na krivici.
Budući da je pretpostavka o krivici roditelja oboriva (praesumptio iuris tantum),
roditelji se mogu osloboditi odgovornosti, ukoliko dokažu da je šteta nastupila bez
njihove krivice.35 Dijete u navedenom uzrastu će odgovarati samo ako se dokaže in
concreto da je prilikom prouzrokovanja štete bilo sposobno za rasuĎivanje.36 Ako
pored roditelja za štetu odgovara i dijete, onda je njihova odgovornost solidarna.37
29
Čl. 158 ZOO.
U postupku naknade štete koji se vodi protiv jednog ili oba roditelja (zavisno do načina vršenja
roditeljskog prava), a zbog sukoba interesa, djetetu se postavlja kolizijski (naročiti) staralac.
31
Čl. 173 i čl. 174 st. 1 ZOO.
32
Čl. 381 t. 2 ZOO.
33
Čl. 160 st. 1 i čl. 165 st. 1 ZOO.
34
Čl. 165 st. 2 i 3 ZOO. MeĎutim, drugo lice kome je povjeren maloljetnik neće odgovarati za
štetu, ako dokaže da je vršio potreban nadzor ili da bi šteta nastupila i pri vršenju potrebnog
nadzora, odnosno isto lice neće odgovarati za štetu, ako je ona nastala usljed lošeg vaspitanja
djeteta, rĎavih primjera ili poročnih navika koje su mu roditelji dali (čl. 167 st. 1 i čl. 168 ZOO).
35
Čl. 165 st. 4 ZOO.
36
Čl. 160 st. 2 ZOO.
37
Čl. 166 ZOO.
30
91
�Konačno, dijete starije od 14 godina je deliktno sposobno i odgovara
prema opštim pravilima o graĎanskopravnoj odgovornosti.38 MeĎutim, vrlo često
djeca nemaju (dovoljno) imovine iz koje bi oštećeno lice bilo obeštećeno, pa sud
može, kada to pravičnost zahtijeva, a naročito s obzirom na materijalno stanje
roditelja i oštećenika, da obaveže roditelje na naknadu štete, potpuno ili
djelimično.39
3. Izdržavanje djeteta
Jedno od najvažnijih prava djeteta jeste pravo djeteta na izdržavanje. Ovo
pravo djeteta, odnosno njemu korelativna dužnost roditelja (i, pod odreĎenim
uslovima, drugih srodnika) ima neposredan materijalno-finansijski značaj za
položaj djeteta. Ono van svake sumnje bitno determiniše podizanje i razvoj djeteta
u opštem smislu, odnosno posredno utiče na ostvarivanje drugih prava djeteta.
Upravo imajući u vidu ovo, kao i činjenicu da je riječ o pravu ličnog karktera, ali i
imovinske prirode, mišljenja smo, da je ovom pitanju neophodno posvetiti naročitu
pažnju.
Dužnost je roditelja da svoju maloljetnu djecu izdržavaju, na način i pod
uslovima kako je to zakonom propisano. Roditelji se ove obaveze ne mogu
osloboditi, pa čak ni u situaciji kada im je ograničeno vršenje roditeljskog prava ili
im je roditeljsko pravo oduzeto.40 Iako dužnost izdržavanja postoji izmeĎu svih
članova porodice i drugih srodnika, a što se temelji na principu porodične
solidarnosti, roditelji su prvenstveno dužni da izdržavaju maloljetnu djecu i u
izvršavanju ove obaveze moraju iskoristiti sve svoje mogućnost.41 Pri tome, ne
treba izgubiti iz vida pravilo u skladu sa kojim je maloljetnik (u pravu RS sa
navršenih 15 godina) koji radom ostvaruje prihode, odnosno dijete koje ima
imovinu i prihode od te imovine dužno da doprinosi za svoje izdržavanje.42
MeĎutim, roditelji imaju dužnost da u odreĎenim situacijama izdržavaju i
punoljetnu djecu. Roditelji, prema svojim mogućnostima, izdržavaju djecu koja se
nalaze na redovnom školovanju (najduže do navršene 26. godine života).43 S druge
38
Čl. 160 st. 3 ZOO.
Čl. 169 st. 3 ZOO.
40
Čl. 235 PZ RS, čl. 218 PZ FBiH, čl. 197, PZ BD, čl. 81 st. 4 PZS, čl. 212 OZ.
41
Čl. 232 st. 1 PZ RS, čl. 215 PZ FBiH, čl. 194 PZ BD, čl. 154 st. 1 PZS, čl. 209 st. 1 OZ.
42
Čl. 234 PZ RS, čl. 217 PZ FBiH, čl. 196 PZ BD. Odredbom čl. 154 st. 3 PZS ova dužnost, kao
supsidijarna u odnosu na roditelje i ostale krvne srodnike, vezuje se za djecu koja ostvaruju
sopstvenu zaradu ili imaju imovinu, dok se u čl. 211 OZ govori o dužnosti djeteta koje ima
prihode.
43
Čl. 233 st. 1 PZ RS, čl. 216 st. 1 PZ FBiH, čl.195 st. 1 PZ BD, čl. 155 st. 2 PZS. U odredbama
OZ osim što nije propisana gornja starosna granica za izdržavanje djeteta koje se nalazi na
redovnom školovanju, ova je obaveza roditelja produžena i za vrijeme nezaposlenosti njihovog
djeteta u periodu od 1 godine od završetka školovanja (čl. 210 st. 1 i 2). U odnosu na pitanje
„redovnosti školovanja“ nailazimo na interesantan stav sudske prakse prema kojem za redovno
školovanje nije od presudne važnosti status studenta (redovni ili vanredni student), niti je bitan
uspjeh studenta, već se cijeni rad, priprema i pokušaji polaganja ispita: „Za sticanje prava na
izdržavanje nije od presudne važnosti da li dete ima formano status redovnog ili vanrednog
studenta, već okolnost da se školovanje odvija kontinuirano i bez velikih prekida... Pri tome je
nebitno ako ispite i ne položi jer se to smatra prolaznim neuspehom koji ne može dovesti do
39
92
�strane, ako se radi o punoljetnom djetetu koje zbog bolesti, fizičkih ili psihičkih
nedostataka nije sposobno za rad i nema dovoljno sredstava za život ili ih ne može
ostvariti iz svoje imovine, roditelji su dužni da ga izdržavaju sve dok ta
nesposobnost traje.44 U većini slučajeva, produženju ove obaveze roditelja prethodi
produženje roditeljskog prava ili oduzimanje (potpuno ili djelimično) poslovne
sosobnosti njihovom djetetu.
Ukoliko se izdržavanje ne može ostvariti od roditelja, ova obaveza prelazi
na krvne srodnike, odnosno na adoptivne srodnike - očuha i maćehu45, pa čak i
nakon smrti roditelja djeteta ako je u času smrti postojala porodična zajednica
izmeĎu očuha/maćehe i pastorka/pastorke.46
U smislu odreĎivanja izdržavanja, primjenjuje se opšte pravilo da se
izdržavanje odreĎuje prema mogućnostima davaoca izdržavanja i u skladu sa
potrebama primaoca izdržavanja.47 MeĎutim, pored opšteg pravila i propisanih
kriterijuma za odreĎivanje izdržavanja, zakonodavac je opravdano predvidio da se
u pogledu odreĎivanja izdržavanja za dijete imaju primjeniti i neka posebna
pravila. Tako, zakonodavac obavezuje sud da u navedenoj situaciji u obzir uzme
uzrast djeteta, kao i potrebe za njegovo školovanje,48 odnosno da rad i brigu
roditelja kojem je dijete povjereno na zaštitu i vaspitanje posebno cijeni kao
doprinos za izdržavanje djeteta.49
Za zaštitu interesa djeteta od posebne ja važnosti pravilo prema kojem je
sud obavezan da, kada utvrdi da roditelji nisu u mogućnosti da zajednički
podmiruju potrebe izdržavanja svog djeteta, o tome obavijesti organ starateljstva
radi obezbjeĎenja sredstava za izdržavanje djeteta.50 TakoĎe, u funkciji zaštite
interesa djeteta je ovlašćenje organa starateljstva da može u njegovo ime da
odbijanja zahteva za izdržavanje.“ – Presuda Vrhovnog kasacionog suda, Rev. 471/2014 od
15.05.2014. godine, objavljena u Paragrafova zbirka sudskih odluka, januar 2015, Beograd, 2015,
str. 25.
44
Čl. 233 st. 2 PZ RS, čl. 216 st. 2 PZ FBiH, čl. 195 st. 2 PZ BD, čl. 155 st. 1 PZS, čl. 210 st. 3 OZ
( s tim da se ne postavlja uslov da punoljetno dijete nema dovoljno sredstava za život ili ih ne
može ostvariti iz svoje imovine).
45
U pravu RS očuh i maćeha dužni su da izdržavaju pastorke, ako ovi nemaju srodnika koji su ih
po zakonu dužni izdržavati (čl. 237 st. 1 PZ RS), dok se u pravu FBiH i BD očuh i maćeha
pozivaju na izdržavanje djeteta nakon roditelja, a prije ostalih srodnika (čl. 220 st. 1 PZ FBiH i čl.
199 st. 1 PZ BD).
46
Čl. 237 PZ RS, čl. 220 PZ FBiH, čl. 199 PZ BD, čl. 159 st. 1 i 2 PZS, čl. 214 st. 1 i 2 OZ.
47
Čl. 253 PZ RS, čl. 235 PZ FBiH, čl. 214 PZ BD, čl. 160 PZS, čl. 231 OZ.
48
Za razliku od ostalih porodičnih zakonodavstava u okruženju, odredbama OZ propisano je da
resorno ministarstvo najkasnije do 1. aprila tekuće godine objavljuje minimalne novčane iznose
potrebne za mjesečno izdržavanj djeteta, koje je dužan platiti roditelj koji ne živi sa djetetom.
Pomenuti minimalni iznos odreĎuje se u procentu od prosječne mjesečne isplaćene neto plate po
zaposlenom u pravnim licima u Hrvatskoj za proteklu godinu. Pri tome, zakonodavac je odredio
procentualne iznose u zavisnosti od uzrasta djeteta (do 6 godina – 17%; od 7 do 12 godina – 20%;
od 13 do 18 godina 22% prosječne plate). Obaveza izdržavanja može biti odreĎena i u manjim
iznosima od navedenih, ako davalac izdržavanja izdržava više djece ili kada maloljetnik, imajući
prihode, ispunjava uslove da doprinosi za svoje izdržavanje Vid. čl. 232 st. 4-6 OZ.
49
Čl. 253 st. 2 i čl. 254 PZ RS, čl. 236 st. 1 i 2 PZ FBiH, čl. 215 st. 1 i 2 PZ BD, čl.
50
Čl. 255 PZ RS, čl. 237 PZ FBiH. Nažalost, ovakav zaštitni mehanizam, makar u ravni
normativnog, izostao je u porodučnom zakonodavstvu BD.
93
�pokrene spor o izdržavanju i povećanju izdržavanja, odnosno da podnese sudu
prijedlog za izvršenje kada roditelj ne traži izvršenje dosuĎenog izdržavanja.51
Ipak, praksa pokazuje da u ostvarivanju prava djeteta na izdržavanje
postoji mnogo problema. Kada je riječ o RS, na to je posebno ukazano u
izvještajima Ombudsmana za djecu RS koji prima veliki broj podnesaka upravo
zbog ove vrste problema. U svojim godišnjim izvještajima Omudsman za djecu RS
ističe da se pravosnažne presude o razvodu braka, u dijelu u kojem se utvrĎuje
obaveza izdržavanja djeteta, ne izvršavaju. U slučaju da dužnik obaveze
izdržavanja istu ne ispunjava, povjerilac (odnosno roditelj u ime djeteta) mora
pokrenuti sudski postupak.52
Problemi za tražioca izdržavanja u izvršnom postupku mogu nastati zbog
činjenice da je neophodno označiti adresu dužnika obaveze izdržavanja, mjesto
gdje radi i njegovog poslodavca, odnosno navesti imovinu u odnosu na koju se
predlaže izvršenje. Pored toga, troškovi sudskog postupka53 nisu rijedak motiv koji
determiniše odluku tražioca izdržavanja (odnosno njegovog zakonskog zastupnika)
o ostvarivanju ovog prava u sudskom postupku. Sve ovo bitno utiče na obim
ostvarivanja prava djeteta na izdržavanje, što najčešće svoj metapravni rezultat ima
u dodatnom opterećenju onog roditelja sa kojim dijete živi, odnosno kojem je
dijete povjereno na zaštitu i vaspitanje.
4. Institucionalni kapaciteti za zaštitu prava djeteta
Ne umanjujući značaj i ulogu ostalih institucija koje u okviru svojih
nadležnosti imaju pravo i/ili dužnost da preduzimaju mjere i vrše aktivnosti u
pravcu zaštite prava i interesa djeteta (resorna ministarstva, republički odnosno
kantonalni organi uprave, organi uprave u jedinicama lokalne samouprave i u BD,
te nevladnine organizacije), posebnu pažnju u ovom radu posvećujemo onim
institucijama čija je djelatnost i djelokrug poslova isključivo ili pretežno vezan za
zaštitu prava djeteta, a od značaja su za imovinskopravne prilike djeteta i uopšte za
zaštitu i unapreĎenje materijalnog položaja djeteta.
4.1. Ombudsman za djecu Republike Srpske
Za razliku od ostalih pravnih sistema u BiH, u RS je 2008. godine osnovan
Ombudsman za djecu RS (dalje: Ombudsman). Ombudsman je utemeljen
posebnim zakonom - Zakonom o Ombudsmanu za djecu Republike Srpske54 kao
51
Čl. 256 PZ RS, čl. 239 PZ FBiH, čl. 217 PZ BD, čl. 278 st. 3 PZS, čl. 234 st. 1 i 2 OZ.
Godišnji izvještaj o radu Ombudsmana za djecu Republike Srpske za 2013. godinu, Ombudsman
RS, str. 29 – 31; Godišnji izvještaj o radu Ombudsmana za djecu Republike Srpske za 2012.
godinu, Ombudsman RS, str. 31 – 33, Godišnji izvještaj o radu Ombudsmana za djecu Republike
Srpske za 2011. godinu, Ombudsman RS, str. 35 – 37.
53
I pored odredbe čl. 268a PZ RS kojom je predviĎeno da dijete ima pravo na besplatnu pravnu
pomoć bez obzira na socijalni status u svim postupcima za ostvarivanje prava na izdržavanje, neki
roditelji imaju percepciju da je ostvarivanje prava u sudskom postupku nužno povezano sa
značajnim troškovima.
54
Službeni glasnik RS, br. 103/08 i 70/12.
52
94
�nezavisna institucija koja štiti, prati i promoviše prava djeteta. U tom smislu,
Obudsman je, izmeĎu ostalog, nadležan: da prati primjenu i usklaĎenost propisa u
RS koji se odnose na zaštitu prava djeteta s Ustavom RS i meĎunarodnim pravnim
dokumenatima55; da prati izvršavanje obaveza RS iz Konvencije; itd.56
Ombudsman je ovlašćen da Vladi RS, odnosno Narodnoj skupštini RS podnese
inicijativu za izmjenu ili dopunu zakona i drugih propisa i opštih akata, ako smatra
da do povrede prava djeteta dolazi zbog nedostataka u propisima; odnosno da
nadležnim organima koji obavljaju poslove u vezi sa djetetom, predlaže
preduzimanje mjera za sprečavanje štetnih postupanja koja ugrožavaju njihova
prava i interese, te da zahtijeva da dobije izvještaje o preduzetim mjerama.57
Dakle, riječ je o nezavisnoj instituciji koja štiteći javni interes, a u ovom
slučaju u pogledu prava, interesa i položaja djece, ima specifična ovlašćenja čije
vršenje u stvari predstavlja svojevrsni pritisak na regulatorno tijelo ili organ
primjene prava u pravcu korigovanja propisa ili postupanja u pružanju pravne
zaštite djetetu. S druge strane, pored ostvarivanja saradnje sa djecom (savjetovanje,
podsticanje na iznošenje mišljenja), Ombudsman ima obavezu da obavještava
javnost o stanju prava djeteta, kao i o mjerama koje se preduzimaju za zaštitu i
poboljšanje položaja djeteta.58 Upravo koristeći ova ovlašćenja, Ombudsman je u
svojim izvještajima, pored ostalog, ukazao na probleme u ostvarivanju prava
djeteta na izdržavanje.
4.2. Javni fond za dječiju zaštitu Republike Srpske
Javni fond za dječiju zaštitu Republike Srpske (dalje: Fond) osnovan je
1996. godine radi ostvarivanja opštih ciljeva iz sistema dječije zaštite: stvaranje
osnovnih uslova za približno ujednačavanje nivoa za zadovoljavanje razvojnih
potreba djece; planiranje, podsticanje i unapreĎenje dječije zaštite; pomoć porodici
u ostvarivanju njene reproduktivne, zaštitne, vaspitne i ekonomske funkcije;
posebna zaštita trećeg djeteta u porodici sa više djece; kao i druge aktivnosti i
prava iz oblasti dječije zaštite.59 Rad Fonda finansira se iz doprinosa za dječiju
zaštitu, donacija, poklona, domaćih i inostranih kredita, odnosno iz budžeta RS,
ukoliko Fond iz izvorne stope doprinosa ne uspijeva obezbijediti sredstva potrebna
za realizaciju prava od opšteg interesa.60
Uloga Fonda je značajna u ostvarivanju zakonom utvrĎenih prava u oblasti
dječije zaštite, a koja su većim dijelom od značaja za materijalni položaj djeteta
(naknada plate za vrijeme korišćenja porodiljskog odsustva; materinski dodatak;
55
U nadležnosti Ombudsmana je i da pokrene postupak pred Ustavnim sudom RS za ocjenu
ustavnosti i zakonitosti zakona i drugih opštih akata kada utvrdi da nisu usklaĎeni sa Ustavom RS,
odnosno zakonom (čl. 8 Zakona o ombudsmanu za djecu RS).
56
Čl. 5 Zakona o ombudsmanu za djecu RS.
57
Čl. 7 - 9 Zakona o ombudsmanu za djecu RS.
58
Čl. 6 - 16 Zakona o ombudsmanu za djecu RS.
59
Čl. 2 Zakona o dječijoj zaštiti (Službeni glasnik RS, br. 15/96, 10/98, 26/01, 61/01, 4/02 –
prečišćeni tekst, 17/08 i 1/09).
60
Čl. 70 Zakona o dječijoj zaštiti.
95
�pomoć za opremu novoroĎenčeta; dodatak za djecu; itd.).61 Naime, prvostepeni
organ – organ starateljstva odlučuje o navedenim pravima koristeći informacioni
sistem Fonda. S druge strane, Fond postupa po reviziji izjavljenoj protiv
prvostepenog rješenja, pa Fond može prvostepenoi rješenje potvrditi ili izmjeniti,
poništiti ili ukinuti.62
Dakle, Fond ima značajna ovlašćenja, ali i dužnosti u pogledu različitih
kategorija korisnika odreĎenih prava i na taj način u velikoj mjeri utiče na
materijalni položaj djeteta u porodici, ali i djeteta bez roditeljskog staranja, pri
čemu su naročito važni posebni projekti i aktivnosti Fonda koje imaju za cilj da se
obave analize i istraživanja koja se odnose na pojedine kategorije djece, radi
unapreĎenja njihove zaštite i njihovog položaja.
4.3. Centar za socijalni rad
Sistem socijalne zaštite, kao djelatnost od opšteg interesa, podrazumijeva
osnivanje i rad različitih ustanova socijalne zaštite, a posebno mjesto u tom
sistemu, i ne samo sa stanovišta socijalne, već i sa aspekta pravne zaštite prava i
interesa djeteta, zauzima centar za socijalni rad (dalje: Centar). Riječ je o ustanovi
socijalne zaštite koju osniva jedna ili više jedinica lokalne samouprave i koja
primjenjujući savremena naučna i stručna znanja, odnosno pozitivne propise vrši
javna ovlašćenja (rješava u prvom stepenu o ostvarivanju prava iz oblasti
porodično-pravne zaštite i starateljstva, vrši nadzor nad hraniteljskim porodicama,
vrši isplatu novčanih prava utvrĎenih zakonom i drugim propisima, itd.) i stručne
poslove (otkriva i prati socijalne potrebe graĎana i probleme u oblasti socijalne
zaštite, organizuje i sprovodi odgovarajuće oblike socijalne i dječje zaštite, prati
stanje u oblasti dječje i porodično-pravne zaštite, itd.).
Centar ima značajnu ulogu u zaštiti imovinskih prava djeteta i u tom
smislu zakonom su mu povjerena važna ovlašćenja. Kao što je već gore navedeno
Centar daje saglasnost roditeljima/staraocu na akte raspolaganja imovinom djeteta,
odnosno preduzima mjere u pogledu zaštite imovinskih prava i interesa djeteta
koje istovremeno predstavljaju ograničenje prava roditelja na imovini djeteta.
Pored toga, Centar je aktivno legitimisan da pokrene postupak za izdržavanje
djeteta, odnosno spor o povećanju izdržavanja (ukoliko roditelj kojem je dijete
povjereno na zaštitu i vaspitanje bez opravdanih razloga ne koristi ovo pravo), te
da u ime djeteta predloži sudu izvršenje kada roditelj ne traži izvršenje dosuĎenog
izdržavanja.
MeĎutim, i pored značajnih zakonskih ovlašćenja koja su mu data, stanje u
praksi i stavovi zvaničnih institucija pokazuju da se Centar suočava sa značajnim
problemima u ostvarivanju svoje funkcije i društvene uloge, a pogotovo u pogledu
finansiranja. To je, izmeĎu ostalog, potvrĎeno i u stavu Ombudsmana da je
neophodno unaprijediti kapacitet centara za socijalni rad, jer broj i struktura
61
62
Čl. 10 Zakona o dječijoj zaštiti.
Čl. 36 – 39 Zakona o dječijoj zaštiti.
96
�stručnog osoblja ne mogu odgovoriti nadležnostima i ovlašćenjima koja Centar
ima.63
5. Zaključak
Pozitivnopravna i ograničena uporednopravna analiza relevantnih propisa
upućuje na zaključak da zakonodavstva u BiH - prevashodno porodičnopravna sadrže solidna rješenja i odgovarajuće mehanizme zaštite imovinskih prava i
interesa djeteta, predviĎajući posebna ograničenja za njihove zakonske zastupnike
(roditelje i staraoce) i priznajući maloljetnicima u odreĎenim slučajevima
ograničenu (djelimičnu) poslovnu sposobnost.64 Zakonom propisana forma pravnih
poslova izmeĎu roditelja i djece, odnosno roditelja kao zastupnika djeteta i trećeg
lica, takoĎe doprinosi pravnoj zaštiti imovinskih prava i interesa djeteta, kao i
pravnoj sigurnosti uopšte. Solemnizacijom navedenih pravnih poslova zahtijeva se
postupanje organa starateljstva i promoviše pravna zaštita prava djeteta, odnosno
provjerava se opravdanost posla sa stanovišta njegovih interesa.
Budući da ostvarivanje prava na izdržavanje predstavlja veliki i značajan
problem, nameće se potreba da se razmotre mogućnosti za unapreĎenje ili
reformisanje postojećih zakonskih rješenja kojima bi se obezbijedila nužna
efikasnost u ostvarivanju prava na izdržavanje. U pravcu zaštite interesa djece čiji
roditelji neuredno izvršavaju ili neizvršavaju ovu svoju obavezu, bilo bi korisno
preispitati perspektive formiranja i djelovanja posebnog vanbudžetskog fonda u
okviru nadležnosti entiteta (i BD) iz kojeg bi se obezbijeĎivalo izdržavanje za ovu
djecu, a koji bi po isplati iznosa izdržavanja imao pravo na regresni zahtjev prema
roditelju ili licima dužnicima obaveze izdržavanja. Na ovaj način, u značajnoj
mjeri bi se amortizovale brojne i raznovrsne posljedice neplaćanja alimentacije i
istovremeno bi se obezbijedio mehanizam za provoĎenje zakonske norme prema
kojoj je društvena zajednica obavezna da neobezbijeĎenim članovima porodice
(koji ne mogu u cijelosti ili djelimično ostvariti pravo na izdržavanje) pruži
sredstva neophodna za izdržavanje. S druge strane, rješavanje naplate nekih drugih
zakonskih obaveza (fiskalnog i penalnog karaktera) pokazuje da postoje efikasni
mehanizmi prinude i da je moguće u istom pravcu razmišljati i kada je u pitanju
izmirivanje obaveze plaćanja izdržavanja (u smislu predviĎanja da uredno
izvršavanje obaveze izdržavanja predstavlja uslov za regulisanje odreĎenih
statusnih ili drugih pitanja, koja su od interesa za dužnika obaveze izdržavanja).
Iako su institucionalni kapaciteti, naročito u RS, solidno postavljeni u
opštem sistemu zaštite djeteta, njihove zakonske nadležnosti i očekivane stručne
kompetencije nisu adekvatno praćene finansijskim i ljudskim resursima, što bitno
utiče ne ostvarivanje njihove društvene uloge i redukuje njihovu efikasnost u radu.
63
Godišnji izvještaj o radu Ombudsmana za djecu Republike Srpske za 2013. godinu, Ombudsman
RS, str. 33 i 34; Godišnji izvještaj o radu Ombudsmana za djecu Republike Srpske za 2012.
godinu, Ombudsman RS, str. 33 i 34; Godišnji izvještaj o radu Ombudsmana za djecu Republike
Srpske za 2011. godinu, Ombudsman RS, str. 37 i 38.
64
Stanje u realnosti ne prati nužno normativu, pa bi istraživanje prakse i iskustava centara za
socijalni rad u pogledu razmatranih pitanja pružilo dragocjene podatke koji bi pomogli u
identifikovanju i kvantifikovanju raskoraka izmeĎu stvarnog i normativnog.
97
�Darko Radić, Assistant Professor,
Faculty of Law, University of Banja Luka
PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTS OF THE CHILD
Abstract:In the context of protection of children's rights, author considers
protection of children's property rights and interests. Consideration of positive
legislation which regulates relationship between parents and child regarding child's
property is particularly important to make analyses instruments of protection of
children's property rights. Autor made efforts to determine whether positive
legislation ensures effective protection of children's property rights and whether
measures that restrict parents' rights adequate the child's best interest. In terms of
child's right to be supported, author has pointed some rules and identifies certain
problems in exercising right to support. Protection of children's property rights and
interests is well connected to some institutions which may contribute to protection
of children's property rights. Consequently, author has analized the institutions in
terms of their role, capacities and lack in functioning.
Key words: children's property rights, parents' rights on child's property ,
child support , institutional capacities for protection of children`s rights.
98
�
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2990
Title
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ZAŠTITA IMOVINSKIH PRAVA I INTERESA DJETETA
Author
Author
RADIĆ, Darko
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Autor u ovom radu raspravlja o zaštiti imovinskih prava i interesa djeteta, preispitujući pozitivnopravni okvir kojim se uređuju imovinskopravni odnosi između roditelja i djece, odnosno kojim se utvrđuju mehanizmi zaštite prava djeteta imovinske prirode, nastojeći da utvrdi da li postojeća zakonska rješenja osiguravaju efikasnu zaštitu prava maloljetnika. Pored razmatranja cilja i sadržaja mjera kojima se ograničavaju prava roditelja na imovini djeteta, autor ukazuje na značaj i ulogu izdržavanja djeteta, ali isto tako identifikuje probleme u ostvarivanju ovog prava. Konačno, zaštita imovinskih prava djeteta u značajnoj mjeri zavisi od određenih institucija koje sa stanovišta svojih ovlašćenja i odgovarajućih kompetencija mogu značajno doprinijeti pravnoj zaštiti djeteta, pa je ovim istraživanjem obuhvaćena i analiza njihovog položaja, mogućnosti i nedostataka u njihovom funkcionisanju. Ključne riječi: imovinska prava djeteta, prava roditelja na imovini djeteta, pravo djeteta na izdržavanje, institucionalni kapaciteti za zaštitu prava djeteta.
Publisher
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Law faculty of University Džemal Bijedić Mostar
Date
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2015
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General),K Law (General)
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f3f80e74fba549e3a2c4bc7e466cdbdf.pdf
4a0c2cb0a1734f84c97fffbedc3eee52
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Text
Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
The Prosody and Quantity of English Compounds
Stanimir Rakić
Non-affiliated, Serbia
Submitted: 17.04.2014.
Accepted: 06.11.2014.
Abstract
Following the earlier works of Booij (1985) and Nespor & Vogel (1986) I provide further
evidence that English compounds are made up of prosodic words. The length of the first
components must be preserved because they are identical to basic lexical forms. In some other
languages, as for example in Serbian, the length of the first components may be shortened
because the inclusion of linking vowels can contribute to the building of the required ‘derived
environment’ (Kiparsky 1985). This invoking of the strict cyclicity condition is however
necessary only for those English dialects in which the accented syllables are not necessarily
closed. In this paper I discuss the prosodic status and quantity of English compounds.
Keywords: English Compounds, prosodic structure, trochaic shortening, quantity, stric cyclicity
The introduction of prosodic phonology has shown that besides grammatical hierarchy there also
exists prosodic hierarchy (s. Selkirk 1978, Nespor & Vogel 1982, 1986, Booij 1983, 1985).
These hierarchies are in most cases parallel, but still they do not coincide. The parallelism
between these hierarchies can be represented as in the following table:
(1)
prosodic hierarchy
grammatical hierarchy
segment
segment
syllable (σ)
morpheme
foot (F)
prosodic word (ω)
morpho-syntactic word
prosodic phrase (φ)
syntactic phrase
(Booij 1985, p. 29)
According to Selkirk (1978, 1980) the units of prosodic hierarchy are exactly those domains in which
phonological rules processes apply. The grammar must determine what relations exist between
prosodic and grammatical hierarchies. In the languages such as English and Dutch every syntactic
word is usually also a prosodic word, but this is not always the case. Booij (1985, p. 29) notes that in
the languages such as English and Dutch the following differences are possible:
267
�The Prosody and Quantity of English Compounds
(2a)
(b)
In compounds every component is an independent prosodic word;
Some affixes, which may be denoted as non-coherent, make particular, independent
prosodic words.
Besides the Dutch examples, Booij cites the following English ones:
(3)
[blackAboardN]N - (black)ω (board) ω
[publicAity]N
(publicity)ω
[king Ndom]N
- (king) ω(dom) ω
The first example represents compound components, while the following two are respectively the
derivatives with coherent and non-coherent suffixes. The coherent suffix –ity combines with the
stem 'public into a prosodic word pu'blicity, while the non-coherent suffix -dom makes a separate
prosodic word. With non-coherent suffixes there is no resyllabification across morphem
boundaries that mark separate prosodic words. A particularly impressive example is the
derivative with non-coherent suffix -achtig in Dutch. In the adjective roodachtig ('reddish') the
principle of the maximal onset rule does not apply:
(4)
roodachtig - (rood)w(achtig)w
The compelling evidence is the devoicing of the syllable-final /d/ showing that this segment
belongs to the coda, not to the onset – there is no resyllabification over the boundary of prosodic
words (Booij, 2002, p. 189).
Kiparsky (1979) also cites examples showing that the compound components in English
are separate prosodic words. In the following English compounds the principle of maximal onset
does not apply:
(5a)
beef eater - (beef)w(eater)w / *(bee)w(feater)
(b)
bee feeder - (bee)w(feeder)w
In (5a) the components are separate prosodic words – the coda of the first component /f/ does not
go over into the onset of the second component, although /f/ is a possible onset, as the example
feeder shows. The examples (5a) and (5b) are clearly different as the first /i/ is phonetically
shorter in beef than in bee.
In this paper we intend to show further evidence that the components of English compounds are
separate prosodic words.
2. In many languages the compounds are understood as combining of prosodic words. This means that
all phonological rules whose domain is a prosodic word can be applied separately on the compound
components, but not on the whole compound. This is true for phonotactic restrictions as well as for
segmental and prosodic rules. In English there is a phonotactic restrictions that geminated consonants
cannot appear inside prosodic words. The geminated consonants are not possible inside the compound
components, but they can appear at the components boundary as is shown in (6):
(6)
back.cloth /'bæk-kl/ n.
big game /bg'gem/ n.
bird dog /'b:ddɒg/ n.
black comedy /blæk'kɒmdi/ n.
fast track /'fɑ:sttræk/ n.
goosestep /'gu:s-step/ n.
etc.
However, in lexicalized compounds degemination is possible. Thus in granddaughter
/'grænd:t/, the /d/ from the end of the first component is lost. The simplification of the
268
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
pronunciation reflects the lexicalized meaning of this compound, which deviates from the
compositional meaning implied by the components.1
Another phonotactical restriction refers to the agreement of obstruent in voicing. In the interior
of prosodic words the adjacent obstruents must agree in voicing, but at the boundary of
components this is not be the case. This property of English compounds may be illustrated with
the following examples.
(7)
back.bit.ing /'bækbatƞ/ n.
back.bone /'bækbn/ n.
baggage car /'bægdkɑ:/ n.
bag.pipes /'bægpaps/ n.
band.stand /'bændstænd/ n.
bank.book /'bæƞkbk/ n.
bank draft /'bæƞkdr:ft/ n.
news.stand /'nju:zstænd/ n.
etc.
These examples clearly show that the given phonotactic restriction does not hold in English
compounds, although they do hold in prosodic words. In some lexicalized compounds however
the adjacent obstruents may agree in voicing. Thus for newspaper the variant pronunciations
/'nju:zpep/ and /'nju:spep/ are possible, but for the noun gooseberry pronunciation is
normally /'gzbri/. Note however that newspaper and gooseberry are lexicalized compounds their meaning does not follow compositionally from the meaning of their components.
The third known restriction refers to the velarization of nasals in prosodic words. In English, the
alveolar /n/ is velarized before velars (e.g.. finger /'fƞg/, uncle /'ƞkl/, pancreas
/'pæƞkris/) in prosodic words (Gimson 2001, p. 199). In English compounds velarization does
not apply across morpheme boundary:
(8)
corn.cob /'k:nkɒb/ n.
corn.crake /'k:nkrek/ (the bird) n.
man.kind /mæn'kand/ n.
green.grocer /'gri:ngrs/ n.
bean counter /'bi:nkant/ n.
pan.cake /'pænkek/ n.
etc.
In lexicalized compounds velarization can occur as in hand.ker.chief /'hæƞktʃf/ (Allen 1978,
p. 129).
In English, as in many other languages, syllabification does not apply across the compound
boundaries because of the assumed principle that the syllable boundary must coincide with the
morphem boundary (Gimson 2001, p. 52).2 Wells, who also assumes this principle, explains this
principle in his introduction to the LPD (1990) in the following way:
(11)
The syllable boundary coincides with the word boundary, and also with the morpheme
boundary between the compound components.
1
In American English the compound granddad may be also written grandad, which means that lexicalization is also reflected
in the spelling.
2Gimson (2001, p. 244) invokes four criteria for the word division: morphemic, phonemic, phonotactic and alophonic, but he
adds that these criteria sometimes do not agree, and then we may additionally use the principle of maximal onset.
269
�The Prosody and Quantity of English Compounds
Booij (2007) cites Dutch examples that show that the sequence /lk/ is divided inside prosodic
words (e.g. kal.koenen 'turkey'), but is included in the coda if it occurs at the end of prosodic
words (e.g. balk 'beam'). When lk is at the end of the first compound component, as for example
in balk anker ( 'a support for the beam'), there is no resyllabification across the components
boundary, and the sequence /lk/ remains in the coda of the first component. It is not difficult to
find similar examples for English:
(12a)
abundant /.'bn.dnt/ adj. (b)
land owner /'lndn/ n.
advantage /d.'vɑ:n.td/ n. current account /'k.rnt..kant/ n.
franchise /'frn.taz/ n.
lunch hour /'lnt. a/ n.
bolster /'bl.st/ v.
false alarm /f:s.'l:m/ n.
alternate /:l.'t:.nt/ adj.
adult education /.dlt.e.dj.ke./ n.
Moldova /'ml,dv/
field officer /'fi:ld.:fs/ n.
Atlanta /t.'ln.t/ n.
battleaxe /'bt.l.ks/ n.
temper /'tem.p/ n.
stamp office /'stmp.:fs/ ,n.
Amundsen /':.mnd.s n/
Land's End /lndz.'end/
In (12a) the underlined consonant sequences nd, nt, nt, ls, lt, ld, tl, mp and ds are divided in
prosodic words, while in (12b) they remain in the coda of the first component in compounds
because there is no resyllabification across morphem boundary. Note however that there is no
resyllabification when the second order suffixes are added, either, even in the cases when they
begin with vowels (e.g. land.ed adj., land.ing n., thorn.y adj., stamp.ing n., Booj 1983, p. 267).
The impossibility of resyllabification across the morpheme boundary in compounds also affects
the realization of affricates in English. The affricates in English are complex segments produced
by combining plosives and fricatives. In English these are the combinations /tʃ/, /d/, /tr/ i /dr/.
Inside prosodic words, the combinations of these voices are pronounced as affricates, but at the
conjunction of compounds they remain separated because they belong to different syllables.
Table 1. The place of affricates in prosodic units
In the Interior of
At the Compound Conjunction
Words
butcher
lightship
/t/
/tr/
mattress
Footrest
/dr/
tawdry
Handrail
Gimson (2001: 172)
The example for the affricate /d/ is difficult to find because only some words of French origin
begin with //, and these rarely appear as the second components in compounds.
Further evidence that English compounds are not prosodic words is provided by the allophony of
the alveolar approximant /l/. In English, the alveolar approximant /l/ appears in two allophonic
forms: palatalized and velarized (Gimson 2001, p. 203, Čubrović, p. 2011, 60). In the compounds
in which the first component ends with /l/, and the second begins with a vowel, /l/ is not
palatalized:
(13)
battleaxe /'bt.l.ks/ n.
barrel organ /'b.r.l.:.gn/ n.
capital assets /k.p.tl.'s.et/ n.
real estate /'rl..stet/ n.
270
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
travel agent /'trv.l.ed.nt/ n.
waffle iron /'w:f.l.ar.n/ n.
bottle opener /'bt.l.p.n'/ n.
mail order /'ml.:d./ n.
It is possible that in some cases the /l/ from the end of the first component is nonetheless palatalized.
This will be the signal that the compound in question is lexicalized – it is understood as one whole. In
fact, this is how Booij (1994, p. 8) interprets the observation of Durand (1990, p. 181) that in the
compound mail order the /l/ is palatalized. In lexicalized compounds, resyllabification across
morpheme boundary is possible, and, as usual in a such cases, the compound mail order is divided in
syllables as a monomorphemic word, i.e. mai.lor.der.3
2. The vowel length of the first component in English compounds usually does not shorten,
although it may shorten in Serbian and some other languages. In this paper, I try to explain why this
shortening is lacking in English.
It is well known that in trochaic systems, feet may be ordered by the following hierarchy:
(14)
(LL), (H)
>
(HL) >
(L),
where H denotes heavy syllable, and L light syllable (Prince 1990, p. 8).
According to Prince (1990), in trochaic systems the trochaic shortening (HL) → (LL) produces the
preferred foot structure because (LL) and (H) are the optimal feet in trochaic systems. The trochaic
shortening is a lexical rule that applies in derived environments; however, it never applies in English
compounds.
In English, each compound component represents a separate prosodic word. As nouns and
adjectives in English may contain long vowels, the first compound components may also contain such
vowels. In (15), the point marks the syllable division, which normally does not cross the morpheme
boundary.
(15a) boot.leg /'bu:tleg/
pea.nut /'pi:nt/
cheek.bone /'tʃi:kbn/
(b)
auc.tion bridge /':kʃәnbrd/
for.tune cook.ie /'f:tʃәn.kki /
(c)
ba.na.na peel /bә'nɑ:nәpi:l/
beau.ti.ful /'bju:t.fl/
fea.ture film /'fi:tʃә.flm/
LDCE (2003)
In the examples provided in (15), the length of the first components does not shorten. In the examples
of (15a), the first components consist of one foot of the type (H), which does not undergo shortening
because it is optimal according to the hierarchy (14). In the example (15b) the first components
auc.tion and for.tune consist of two heavy syllables (H)(H), and with this foot structure no shorting is
possible. The shortening is only possible if there is the foot (HL) in a prosodic word, and the first
syllable is not closed. In (15a) and (15b) this condition is not fulfilled.
The conditions for trochaic shortening are not fulfilled in (15c), either, because every component
behaves as a separate prosodic word that keeps its lexical form. The first components banana
/bә.'nɑ:.nә/, beauty /bju:.t/ and feature /'fi:.tʃә/ are lexical words, and the environment in which the
3
In EPD the compound mail order is devided into syllables with mail.or.der where /l/ is velarised. Obviously some
dictionaries, as well as some speakers, may differently asses (estimate) whether a particular compound is lexicalized or not.
271
�The Prosody and Quantity of English Compounds
length occurs in (15c) has not been changed. The principle of strict cyclicity bans the application of
lexical rules in a non-derived environment. Kiparsky (1985) explains that ‘derived environment’ means
“an environment which satisfies the structural description of the rule either by virtue of a
morphological operation on the same cycle, or by virtue of the prior application of a phonological rule
on the same cycle” (p. 137). The domain of foot formation as well as the domain of syllabification is a
prosodic word. The first components banana, beauty and feature are respectively divided into feet
(bә)F('nɑ:.nә)F, ('bju:.t)F and ('fi:.tʃә)F. The feet ('nɑ:n.ә)F, ('bju:t)F and ('fi:.tʃә)F contain the heavy, but
also open, first syllables. The conditions for trochaic shortening are satisfied, but the trochaic
shortening cannot apply because the first components of compounds in (15c) do not occur in a derived
environment. Therefore, the shortening of the vowel length of the first components in these compounds
is not possible. Because of the principle of strict cyclicity, the shortening of the vowel length of the
second components in English compounds is also impossible.
If the compound is lexicalized, the vowel shortening of the first component may be possible in English.
The compound gooseberry is pronounced /'gzbәri/ in the standard which reflects Received
Pronunciation. Because of lexicalization, in the basic form /'gu:sbәri/, the adjacent obstruents undergo
agreement in voice and the whole word is divided into syllables as a monomorphemic word –
gu:.zbә.ri. The first two syllables make up a foot, and the third syllable is extrametrical. In the metrical
structure (gu:.zbә)F<ri>, the foot (gu:.zbә)F satisfies the conditions for trochaic shortening which as a
result produces the outcome /gu.zbәri/. The alternative pronunciation /'gu:sbәri/ survives in those
English dialects in which this compound is not completely lexicalized (s. LDCE). In the pronunciation
/'gu:sbәri/, the components are separately divided into syllables, which provides the division 'gu:s.bә.ri.
The foot division gives ('gu:s)F(bә)F<ri> where the final syllable is extrametrical. The first foot is
heavy, and therefore optimal, which means that no trochaic shortening is possible.
In Serbian, the length of the first component in compounds is often shortened, and this shortening is
simply accounted for as trochaic shortening in the words with long-falling accents.4
(16)
kȓv ’blood’ > kȑvotōk ’bloodstream’
vid ’sight’ > vidokrug ’field of vision’
In (16), the compounds are constructed with a linking vowel -o-, which provides for the required
derived environment. The underlying structures for the compounds in (16) are parsed into feet with
(kȓvo)F(tōk)F and (vido)F(krug)F. Here the first components fulfill the conditions for trochaic
shortening, and the result are the forms kȑvotōk and vidokrug with short syllables in the first
component. In (16), the linking vowel has the crucial role as it provides a derived environment. If
there is no linking vowel in compounds, the shortening is impossible:
(17)
prah-šečer ’powdered sugar’, ton-film ’soundfilm’, gol-razlika ’goal difference’ (in
sport).
In (17), the components keep their accents and length, and, in particular, the first components prah
’powder’, ton ’tone’, gol ’goal’ keep their long-falling accent. In the grammars, the compounds of
this type are called semi-compounds (’polusloženice’) because they do not make prosodic words.
In standard Serbian, as in the other standard languages based on Neoštokavian dialects of former Yugoslavia, the four
different accents are commonly distinguished:
short-falling
long-falling
short-rising
long-rising
riba ’fish’
grad ’town’
selo ’village’
glava ’head’
The case of the long-falling accent is somewhat more complicated because its shortening involves a change of tone, the reason for
which is not completely clear (e.g. hvalospēv ’eulogy’ < hvála ’praise’-o-spêv ’poem’, s. Rakić 2012).
4
272
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
3. I must however note that the accent of the words in (15c) is marked differently in different
dictionaries. For example, in LPD (1990), the accented syllables are always closed. In this dictionary,
the first components in (15c) have the transcriptions banana /bә.'nɑ:n.ә/, beauty /'bju:t./, feature
/'fi:tʃ.ә/, where the accented syllables are closed, and no trochaic shortening is possible. On the other
hand, in CALD (2008) the same words are phonetically transcribed with /bә.'nɑ:.nә/, /'bju:.t/ and
/'fi:.tʃәr/ suggesting that there may exist dialectal differences in the syllabification of these words. In
those English dialects in which the accented syllables are not necessarily closed, we are free to recall
the principle of strict cyclicity in order to account for the lack of shortening of the first components in
compounds, because the conditions for trochaic shortening are fulfilled. The observations made in this
paper may have some explanatory value for these dialects only.
References
Allen, M. (1978) Morphological Investigation. University of Connecticut. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
Booij, G. (1983) Principles and parameters in prosodic phonology. Linguistics, 21, p. 249-280.
Booij, G. (1985) The Interaction of Phonology and morphology in Prosodic Phonology. In E.
Gussmann (Ed.) Phono-Morphology. Studies in the Interaction of Phonology and
Morphology, Lublin, Poland, p. 23-35.
Booij, G. (1994) Lexical phonology: a review. In R. Wiese (Ed.) Theorie des Lexikons. Arbeiten des
Sonderforschungsbereichs, 282. Düsseldorf, Germany: Heinrich-Heine-Universität, p. 287305.
Booij, G. (2007) Construction morphology and the lexicon. In F. Montermini. G. Boyé & N.
Harbout (Eds.) Selected proceedings of the 5th Décembrettes Morphology in Toulouse.
Somerville, Mass.: Cascadilla Press, p. 34-44.
Durand, J. (1990) Generative and Non-Linear Phonology. London: Longman.
EPD, English Pronouncing Dictionary (2003) Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Gimson, A.C. (2001) Gimson's Pronunciation of English, 6th edition, revised by A. Cruttenden.
London, England: Arnold.
Hayes, B. (1995) Metrical Stress Theory. Principles and Case Studies, Chicago, IL: The
University of Chicago Press.
Kiparsky, P. (1979) Metrical structure assignment is cyclic, Linguistic Inquiry, 10, p. 421-441.
LDCE (2003) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 3rd edition. Essex, England:
Longman.
LPD, J.C. Wells (1990) Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Essex, England:
Longman.
Nespor, M. & I. Vogel (1982) Prosodic domains of external sandhy rules. In H. van der Hulst &
N. Smith (Eds.), The Structure of Phonological Representation, vol. 1. Dordrecht,
Holland: Foris Publications, p. 222-255.
Nespor, M. & I. Vogel (1986). Prosodic Phonology, Dordrecht: Foris.
273
�The Prosody and Quantity of English Compounds
Prince, A. (1990) Quantitative consequences of Rhythmic Organization. In CLS 26, Chicago
Linguistic Society, IL, p. 355-398.
Rakić, S. (2012) Trochaic Lengthening in Neoštokavian. In Junghanns, U. et al. (Eds.) Formal
Description of Slavic Languages: The Ninth Conference, Proceedings of FDSL 9,
Göttigen 2011.Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Peter Lang, p. 237-258.
Selkirk, E. (1978) On prosodic structure and its relation to syntactic structure. In T. Fretheim
(ed.) Nordic Prosody II. Trondheim, Norway: TAPIR. 111-140.
Selkirk, E. (1980) The role of prosodic categories in English word stress. Linguistic Inquiry, 11,
3, p. 563-605.
274
�
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Title
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The Prosody and Quantity of English Compounds
Author
Author
Rakić, Stanimir
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Following the earlier works of Booij (1985) and Nespor & Vogel (1986) I provide further evidence that English compounds are made up of prosodic words. The length of the first components must be preserved because they are identical to basic lexical forms. In some other languages, as for example in Serbian, the length of the first components may be shortened because the inclusion of linking vowels can contribute to the building of the required ‘derived environment’ (Kiparsky 1985). This invoking of the strict cyclicity condition is however necessary only for those English dialects in which the accented syllables are not necessarily closed. In this paper I discuss the prosodic status and quantity of English compounds. Keywords: English Compounds, prosodic structure, trochaic shortening, quantity, stric cyclicity
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International Burch University
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2015
Keywords
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Article
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics,PB Modern European Languages,PE English,PN Literature (General),PR English literature
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Text
IZVORNI NAUČNI RAD
Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
Istine o Bosni i Hercegovini, konflikt ili sinergija
Dr. Ciril Ribičič
Faculty of Law / University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, Full Professor
e-mail: ciril.ribicic@guest.arnes.si
Abstract: The author discusses the importance of the ECtHR
ruling in the case Sejdić and Finci in terms of necessary
constitutional amendments that will establish Bosnia and
Herzegovina as a normal European democratic country,
which is independent and capable of integration in the EU.
According to the author, BH is facing an inter-personal
conflict of interests of constituent peoples which are harming
them and the development of the state they reside in. He agrees
the greater prominence of the constitutional system of BH
should be given civic on the account of the national principle,
however, this should not mean neglecting the concern for the
equality of the constituent peoples and entities. Since the last
war ended, these peoples have been living next to each other
far too separately, and several times still against each other. In
BH, various truths of the constituent peoples, "the others" and
the international community are fronting. So far they have
mostly been in conflict with one another rather than
cooperating in synergy. The international community is
undeniably accredited for terminating war-oriented hatred
and maintaining permanent peace in BH. However, the
"imposed" Dayton constitutional system has become the reason
for inhibiting the development of BH. For that reason, the
international community should transform its influence in
such manner that it still stays the peace guarantor, but at the
same time not jeopardize the BH independence to such an
extent that it continues to represent the insurmountable
obstacle to enter the EU. Strengthening the position and
influence of "the others", i.e. those who are not the members of
the constituent peoples, and considering their truths about
BH, may bring fresh solutions in current problems and in
searching for the new constitutional solutions. Therefore, the
realization of the ECtHR ruling in the case Sejdić and Finci
represents a small, yet constructive step in the right direction.
Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1
Keywords: Bosnia and Herzegovina,
constitutional amendments,
constituent peoples, minorities, the
electoral system, Dayton Agreement,
the Venice Commission, the High
Representative of the international
community, the European Union,
ECHR, ECtHR, Sejdić and Finci,
discrimination.
JEL Classification: K10, K40
http://dx.doi.org/
10.14706/DO15211
Article History
Submitted: 27.10.2014.
Resubmited: 12.11.2014.
Accepted: 05.01.2014.
9
�Dr. Ciril Ribičič
Sažetak: Autor u radu razmatra značaj presude Evropskog
suda za ljudska prava iz slučaja Sejdić – Finci u pogledu
neophodnih ustavnih amandmana koji bi doprinijeli izgradnji
Bosne i Hercegovine kao normalne evropske demokratske
države, dovoljno nezavisne i sposobne za integraciju u
Evropsku uniju. Prema mišljenju autora, BiH se suočava sa
međuljudskim sukobom interesa konstitutivnih naroda koji
nanosi štetu i njima i razvoju njihove države. On se slaže da
bi najveći značaj ustavnog sistema Bosne i Hercegovine trebao
biti davanje prednosti građanskom u odnosu na nacionalni
princip, međutim, to ne bi trebalo značiti zanemarivanje
brige konstitutivnih naroda i entiteta za jednakošću. Otkako
je posljednji rat završio, ovi narodi su živjeli jedni pored
drugih previše odvojeno, i mnogo puta jedni protiv drugih. U
BiH se sukobljavaju različita poimanja konstitutivnih naroda,
„ostalih“, te međunarodne zajednice. Do sada su najčešće bili
u konfliktu jedni s drugima, nego li su zajednički sarađivali.
Međunarodna zajednica je neosporno zadužena za prekid
ratno orjentisane mržnje i održavanje trajnog mira u BiH.
Međutim, „nametnuti“ Daytonski ustavni sistem je postao
razlog za kočenje razvoja BiH. Iz tog razloga, međunarodna
zajednica bi trebala promijeniti svoj uticaj u BiH na takav
način da i dalje ostane garant mira, ali da u isto vrijeme ne
ugrozi nezavisnost BiH do te mjere da nastavi biti
nepremostiva prepreka za njeno članstvo u EU. Jačanje
pozicije i uticaja „ostalih“ tj. onih koji nisu pripadnici
konstitutivnih naroda, i uzimajući u obzir njihova poimanja
o BiH, može dovesti do svježih rješenja trenutnih problema i
do iznalaženja novih ustavnih rješenja. Stoga, provođenje
odluke Evropskog suda za ljudska prava u slučaju Sejdić –
Finci predstavlja mali, ali konstruktivan korak u pravome
smijeru.
10
Ključne riječi: Bosna i Hercegovina,
ustavni amandmani, konstitutivni
narodi, manjine, izborni sistem,
Daytonski sporazum, Venecijanska
komisija, Visoki predstavnik
međunarodne zajednice, Evropska
unija, Evropski sud za ljudska prava,
Sejdić – Finci, diskriminacija.
JEL klasifikacija: K10, K40
http://dx.doi.org/
10.14706/DO15211
Historija članka
Dostavljen: 27.10.2014.
Revidiran: 12.11.2014.
Prihvaćen: 05.01.2014.
Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu
�Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
1. Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy –
Conclusions
I evaluate that successful execution of the ECtHR ruling in the case Sejdić
and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH) is, at best, only the first, smaller step in
the right direction.1 Therefore, I consider this high-profile case as a starting point for
discussion on addressing various truths about BH, and as an opportunity to start
making them merge in a common synergetic flow, without which the country’s
stagnation will continue along with a reinforced atmosphere of no prospect,
helplessness and apathy of the people. Discussing the “small step”, I do not think of
it as unimportant, after all the first steps are usually the hardest and may trigger
positive “tectonic movements”. With this in mind, I am referring to movements that
would enable replacing the current imposed constitutional system with another
system that is comparable with those of democratic and sovereign European
countries. With “the right direction” I am suggesting a determination for BH to
become a normal European country to the extent that it could genuinely count on
becoming a member to the European Union (EU). Promises about joining the EU
have been around for years, however, they are not realistic without a thorough
constitutional reform. Today, BH is neither independent nor sovereign and what is
more, it does not guarantee autonomous internal powers for normal functioning of
state institutions. Particularly striking is the fact that those countries, which triggered
the war against BH2 at the beginning of the 1990s, are much more successful in their
way to European integration than BH.
In the EU there are countries that did not ratify the Protocol No. 12 to the
ECHR which was the foundation for the conviction of BH in the case Sejdić and
Finci. In this matter, BH was convicted (also) because only the members of three
constituent peoples may run for the Presidency of BH, excluding the members of
minorities. Information on ratification of the Protocol No. 12 proves that the
minority status in BH cannot be the most imperative obstacle that is preventing BH
from entering the pre-phase of joining the EU which leads to the accession process
to the EU. There are several countries in the EU that cannot be convicted in the
same way as BH because they have not ratified the Protocol No. 12. Among ten
founding members of the Council of Europe, only two countries ratified this
1
Amicus Curie Brief, the Venice Commission, No. 483/2008.
More on that: Ciril Ribičič, Geneza jedne zablude, Zagreb, Sarajevo, Idrija, Jesenski in Turk, 2001,
pp. 23, 24, where I describe negotiations between Slobodan Milošević and Dr. Franjo Tudjman on
dividing BH.
2
Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1
11
�Dr. Ciril Ribičič
protocol – Luxembourg and the Netherlands!3 Since 2010, when Slovenia ratified
the Protocol No. 12, none of the ratifications has happened. In the EU there are
some countries, which generally have inappropriate attitudes towards national and
other minorities, however, no one is arguing against their membership in the EU.
Therefore, the reason for BH not being able to become a full member of the EU lies
somewhere else. No European democratic country that wants to enter the EU does
not practice a system, which allows a High Representative of an international
community to force them with adopting legislative acts, even those of the
constitutional nature as well as relieving the highest positions of their duties, or a
system that has one-third of foreign constitutional judges.
Ten years ago, the Venice Commission quite nobly and not very
diplomatically answered the question whether the status and jurisdiction of the High
Representative of an international community is in conflict with the European
democratic traditions. The Venice Commission, however, had to admit that forcing
regulations by the High Representative, which the representative organs of BH were
not able to adopt, is exactly what is responsible for the advancement that BH made
after the Dayton Agreement. Although, the Commission emphasized that the
Representative’s jurisdiction and activity are not compliant with the European
democratic standards, which provide that laws are adopted by the authority that was
elected by the people. Fairly similar goes for the jurisdiction of the High
Representative in the field of relieving them of their duties. It was quite common to
replace the elected officials due to non-compliance with international obligations,
namely the essence of Dayton Agreement, or due to corruption which led to
prohibiting these officials to run for the same function. This is, however, completely
unacceptable for independent and democratic countries as it represents a severe
interference in democracy of a system and in the voting right of those who were
elected and those who voted. In addition, the affected do not have a right to legal
remedies which could not withstand a serious ruling before the constitutional courts
of the European countries or before the European Court of Human Rights
(ECtHR). The right to efficient legal remedies is practically included in every
European constitution and it provides the Article 13 of the European Convention
for Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR). The Venice
Commission suggested immediate institutionalization of an independent panel of
3
The Protocol No. 12, which regulates the general prohibition of discrimination, has been ratified by
18 countries so far, however, since 2010, when Slovenia ratified it, until now there has not been
another signature or ratification anymore. The Protocol has been ratified by all of the former republics
of the former Yugoslav Federation, but not by many leading Members States of the EU.
12
Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu
�Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
legal experts which would temporarily substitute the absence of investing legal means
until the matter is solved, i.e. until they get the right to judicial protection.4
Regarding the preceding solutions of amending the status of the High Representative
of an international community, the Venice Commission advocated the Macedonian
experiences, which would substitute the High Representative of an international
community with the representative of the EU, who would mostly function as a
mediator.
In order to avoid any misunderstanding: The High Representative of an
international community has adopted many necessary legal acts as well as other
measures, without which BH would today be more ineffective and its functioning
would be even more irrational and expensive. An objective observer should admit
that the international community played a key role in BH in regards to ending the
war and maintaining peace as well as encouraging changes that would rationalize and
strengthen efficiency of political and economic system. Despite of that, the status
and the role of the international community representatives must fundamentally
change in order for BH to be considered as a country, which is returning to a path of
independence and sovereignty. A country that is led by the elected representatives of
the people, constituent peoples as well as minorities, and not by someone from the
outside.
The million dollar question remains: how can BH be placed on a map as a
normal democratic European country in a way that would eliminate BH’s
subordination to the international community, without creating new hostilities and
attacks but activating such amendments of the constitutional system that would
ensure stability, efficient functioning and development of BH. Let me repeat the
words of Dr. Trnka: “The presence of the international community, which has been
gradually decreasing since Dayton Agreement, may be missed only when a selfsufficient constitutional system will be established, which will provide valid answers
to obstructions and other blocks. During the transitional period and the accession
process of BH to Euro-Atlantic integrations, it would be wiser for the international
community to be present in BH through a special representative of the EU and not
through the High Representative of the international community.”5 Today, the
4
More on that: Ciril Ribičič, Mišljenja Venecianske komisije i preporuke za promjene ustava, zbornik
radova, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli, Tuzla, 2014, (in print).
5
Kasim Trnka, Daytonski ustavni poredak protiv tradicionalnih vrijednosti bosansko-hercegovačkog
društva i države, in: Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH (1910-2010), zbornik radova, Pravni fakultet
Univerziteta u Tuzli, Tuzla, 2011, p. 247.
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blockages may be overcome more successfully on the basis of the unfounded
reference to the vital interests of the constituent peoples than on the basis of vital
interests of the entities.
None of the peoples in BH represent majority, however, the three peoples of
Bosniacs, Serbs and Croats do not have the status of minorities either. In the former
Yugoslav system, these three peoples together had such status like any other
individual nation had in other republics, where a certain nation was a majority and
had a republic named after them: the Slovene nation in Slovenia, the Croatian
nation in Croatia, the Serbian nation in Serbia, the Macedonian nation in
Macedonia,6 the Montenegrin nation in Montenegro and Bosniacs, Serbs and Croats
together in BH. Those peoples who were constituent, each in their own republic,
had a right to self-determination, which also included the right to secession. The
three above-mentioned peoples were generally considered as constituent, yet, none of
them could realize activities that other constituent people from any other republic of
the former Yugoslav Federation could. This position was also taken by the Badinter
Commission, which among other things decided that the former borders between
the republics may only be changed with a common and free international agreement;
otherwise the former “inter-republic” borders adopt characteristics of borders that
are protected by international law.
During and after the last war in BH, the situation of the constituent peoples
changed by deepening differences and contradictions between them. Today these
peoples in BH are in different positions. The Serbs live strictly separated from the
others, they have an absolute supremacy in their entity the “Republika Srpska”, in
which the other two constituent peoples are in a severe subordinate positions; only
the international community may partly limit this entity. The Bosniacs have the
majority and political supremacy in the other entity, the Federation of BH; however,
they are in noticeable minority in the Republika Srpska. The Croats are in visible
minority in the Federation of BH,7 let alone in the Republika Srpska. Owing to their
6
In this text I do not use the name “the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia”. Firstly, because
Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro are also former Yugoslav republics, and secondly, because in
Slovenia (and often elsewhere, for example the Slovenes in Italy) even the minorities may use their
names and symbols which they pick by themselves, among which also those kinds that are used by their
homelands. (Cf. decision by the Constitutional Court of Slovenia, in the case No. U-I-296/94, adopted
on 28th January, 1999).
7
Addressing that the position of the Croats in the Federation of BH is getting worse is also connected
to the candidacy and election of the Croatian member in the Presidency of BH with the Bosniac votes
and legal interpretation, according to which the third of Croatian representatives is prescribed in the
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dissimilar positions, there are different prevailing point-of-views of the constituent
peoples’ representatives on BH as well as its establishment, past and future. Professor
Dr. Ibrahimagić stresses that there should be a possibility made for Croats and
Bosniacs to return to the Republika Srpska and for the Serbs to return to the
Federation of BH in order to restore the multi-ethnic structure in BH that was
distorted by the war.8
We could say there are extremely diverse possible truths in BH. These are
mostly various stories of BH experienced and displayed by the Bosniacs, the Serbs
and the Croats as well as their homelands. There is also the story of the “third”, i.e.
those people who do not belong to any of the constituent peoples. Perhaps they have
originated from mixed marriages or perhaps they feel loyalty from different reasons
to BH and not to any of the constituent peoples. Additionally, we may talk about
the story about BH portrayed by the representatives of the international community
and international institution.
At some point, before the last Balkan war, there was an impression that a
new people, a new nation was forming in BH and it would gradually take over the
role of the only constituent people and nation, respectively. Especially in Sarajevo,
where the majority of people spoke the same language and the peculiarities of the
Bosniac, Serbian and Croatian language as well as the minorities’ language that
helped shape one common language, lost their priority. During my meetings with
the members of different peoples and minorities, I could assume, mostly on the basis
of their names, what nationality they belonged to. Today, however, is fairly different:
associations among people are mostly within an individual nation, interactions
between the peoples are weakened, the peoples and minorities live separately next to
each other, past one another and frequently against each other.
The situation may be best illustrated in the case of the most important
marginal matter in the world and in the Balkans which is football. For example, the
BH national football team predominantly consists of Bosniac players who are almost
House of Peoples, which may propose candidates, and also if the candidate is proposed by five out of
seventeen Croatian deputies. (Ivica Lučić, Ustavni inženjering u BiH i njegove posljedice, in: Ustavi i
demokratija, strani utjecaji i domaći odgovori, HAZU, Zagreb, 2012, pp. 316, 317) Similar amateur
calculus mistake was made in Slovenia by the administrative Court. cf. Ciril Ribičič, Konstruktiven
odpoklic župana, Pravna praksa No. 23/2014.
8
Omer Ibrahimagić, Kontroverze savremenog ustavnog uredjenja BiH i njegove primjene u praksi, in:
Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH, p. 253.
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exclusively supported by the Bosniac fans and probably by the “others” as well, while
the Croats, who live in BH, play and support the Croatian national team. The same
applies for the Serbs who live in BH. Even at the European or the World Cup, the
Serbs and the Croats (who live in BH) would not support BH national team, even if
their first choice is not present at the championship anymore, which means that they
do not support the country in which they live and have its citizenship. Even the
President of the Republika Srpska, Dodik, stated that he would only cheer for the
BH national team if they played against Turkey. Dodik is an official who often
“threatens” that, in case Dayton Agreement changes, the Republika Srpska will “go
its own way.”
The international community, the highest organs of the European Union,
the Council of Europe, the UN representatives, the USA and the most important
European countries cannot, by any means, find a way to persuade the political
parties and authorities in BH to finally execute the ruling of the ECtHR in the case
of Sejdić and Finci.9 BH is undoubtedly bound by this ruling; after all, the 47
countries that have ratified the ECHR are committed to execute the rulings of
ECtHR in those cases, in which they acted as a defendant party. In this matter,
UEFA (Union of European Football Association) turned out to be much more
sufficient. By threatening to expel the BH national team and football clubs from the
international competitions, UEFA achieved changing the statute of the BH Football
Association in a few months. This meant that the three BH Football Association
presidents were substituted by one. Therefore, this was an “amendment of a system”
that rigorously reflects the construction of the BH Presidency and the UEFA
decision reflects the ruling of the ECtHR in the case Sejdić and Finci.
The capability to motivate and threaten with sanctions (which have
financial consequences) is within international football community evidently much
greater than within its political structures. The foremost reason for this is that BH is
no longer a priority interest for the international community since the importance is
largely given to other world crisis focal points, except when political situations in BH
become intensified. After the war had ended, the international community tried to
help BH with financial support and by encouraging foreign investments to accelerate
re-constructions and to boost the economic growth. Such activities would today be
more than useful and needed or else BH is facing hopelessness and no prospects that
9
Ruling in the case Sejdić and Finci v. BH, complaint No. 27996/06 and 34836/06, adopted on 22nd
December, 2009.
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made, otherwise “fabled” patient Bosniacs, protest a few months ago. Additionally,
the stability of BH and its improved development are also important in terms of
straining and armed conflicts in Muslim countries and between them.
In current situations, the truth about BH portrayed by “the others”, i.e.
those who are not solely associated with the language, culture and religion of any of
the constituent peoples, could potentially be quite important for solving existing
problems in BH. This, however, does not imply that belonging to a certain minority
or denying nationality is a progressive and prosperous matter. Nevertheless, it
implies that “the others” could potentially play a linking role between the entire
residents of BH, regardless of their nationality. The truth of “the others” is perhaps
the closest to the one perceived and promoted by the international community,
therefore, it is no coincidence that the representatives of minorities and the
international community also cooperated very well in the case Sejdić and Finci,
which took place before the Venice Commission and the ECtHR, much like a prewritten film screenplay.
The Venice Commission meticulously anticipated and routed the ruling of
the ECtHR in the case Sejdić and Finci in its afore-mentioned Amicus Curie Brief
No. 483/2008. It credibly pointed out deviations in the constitutional system and
case-law in BH from the ECHR and emphasized the needed compliance of electing
the President of BH and the House of Peoples by prohibiting discrimination in
Article 14 of the ECHR and the general prohibition of discrimination in Protocol
No. 12 in the ECHR. From the viewpoints of the Venice Commission and the
ruling of the ECtHR in the case Sejdić and Finci stems an evaluation that even
though the role and status of the constituent peoples have a special meaning in BH,
amendments might be and should be adopted which will consistently respect the
minority rights recognized in the Convention and not only the rights of the
constituent peoples. The Venice Commission considers the ruling in the case Sejdić
and Finci as a small step in the right direction. In a dissenting opinion the Venice
Commission considered different methods to overcome the incompliance of the
current system and case-law with the conventional provisions about the right to vote
and indiscrimination.
Part of the international community, the American one in particular,
wonders why there is not the phenomenon of “melting pot” in BH, similar to the
one in the USA, in which the American nation was born from extremely
heterogeneous crowd of diverse national traditions, which were brought to America
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by the European and other settlers. In BH today, any vigorous reinforcement of such
activities would represent to the majority of people the feeling of endangerment and
new conflicts. It could not, however, be expected that “the others” would be the core
that holds the positive message about loyalty to BH and emphasizes common
interests of everyone as citizens of BH and push aside the special interests and
contradictions, which are frequently and destructively brought into functioning of
BH by the representatives of the constituent peoples and entities. The proposals of
individual European countries are likewise useless since they propose that BH should
follow patterns of normal western European countries as a universal remedy for
solving situations in BH. Moreover, such “transferring” of patterns from elsewhere is
doomed to fail in advance since the Bosnian-Herzegovinian society is not “normal”,
it cannot be compared to other European societies neither by its establishment and
development nor its internal structure based on national and religious peculiarities
and contradictions.
Throughout the existence of the Yugoslav Federation, the same role of “the
others” was also given to those who defined themselves Yugoslavs, as members of a
newly-established Yugoslav nation. The majority of them were precisely in BH, in a
republic which was known for the fact that it may only survive in the frames of the
Yugoslav Federation. This attempt failed due to being exploited by the supporters of
unitary and hegemonic tendencies in the federal institutions of Yugoslavia. At the
beginning of the 1970s, it was decided that the accumulated contradictions would be
solved and common interests would be built on the basis of consideration and
association of special interests of all nations, and not on the basis of their negations.
At that time the theory of the decay of nations in socialism was abandoned and the
strengthening of the position of peoples and republics started. It was a decision that
was never confirmed as acceptable by an important part of the Serbian nation and
their leading centres of the Serbian Academy of Science and Arts (SANU)10, of the
political structures and also within the influential Belgrade constitutional law school.
Even today, the Serbian and Slovene constitutional law views clash on the topic of
what caused the split of the federation,11 either excessive autonomy of the republics
10
Cf. Kriza jugoslovenske federacije i Memorandum SANU, in: Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH, p. 443.
Memorandum SANU, which is most commonly attributed to Dobrica Ćosić, evaluated that the
confederation came from federation which means victory of the republic etatisms and egoisms as well as
it turned Yugoslavia in a darkroom for the Serbian nation and Serbia which is divided in three parts
(The same, pp. 444, 445).
11
During the period of the “trust crisis” between the republics and provinces, I advocated the forming
of the asymmetric federation (I was the mentor of Mitja Žagar, who delineated this topic in his
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or trying to recentralize and unitarize the country. Nonetheless, undeniably the
worse consequences of the war conflicts because of the tendencies for recentralization
and independence were mainly felt by the residents of BH, especially the Bosniacs.
Today, the status of the constituent peoples in the system and practice does
not enable normal, let alone efficient functioning of the country. Instead of having
fundamental guarantees in the system to respect equal status of all three peoples (and
“the others”) regarding crucial issues of their status, existence, conservation and
development of each of them, the system and practice of interpersonal relations
functions in a way that it disables, destabilize the country and it deactivates its
efficient functioning. Stops and blockades, to which this kind of system leads, have
extra severe consequences in the time of economic crisis. Equality should contribute
to mutual trust, but instead it deepens contradictions, strengthens distrust and it
questions every measure even if it is far from being vital for existence and equality of
a certain nation or entity in BH.
Comparable activities went on in the former Yugoslav federation when a
solution was introduced according to which delegations of republics and provinces in
the Chamber of the Republics and Provinces of the Federal Assembly consensually
decided on important economic and financial matters. However, the difference is
imperative: at the former federal level the blockade, which happened on the basis of
veto called by one of the republics, was solved at the political level where the key role
was played by the monopolistic party, League of Communists of Yugoslavia. Thus,
disagreements were overcome outside of the Parliament in the political “backstage”
with the help of the party forums that made decisions according to the principles of
democratic centralism, in other words, by outvoting them. Today BH is functioning
in the multi-party system, in which the political parties are divided according to
nationality, much like the members of these three constituent peoples and “the
others”.
The solution, however, does not lie in restricting democratic achievements,
but in limiting and narrowing veto on the basis of vital interests of the constituent
peoples and vital interests of the entities. The veto should be limited on the key and
doctorate dissertation that he defended at the Faculty of Law in Ljubljana). In this respect, I considered
that some republics, for example Slovenia, Macedonia and Montenegro, could be in a confederation
position, other republics, which are historically and mutually connected to each other differently, could
be in a position of the federal Member States of a common country.
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vital questions regarding equality and symbiosis of the peoples and entities. What
good is “the peoples equality” if it is implemented in a way that prevents functioning
and successful development of a mutual country and jeopardizes the future of them
all. The goal of communication between the representatives of the equal peoples is
not to block political decision-making in the country, but to function effectively in
the country which is a special interest of each of them and a mutual interest of them
all. In this respect, a proposition by the Venice Commission ought to be mentioned,
which conveys that the “vital national interest”, which is a foundation for veto and is
called by the representatives of the constituent peoples as well as the vital interests of
the entities, should be defined more precisely. These interests should be limited to
key national interests, especially in the fields of language, education and culture.
In accordance with the Venice Commission, BH is supposedly based largely
on the civic principle and no longer on the principle of ethnic affiliation and
representation. I assert that it is justified to demand strengthening of the civic
principle on the account of the national one and it is also necessary to intervene
within the position of the constituent peoples as it was implemented so far.
Accordingly, at this point a warning is appropriate on how far this “movements”
should reach. I disagree with the approaches that perceive the special status of the
constituent peoples as a transient solution, i.e. a thing that is justified only at times
of awakened dangers of rebuilding hatred. The equal status of the constituent
peoples is not something that was fictionally created by the authors of the preamble
added to the Dayton constitution to reach peace or the Constitutional Court of BH
more easily,12 but it has a long-term positive constitutional and legal tradition in BH.
Therefore, the general attacks on the institutions, which “rest” on the representation
of the constituent peoples, are not the right way, instead they raise suspicion, which
is already too prevailing because of the war still being close to the present-day.
Therefore, from the long-term perspective, it would be prosperous for BH to
establish more effective federal constitutional model, founded on the civic principle
and on the special status and equality of the constituent peoples and entities.
A country like B&H should be observed from the point-of-view of interests
of every constituent people or from the perspective of the position of “the others”,
12
The Constitutional Court determined that the peoples in BH have the constituent position
throughout the entire territory of BH and for that reason it is unconstitutional to justify the Republika
Srpska as a state of exclusively the Serbian nation and the Federation of BH only as a community of
Bosniac and Croatian nation. More on that: Ciril Ribičič, Interpretativna moć preambula ustava,
Pravna misao, No. 3-4/2004, p. 13.
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dominance of the principle “one person, one vote” is not acceptable. Additionally, it
is not acceptable that such important questions, for instance constitutional
amendments, be decided on the basis of this principle in the parliament or in the
general referendum. In the last period of the Yugoslav federation’s functioning, this
kind of attempts of forcing recentralization with outvoting by Milošević had severely
accelerated breaking-up the country.13
Despite that, in the former federation, at least from the 1970s onwards,
there was not a similar problem that the ECtHR ruling, in the case Sejdić and Finci,
has determined about the status of “the others” in BH. The Chamber of Peoples
became a semi-chamber in the 1960s and thus lost its rank14, because they tried to
“tame” the centrifugal forces by emphasizing the role of self-governance, delegate
system, communal system and the principle of democratic centralism in the leading
political party on the account of the equal position of the republics. Discontent in
the republics and provinces, which were afraid of losing their hard-earned
independence or autonomy, brought to strengthening the republics, demanding the
complete ensuring of equality as well as parity representation and communication.
Even some confederate elements were introduced, the more important level of
centralization was mostly preserved in the field of defence and international
relations.15 However, this decision did not lead to the anew implementation of the
Chamber of Peoples of the Federal Assembly, which stagnated as a semi-chamber for
a while, but it led to the establishment of the Chamber of the Republics and
13
The Serbian leadership of that time, in accordance with the principle “one person, one vote”, tried to
perform constitutional amendments in the direction of centralisation with the help of all-Yugoslav
referendum, while on the other hand, by unilateral moves, for instance printing money and political
prohibition of purchasing products of Slovene economy, they were convincing the Slovene people to
find the way to European integrations independently. In a similar way, Milošević tried to push out of
BH, or at least narrow completely, the space taken by the Bosniacs in order to undisturbedly discuss
division of BH with Tudjman. Cf. also Ivan Kristan, Federalizem v ustavnem sistemu nove Jugoslavije,
Prispevki za zgodovino delavskega gibanja, Ljubljana, 1982.
14
It was about regulating the Chamber of Peoples as a very weak “semi-chamber” which was not
capable to provide the protection of equality and special rights of the peoples and republics,
respectively. This solution is also proposed by some as an amendment of the Chamber of Peoples in
BH. Cf. Zlatan Begić, Medjunarodni demokratski standardi u izbornom sistemu BiH, in: Ustavno
pravni razvoj BiH, p. 417.
15
These confederate elements were decision making on economic questions in the Chamber of the
Republics and Provinces, a parity composition of both Chambers, the way of functioning of the
collective leader of the country, the Presidency of SFRY, the equality of the republics’ constitutions to
the Federal Constitution, etc. More on that: Ciril Ribičič in Zdravko Tomac, Federalizam po mjeri
budućnosti, predgovor Milan Kučan, Globus, Zagreb 1989.
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Provinces that is composed of their delegations. This is similar as if BH would be
organized as a federative country of three entities that would guarantee the rights of
“the others”, among which would be the right to run for the membership of the
second parliamentary chamber. In the republic delegations there were mostly the
representatives of the constituent, majority people after whom the individual
republic carried its name. At the principle level, they were not considered as “onenation” representatives, but as the representative of the people of the republic,
therefore, of all the residents in the republic. In this respect, Slovenia attributed a
special role to autochthonous national communities, the Italians and the
Hungarians,16 which it even mentioned regarding to the self-determination of the
Slovene nation. In addition, the Federal Constitution and the constitutions of all the
republics provided same rights to all of its residents, regardless which republic
citizenship they had.
The afore-mentioned principled stance was a part of Slovenia even
throughout the time of independence17 as it promised, during the preparations to
perform the plebiscite, not to degrade the position of the minorities or those people
who came to Slovenia from other parts of the Federation. On top of that, it
promised that everyone who had permanent residency in Slovenia during the
plebiscite will acquire Slovene citizenship without any further conditions. For the
majority of these people Slovenia kept its promise,18 unfortunately there were also
demands to call a referendum for deprivation of such citizenships which was
prevented by the Constitutional Court. Additionally, the “silent” erasure of the
permanent residency happened to those who did not acquire Slovene citizenship, for
which the Constitutional Court determined, only after several years, that it did not
have the basis for that in the Constitution and statutes. The erasure of permanent
16
Section I of the Basic principles of the Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia, adopted on 28th
February, 1974, the National Gazette of the SRS No. 6/1974.
17
The constitutional and legal theory defines the right to self-determination as pre-constitutional and
above-constitutional right that would not need to be regulated in the normative part of the
Constitution since the formation of an independent country took place and the adoption of its
constitution on its basis. More in that: Kristan, Ribičič, Grad, Kaučič, Državna ureditev Slovenije,
National Gazette RS, Ljubljana, 1994, p. 16.
18
N. Kogovšek Šalamon argues that on the basis of Article 40 of the Citizenship of the Republic of
Slovenia Act, 170 996 individuals acquired Slovenian citizenship – almost twice as much as expected.
2417 applications were denied and many others, for various reasons, did not apply for the citizenship.
Those who did acquire the citizenship were from Bosnia and Herzegovina (46%), Croatia (34%),
Serbia (13%), Macedonia (3%) and Montenegro (3%) respectively. 30% of them were born in
Slovenia. See: N. Kogovšek Šalamon, Pravni vidiki izbrisa iz registra stalnega prebivalstva, pp. 77-82.
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residency to those people who did not acquire Slovene citizenship was a shameful
and cowardly act. Worse than the erasure alone, were the consequences of hesitation
by the Slovene authorities whether to admit and start repairing the calamitous
wrongs, which affected the Erased and their families, after they were “converted”
from the equal residents and citizens to unwanted aliens. Only the pilot ruling of the
Grand Chamber of the ECtHR in the case Kurić v. Slovenia provided the realization
of the Constitutional Court’s decision and also set the basis for fair compensations to
the Erased for violating their rights recognized in the Convention.
Diverse truths about BH reflect also in discussions on constitutional
amendments. At the principle level, it is by no means possible to deny that it is high
time for the “imposed” constitution, whose authentic text is in English (and not in
the degradingly named “local” languages), is replaced by a new one, which will not
be forced by the international community, but it will be democratically adopted by
the elected representatives of the people, the constituent peoples and minorities. It is
clear that the current constitution is not at a level that can be expected from other
European countries’ constitutions and that it is becoming obsolete and harmful.
However, it is evident that the rule about “temporary solutions becoming
permanent” has once again been demonstrated. Amongst the Bosniacs, the Serbs, the
Croats and others, there is not even a slightest indication on how and into what
direction the constitution should be amended. The Bosniacs support the
reinforcement of the civic principle on the account of the system, in which the key
role have the constituent peoples and the elimination, or at least a fading of the
entities’ position; the Serbs will continue to disable every attempt of limiting their
entity, the Republika Srpska19; the Croats see their solution in strengthening their
position20 by forming their entity that will have parity representation and equal role
of the authority at the level of the common country.
19
Their representatives, for instance Milorad Dodik, loudly stress that the republika Srpska will stay in
the frame of Bosnia and Herzegovina only until the implementation of the Dayton constitutional
system, otherwise it is going its own way. Dr. Zlatan Delić warns that the Republika Srpska imposed as
a quasi-state that “climbed over” BH. (Nedopustivo identificiranje nacionalnog, etničnogi religijskog
identiteta kao politička prepreka izgradnji novog ustava BiH, in: Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH, p. 381),
while Dobrica Ćosić considers it as the greatest addition to the Serbian nation on the basis of the wars
at the ending of the previous century (Nermin Tursić, Suverenitet BiH u postdejtonskom periodu,
kontroverze tumačenja, in: Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH, pp. 477, 478).
20
Ivica Lučić warns that the High Representatives of the international community on one hand very
critically evaluated the Dayton system, and on the other hand, they dismissed those officials who acted
against the Dayton. According to him, the Croatian people had already been “deconstitutionised” – lost
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What can the Constitutional Court of BH do in the current situations? For
the court instances of the highest rank, like constitutional and European courts, it is
typical that their creative role in developmental interpretation of law stands out
exactly when there are no conditions to renovate regulations. This may be illustrated
with the cases of “brave decisions” adopted by the Court of Justice the EU , with
which the supranational position of the EU strengthened during the time when the
Member States did not want to support the propositions for transferring new
jurisdictions onto EU institutions. Similar goes for many rulings by the ECtHR with
which it maintained the existence and functioning of the ECHR in changed
circumstances that the ECHR, by changing protocols, could not follow in any way.
Finally, the same tendencies may be recognized in several decisions of some of the
most distinguished European constitutional courts (German, Polish, Slovene, and
lately also Portuguese), which on behalf of the protection of human rights and
freedoms, do not consider to creatively and developmentally interpret the
constitution, but also reach for the functions of the positive legislator, particularly
when the parliament hesitates to respect the constitution. Namely, I am convinced
that it may every so often be harmful for the protection of the constitutionality to
conservatively persist reading the constitution letter by letter, however, such
developmental interpretation and positive activism by the constitutional judges may
be beneficial since they keep the spirit of the constitution alive in changed
circumstances and spread its influence on the protection and development of human
rights and freedoms. I wonder whether the creative and developmental interpretation
of the Dayton constitution would be this relieving.
For the constitutional court to take such a role it is particularly important
what its independent position is like, its high professional reputation and general
recognition of its legitimacy. In my opinion, legitimacy of its decisions would be
stimulated by changing the voting method, which would provide that the decisions
on the merit are adopted by two-thirds majority vote, hence by six votes out of nine.
When there was a proposition at hand that the decision made by the constitutional
court is adopted only if at least one of the judges from each of the constituent
peoples vote for it, the Venice Commission, at the time when I was not their
member yet, listed a number of convincing objections against such amendment.21
My proposition is different; however, it does consider that the Constitutional Court
its position as constituent people in the Federation of BH with the decisions of the High Representative
of the international community and with the decisions made by the courts (The same. p. 311 and seq.)
21
The Venice Commission, in its Opinion No. 344/2008, adopted on 22nd October, 2005, referred to
principled and practical reasons, for which it does not advise the proposed amendments.
24
Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu
�Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
of BH is composed of three judges, who are appointed, according to foreign experts,
by the president of the ECtHR. This makes the questioning of decision legitimacy of
the Constitutional Court of BH be ruled differently than in every other European
country. Perhaps, a warning as well, which proved to be of relevance when shaping
the starting point for amending the Constitution of the Federation of BH: due to
the difficulties encountered in the operation of the executive authority bodies, we
should not be resorting to the excessive strengthening of the representative bodies on
the account of the principle of separation of powers and independence of the
Government.
Ensuring the stronger influence of “the others”, i.e. those residents that do
not belong to any of the constituent peoples, is not in a special interest of any of the
constituent peoples. The differences may be that the Bosniacs support the changes to
some extent; the Croats are unenthusiastic, whereas the Serbs quite often openly
contradict them. Regarding the question on how to realize the ruling in the case
Sejdić and Finci, a warning raises that along the three constituent peoples and two
entities, there should not be the existence of the subject, which would additionally
contribute to disable an efficient functioning of BH. For adopting decisions in the
Presidency of BH, it would be even worse to keep things the way they are and add
the fourth member to represent “the others” and the vital interests of those residents
that do not belong to any of the constituent peoples. Considering this, it is worthy
to mention the convincing point-of-view by the Venice Commission, saying that in
the event when the introduction of an individual president is not realistic (who may
continuously originate from the constituent peoples and from “the others”), all
major executive jurisdictions should be transferred from the Presidency of BH to the
Government. This warning should already be considered in the realization of the
ruling in the case Sejdić and Finci, not only in the frames of contemplation on global
constitutional reform.
In 2009, professor Dr. Kasim Trnka22 advocated for the three most urgent
amendments that would represent an introduction to more comprehensive
constitutional reform: (1) eliminating those solutions that are not compliant with
the ECHR, (2) constitutionalisation of already executed reforms and (3)
amendments in jurisdictions of state authorities that are obligatory due to coming
22
Kasim Trnka, Specifičnosti ustavnog uredjenja Bosne i Hercegovine, Revus, No. 11/2009, ed. C.
Ribičič, p. 45. In the same issue, an article is published by Dženeta Miraščić and Zlatan Begič, Pravna
priroda bosanskohercegovačkog pluralnog društva i najznačajnije specifičnosti njegovog savremenog
ustavnog uredjenja, p. 73.
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�Dr. Ciril Ribičič
close to Euro-Atlantic integrations. These amendments seemed fairly restricted at
that time and not ambitious enough. Today, five years later, it can be observed that
they were too optimistic according to political and other conflicts, which rule BH. If
this continues, the predictions and desires about coming close to European
integrations23 will become increasingly utopian and will lose strength in stimulating
the necessary constitutional amendments.
Regarding its constitutionality, BH has rich historical traditions and quite
uncertain future. The experts of the constitutional and legal development talk about
more than a hundred years old development of BH which supposedly already started
with the adoption of the “vilajeta bosanskog” Constitutional law in 1867 and with
the adoption of the Constitution of BH on 17th February in 1910 when the
territorial integrity of BH was recognized by the Austro-Hungarian monarchy with
the “zemaljski statut”, titled “constitution for BH” 24 by professor Imamović.25
The Venice Commission already warned in 2005 that the founding problem
of the system and functioning of BH is linked to the fact that this country, unlike
other European countries, is not independent, its constitutional system is not a
reflection of the people, the constituent peoples and “the others”, therefore the
members of minority groups. It is a system that was forced to this country so it
would stop military attacks, which took 200.000 casualties, and keep peace
permanently. If any war, than the war in BH in the 1990s is an example that those,
who started this war from the outside, were aware of the long-term consequences
before the outbreak of hatred (hundred thousands of dead, ten times more wounded
and forced to migrate (ethnical cleansing), not even mentioning the emotional scars
that the war aftermath leaves on the transnational relations and the possibility of
constructive cooperation between peoples who were at war due to hegemonic
tendencies of their homelands).26 Undoubtedly, the historical credit goes to the
23
The Venice Commission already warned in 2005 that the EU would not negotiate with two entities
on BH entering the EU, for which it advocated the state jurisdiction strengthening on the account of
the entities.
24
Cf. Mustafa Imamović, Historija Bošnjaka, Preporod, Bošnjačka zajednica kulture, Sarajevo, 1997, p.
433 and seq.
25
More on that: Bećir Macić, Ustav BH iz 1910 i aktuelne ustavne rasprave, in: Ustavno pravni razvoj,
p. 107 and seq.
26
After the war, data came out on conscious undermining of BH sovereignty in order to conquer a part
of the territory and divided it, respectively. In this respect, a transcript between the Croatian party
HDZ and HDZ BH delegation is very convincing, in which the Croats from Sarajevo warn about the
catastrophic consequences of the attacks bound to happen due to tendencies for affiliating Herzeg-
26
Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu
�Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
Dayton Agreement and the constitution written in it as well as to those who
successfully implemented it in order to restore peace, without which it would not be
able to renew the functioning of BH. One of the fundamental questions regarding
the role of international community in today’s BH is whether it can autonomously
ensure permanent peace and cooperation between the peoples as well as successful
functioning of the country which will not require repeating peacekeeping missions
from the outside?
Is there a sufficient level of mutual trust so there is no danger for another
wave of new conflicts and attacks? In my opinion, sudden retreat of the international
community from BH could potentially lead back to restoring hatred and attacks,
which would not only be political but it could also once more lead to attempts to
conquer territories by military force and with the help of the extremists from the
outside. Without active functioning of the international community’s
representatives, even today it is still impossible to form contemporary constitutional
and legal solutions as a foundation for successful functioning of a democratic
country, and there are even less possibilities to ensure the kind of level needed to
adopt new constitution. From up close, on the invitation by an experts group, and
partly also from within,27 I have observed the work of the experts group for the
constitutional amendments in the Federation of BH where the role of the
international community, in this case the Embassy of the USA, was exemplary as
well as constructive and most certainly it was much more diplomatic than we have
been used to over the past years, unfortunately also in Slovenia. Their role, namely,
was focused on the financial and other support to try and search for better
Bosnia to Croatia as well as they advocate the preservation of BH sovereignty and that together with the
Bosniacs defend its independence and integrity. They warned about standing up to all-Serbian
tendencies that wish for the Bosniacs to be pushed out of BH as well as they want Slovenians leaving
the Yugoslav federation. They stumbled upon two answers by Dr. Tudjman and his followers. The first
was that in public they can still talk about supporting the united BH, however, secretly they should
continue with the preparation for secession, which will allow for the unification of the Croatian people
in its maximum possible extent in the Republic of Croatia. The second answer was that the
independent BH cannot sustain, but if it could, it would make ties with Serbia rather than Croatia.
More or less, it was also very clearly said that, in the event of the Bosniacs actually do stand up to the
mutual offer of the Serbs and the Croats about a miniature state around Sarajevo, which would be a
“buffer zone” between Serbia and Croatia, there would be a military attack on them. Cf. Zapisnik sa
sastanka predsjednika Republike Hrvatske dr. Franje Tudjmana s delegacijom HDZ BH, in: Ciril
Ribičič, Geneza jedne zablude, Ustavnopravna analiza nastanka in delovanja Hrvaške skupnosti HercegBosne, Jesenski i Turk, Zagreb, Sarajevo, Idrija, 2001, p. 113 and seq.
27
Ciril Ribičič, Mišljenja Venecianske komisije i preporuke za promjene ustava, zbornik radova, Pravni
fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli, Tuzla, 2014, (in print).
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�Dr. Ciril Ribičič
constitutional solutions at the level of the Federation of BH, without dictating the
experts group that formed, what should the content of the final result of their work
look like.
The ruling of the ECtHR in the case Sejdić and Finci addressed the
professional and general public in BH about the meaning of the protection of
human rights and freedoms and within this context also the consideration of the
minimal standards that ECHR sets as a commitment for all the Members States of
the Council of Europe. This is the question that within the context of contemplating
on new constitutional system should not be disregarded. My assessment is that the
best introduction to a deepened debate on human rights and freedoms would be if
the new constitution exemplified the German Constitution and the Charter of
Fundamental Rights of the EU at the very beginning of the normative work and
analysed the meaning of human dignity (mentioned in the preamble) and
emphasized it a restriction provided by the constitution, which should not be crossed
by any authoritative body. In those countries, where such an approach is not
implemented in the constitution, for instance in Slovenia, only with the help of the
Constitutional Court the principle of human dignity raises to the constitutional goal,
meaning and a boundary of a democratic country.
Strengthening the functions of the state level of BH and in this respect also
the strengthening of the executive jurisdictions of the Government is likewise
important from another perspective. BH does not have enough opportunities to
implement the holders of common interests, the interests that consider every special
and vital interest, but at the same time build on the necessity of their relations and
overcoming differences. Much like the football team cannot be successful if it does
not include its best players regardless of their nationality, the Government likewise
cannot be at the level of extremely demanding measures if it does not include its best
politicians, regardless of the entity they come from and regardless of whether they
belong to any of the constituent peoples or “the others”. Those who have lived in the
Federal regulated countries understand what I am talking about. Despite that, let me
mention a comparison which includes functioning of international organizations and
their bodies. At first glance, it is evident that the most successful officials of the
influential European countries do not see their political careers continue as the
bodies of the EU or the Council of Europe. This is even more obvious at the global
level. How come it is not probable that none of the current Presidents of the USA,
Russia, France or the chancellor of Germany at the end of their mandates do not see
a logical advancement of their political careers as the UN Secretary General, or as the
28
Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu
�Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
President of the European Commission, or as the Secretary General of the Council
of Europe?
The position of the electoral system is also connected to the question of the
position of the constituent peoples and “the others”. When referring to it as the
representative chamber, it should be regulated according to the rules that apply for
the general political representation, therefore the lower chamber in the parliamentary
federative regulated countries. Current system, among other things, opens the
question on respecting equal voting right, considering that the parity representation
of the constituent peoples is provided (two-third from the Federation of BH and
one-third from the Republika Srpska).28 Dr. Zlatan Begić advocates the introduction
of the German combined electoral system, in which each voter has two votes and
with that the power of partytocracy is limited and the personalisation of the elections
is strengthened.29 Among other things, the advantage of this system is that the
personalisation, unlike the majority system, is achieved in a way that it does not lead
to the polarization of the political space into two blocks.30
In my opinion, for BH the most appropriate electoral system would be the
Irish one (single transferable vote) that has more or less same effects as the German
combined system, and on top of that, it also gives large importance to the second,
third, fourth… selection of the voters. This would contribute to the success of those
candidates who would also be acceptable by the members of other peoples,31 not just
to those people to which the voter and the candidate belong to. In this way, it would
contribute to the structure that would be more appropriate from the perspective of
communication and overcoming the special interests of the nations.
In BH, the reputation and influence of the official at the state level should
be strengthened in different ways in comparison to the position in the entities and
cantons. This may be achieved by raising the awareness that without the
constitutional reform, strengthening the jurisdictions of the national authorities,
28
More on that: Zlatan Begić, Medjunarodni demokratski standardi u izbornom sistemu BiH, in:
Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH, pp. 404-408.
29
The same, p. 417.
30
More on that: Ciril Ribičič, Primerjava prednosti in slabosti volilnih sistemov, Zbornik znanstvenih
razprav, Pravna fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, 2013, p. 57 and seq.
31
Mirjana Kasapović, Izborni leksikon, Politička kultura, Zagreb, 2003, pp. 20, 21. The author stresses
that in this kind of electoral system, the least unpopular candidates are elected.
Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1
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�Dr. Ciril Ribičič
amendments of the electoral system and the successful cooperation between the
representatives of the constituent peoples and others, there will not be an effective
development of BH, its entities and local communities. Even the successful
realization of the ruling in the case Sejdić and Finci in this field cannot change
much. Despite that, it cannot be denied that the most successful people, at the BH
state level, could be exactly those who belong to “the others” since they have always
been underestimated and unequal at all levels to the extent that they are motivated
for more responsible functioning at the state level.
2. References
30
Brewer-Carias, Allan R. (ed.), Constitutional Courts as Positive Legislators – A
Comparative Law Study, Cambridge University Press, 2011.
Zlatan Begić, Medjunarodni demokratski standardi u izbornom sistemu BiH, in:
Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH (1910-2010), zbornik radova, Pravni fakultet
Univerziteta u Tuzli, Tuzla, 2011, pp. 401 and seq.
Zlatan Delić, Nedopustivo identificiranje nacionalnog, etničnog i religijskog
identiteta kao politička prepreka izgradnji novog ustava BiH, in: Ustavno pravni
razvoj BiH, p. 381 and seq.
European Court of Human Rights: Ruling in the case Sejdić and Finci v. BH,
complaint No. 27996/06 and 34836/06, adopted on 22nd December, 2009.
Franc Grad, Igor Kaučič, Ciril Ribičič, Ivan Kristan, Državna ureditev Slovenije,
ČZ Official Gazette RS, Ljubljana 1999.
Hassemer, Winfried, Constitutional Democracy, Pravnik, No. 4-5/2003, Vol.
58, p. 214.
Omer Ibrahimagić, Kontroverze savremenog ustavnog uredjenja BiH i njegove
primjene u praksi, in: Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH, p. 249 and seq.
Mustafa Imamović, Historija Bošnjaka, Preporod, Bošnjačka zajednica kulture,
Sarajevo, 1997.
Mirjana Kasapović, Izborni leksikon, Politička kultura, Zagreb, 2003.
Kaučič, Igor (ed.), Significance of Constitutionality and Constitutional Democracy
- Twenty Years of the Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia, Pravna fakulteta
Univerze v Ljubljani & Ustavno sodišče Republike Slovenije, Ljubljana, 2012.
Neža Kogovšek Šalamon, Izbris in (ne)ustavna demokracija, Predgovor Ciril
Ribičič, GV Založba, Ljubljana, 2012.
Neža Kogovšek Šalamon, Pravni vidiki izbrisa iz registra stalnega prebivalstva,
Doctoral thesis, Pravna fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, 2011.
Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu
�Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
Ivan Kristan, Federalizem v ustavnem sistemu nove Jugoslavije, Prispevki za
zgodovino delavskega gibanja, Ljubljana, 1982.
Kristan, Ribičič, Grad, Kaučič, Državna ureditev Slovenije, National Gazette
RS, Ljubljana, 1994.
Ivica Lučić, Ustavni inženjering u BiH i njegove posljedice, in: Ustavi i
demokratija, strani utjecaji i domaći odgovori, HAZU, Zagreb, 2012, pp. 316
and seq.
Bećir Macić, Ustav BiH iz 1910 i aktuelne ustavne rasprave, in: Ustavno pravni
razvoj BiH, p. 107 and seq.
Dženeta Miraščić i Zlatan Begić, Pravna priroda bosanskohercegovačkog
pluralnog društva i najznačajnije specifičnosti njegovog savremenog ustavnog
uredjenja, Revus, No. 11/2009, ed. C. Ribičič, p. 73.
Ciril Ribičič, Geneza jedne zablude, Ustavnopravna analiza nastanka i djelovanja
Hrvatske zajednice Herceg-Bosne, Jesenski i Turk, Zagreb, Sarajevo, Idrija,
2001.
Ciril Ribičič, Interpretativna moć preambula ustava, Pravna misao, No. 34/2004, p. 13 and seq.
Ciril Ribičič, Mišljenja Venecianske komisije i preporuke za promjene ustava,
zbornik radova, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli, Tuzla, 2014, (in print).
Ciril Ribičič, Bosa Nenadić, Tanasije Marinković, Multi-level system of Human
Rights Protection in Europe: A View from Central and Eastern Europe, in: L.R.
Basta Fleiner, T. Marinković (eds.), Key Developments in Constitutionalism and
Constitutional Law, Eleven, Utreht 2014.
Ciril Ribičič, Primerjava prednosti in slabosti volilnih sistemov, Zbornik
znanstvenih razprav, Pravna fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, 2013, p.
57 and seq.
Ciril Ribičič, Ustavnopravni vidiki osamosvajanja Slovenije, Official Gazette RS,
Ljubljana 1992.
Kasim Trnka, Daytonski ustavni poredak protiv tradicionalnih vrijednosti
bosansko-hercegovačkog društva i države, in: Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH, p. 247
and seq.
Kasim Trnka, Specifičnosti ustavnog uredjenja Bosne i Hercegovine, Revus, No.
11/2009, ed. C. Ribičič, p. 45 and seq.
Kasim Trnka, Ustavno pravo, Univerzitetska knjiga, Sarajevo, 2000.
Nermin Tursić, Suverenitet BiH u postdejtonskom periodu, kontroverze
tumačenja, in: Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH, p. 475 and seq.
Venice Commission, Opinion and studies on Bosnia and Herzegovina:
Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1
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�Dr. Ciril Ribičič
32
No. 736/2013 - Amicus Curiae on the compatibility with the nondiscrimination Principle of the section of the Republic Day of Republika Srpska,
No. 723/2013 - Opinion on the Draft Law on the Courts of Bosnia and
Herzegovina,
No. 712/2013 - High Judicial and Prosecutorial Council of Bosnia and
Herzegovina,
No. 691/2012 - Practice of blanket Resignation of Ministers in the Federation
of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
No. 675/2012 - Amicus curiae brief on the compatibility with the human rights
standards of certain articles of the law on primary education of the Sarajevo
Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
No. 649/2011 - Opinion on the draft law on internal affairs of the Federation of
Bosnia and Herzegovina and on the draft law on internal affairs of the Canton
of Sarajevo,
No. 648/2011 - Opinion on Legal Certainty and the Independence of the
Judiciary in Bosnia and Herzegovina,
No. 642/2011 - Amicus Curiae Brief for the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and
Herzegovina on the law of the Republika Srpska on the status of state property
located on the territory of the Republika Srpska and under the disposal ban,
No. 594/2010 - Amicus Curiae Brief for the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and
Herzegovina on certain provisions of the electoral law of Bosnia and
Herzegovina, of the Constitution of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
and of the statute of the City of Mostar,
No. 574/2010 - Joint Opinion on the Act on Public Assembly of the Sarajevo
Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
No. 560/2009 - Opinion on the Draft Law on the Prevention of Conflict of
Interest in the Institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
No. 483/2008 - Amicus Curiae Brief in the cases of Sejdić and Finci, Bosnia and
Herzegovina,
No. 476/2008 - Opinion on the Draft Amendments to the Constitution of
Republika Srpska,
No. 466/2008 - Opinion on the Law on conflict of interest in Governmental
Institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
No. 461/2007 - Opinion on the Law on the Financing of Political Parties of
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
No. 460/2007 - Joint opinion on amendments to the Election Law of Bosnia
and Herzegovina,
Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu
�Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
No. 375/2006 - Opinion on the Draft Amendments to the Constitution of
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
No. 374/2006 - Opinion on Different Proposals for the Election of the
Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
No. 372/2006 - Draft Law on Amendments to the Election Law of Bosnia and
Herzegovina,
No. 344/2005 - Opinion on proposed voting rules for the Constitutional Court
of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
No. 337/2005 - Amicus Curiae Opinion (Proceedings before the European
Court of Human Rights) on the nature of proceedings before the Human Rights
Chamber and the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Mitja Žagar, Some Newer Trends in the Protection and (Special) Rights of
Ethnic Minorities: the European Context, in: Slovenia & European Standards for
the Protection of National Minorities, INV, Ljubljana 2002.
Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1
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�
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2848
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Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
Author
Author
Ribičić, Ciril
Abstract
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Abstract: The author discusses the importance of the ECtHR ruling in the case Sejdić and Finci in terms of necessary constitutional amendments that will establish Bosnia and Herzegovina as a normal European democratic country, which is independent and capable of integration in the EU. According to the author, BH is facing an inter-personal conflict of interests of constituent peoples which are harming them and the development of the state they reside in. He agrees the greater prominence of the constitutional system of BH should be given civic on the account of the national principle, however, this should not mean neglecting the concern for the equality of the constituent peoples and entities. Since the last war ended, these peoples have been living next to each other far too separately, and several times still against each other. In BH, various truths of the constituent peoples, "the others" and the international community are fronting. So far they have mostly been in conflict with one another rather than cooperating in synergy. The international community is undeniably accredited for terminating war-oriented hatred and maintaining permanent peace in BH. However, the "imposed" Dayton constitutional system has become the reason for inhibiting the development of BH. For that reason, the international community should transform its influence in such manner that it still stays the peace guarantor, but at the same time not jeopardize the BH independence to such an extent that it continues to represent the insurmountable obstacle to enter the EU. Strengthening the position and influence of "the others", i.e. those who are not the members of the constituent peoples, and considering their truths about BH, may bring fresh solutions in current problems and in searching for the new constitutional solutions. Therefore, the realization of the ECtHR ruling in the case Sejdić and Finci represents a small, yet constructive step in the right direction.
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International Burch University
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2015
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ISSN 2303-5706
K Law (General)
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e5e6edb647dbde72b52331fa0e685aa7.docx
334cee9e66a2d2a53cc241a6ce8bb7cc
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1ccc0658d9cb5b8437b4a34bf2d503dc.pdf
c1dfaef0972d187545e073f19b97ba28
PDF Text
Text
The Relationship among Ethical Leadership and Organizational Citizenship
Behavior: a study of private primary and high school teachers in Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Authors
Hatice Şenyurt, Muhammet Said Dinc
Publication date
2015
Conference
International Conference on Economic and Social Studies
Volume
1
Issue
1
Pages
138-144
Publisher
International Burch University
ABSTRACT
As a recent modern concept, ethical leadership inspires researchers in many ways. Relations between
ethical leadership and organizational citizenship behaviors, though a new field of study, is a big mine that
requires some digging. The so-called extra-role or pro-social actions of employees is called the
organizational citizenship behavior meaning that whatever extra job they do than what they are supposed
to do is within Organizational Citizenship Behavior. Namely, how the school teacher’s perception of
�his/her superior’s ethical behavior influences the organizational citizenship behavior has evoked curiosity
in the developing country context. This study tries to examine the effects of the ethical leadership on
Organizational Citizenship Behavior of private primary and high school teachers in Bosnia and
Herzegovina which is a developing and transitional country. Data collected from 80 teachers. The
relationship among multiple variables is evaluated on the basis of factor analysis, reliability, descriptive
statistics, correlations, and linear regression. The study showed a positive and strong influence of ethical
leadership on teachers’ organizational citizenship behavior in private primary and high schools.
Keywords: Organizational citizenship behavior, ethical leadership, factor analysis, correlation,
regression.
�
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3234
Title
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The Relationship among Ethical Leadership and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: a study of private primary and high school teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Author
Author
SENYURT, Hatice
DINÇ, Muhammet Sait
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
As a recent modern concept, ethical leadership inspires researchers in many ways. Relations between ethical leadership and organizational citizenship behaviors, though a new field of study, is a big mine that requires some digging. The so-called extra-role or pro-social actions of employees is called the organizational citizenship behavior meaning that whatever extra job they do than what they are supposed to do is within Organizational Citizenship Behavior. Namely, how the school teacher’s perception of his/her superior’s ethical behavior influences the organizational citizenship behavior has evoked curiosity in the developing country context. This study tries to examine the effects of the ethical leadership on Organizational Citizenship Behavior of private primary and high school teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina which is a developing and transitional country. Data collected from 80 teachers. The relationship among multiple variables is evaluated on the basis of factor analysis, reliability, descriptive statistics, correlations, and linear regression. The study showed a positive and strong influence of ethical leadership on teachers’ organizational citizenship behavior in private primary and high schools. Keywords: Organizational citizenship behavior, ethical leadership, factor analysis, correlation, regression.
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International Burch University
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2015
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Article
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/305f2881c396e06118c0d94a836be1d9.docx
ae3d30244f19e97bf977d1aa5a5ee8b1
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AN ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIAL NETWORKS AND ENGLISH ATTAINMENT OF BOARDING STUDENTS IN DUBAI
Author
Author
Sabawi, Aimon
Yildiz, Yasemin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This study explores the effects of social networks on English progress in a UAE international English National Curriuclum (ENC) boarding school. The observed population consisted of a case study of 11 boarding students, three female and eight male, who completed their first year of International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) curriculum in Year 10. Social network data was collected through the administration of a customized questionnaire, in addition to a semi-structured teacher questionnaire conducted with their English as an additional language (EAL) instructor. The results indicated that the plexity of social ties and the number of relations who used the target language had the highest positive relationship to the students’ English progress across most skills. An increased frequency of ‘non school friends’ in the social network had the strongest negative impact on language progress. This study proved that there may be various significant links between social relationships and language acquisition.
Publisher
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International Burch University
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/062cb798aee013ee2de0f10308f8e028.pdf
437ac6f7844a93dfa75db8cf969334aa
PDF Text
Text
TOPIC: ARSCOMBINATORIA IN THE NOVEL “THE NAME OF THE ROSE” BY
UMBERTO ECO
Emine Shabani
State University of Tetova, Macedonia
Article History:
Submitted: 11.06.2015
Accepted: 28.06.2015
Abstract
The difference between modernism and postmodernism is difficult to make, but we take as a
reference the hypotheses of well-known literary theorists and critics like Terry Eagleton, Pavao
Pavliçiç, Roland Barthes, Michel Foucault, Jacques Lacan, Gerard Genette, TzvetanTodorov,
JurijLotman Julia Kristeva, MiekeBaletc, a hypothesis of the canadian theorist Linda Hachion, as
far as my opinion is concerned is very straightfoward and rational, as far as the definition of
postmodern art is concerned, where she sees it as a field where the presence of the past in context
of the critical reflex over it, dominates. The poetics of postmodernism is the result of the concept
of the domination of irony, the contraverse role, great aesthetic, ideological, substantial
paradoxes, the post-modern work of art as such represents a subversive and contraversial
phenomenon, that builds and ruines the same phenomena it provokes and raises. Unlike previous
currents of art, in postmodernism we have the elements of idelogical and gender movements.
Postmodernist writers are: Borges, Marquez, Buzzati, Umberto Eco etc. And it is Umberto Eco’s
“The name of the Rose” (Ilnomedellarosa) that is the subject of my study, with a new substantial,
ethical, aesthetic, ideological, religious form. In the epilogue of the novel Eco uses the phrase
“revisiting tradition” because the past, according to the author cannot be undone but it rather
needs to be revisited with irony and not innocence, to highlight the dissension within the head of
the church, that in the name of triumph of an idea crimes are commited in an abbey and the
epicenter of the occurences is the library rich in ancient and modern texts...
�The references of our study were libraries, interviews, newspapers, raports and studies published
in the internet as well as scientific journals.
Key words: Intertext; arscombinatoria; unresolved and enigmatic crime; forbidden love;
inquisition; limits of ethics; asceticism.
�1. Introduction
A novel that made a name for itself in the 80-ties, with a success that continues to this day.
Written about the middle ages, “The name of the Rose” represents an almost perfect literary
description, the value of which lies in the history and tradition of the lives of hermits in the
middle ages, viewed from the perspective of a Benedictine monk from Melk and his experience
during seven days of 1327 in a monastery in the north of Italy. Right from the beginning the
narrator emphasizes that “The terrible events that occurred do not advise me to give a better
identification”.
Adson from Melk represents the implicated author, (The masque of authorship, the second ego,
an implicated portrait of the author in the text). Eco choses this form of narration, of a narratorprotagonist that views the events from his perspective. The novel represents a erudite work of
literary fiction, rich in information from the world of science, art, philosophy, history, theology,
mysticism, etc.
2. Used bibliography
For this study we have utilized professional bibliography, for the theoretic matters concerning
the art of the word and fiction we have chosen the names of J. Kaller, M. Solar, for focalization:
Viktor Shklovsky, V. Propp, for structuralism: Barthes, C. L. Stross, V. Bitti, for the characters
and the actantial model of Greimass, S. Chattman, for the narrator and time G. Genette, Sh.
Rimon-Kenan, for intertextuality J. Kristeva, the classics of literary science, the theory of prose:
Tz. Todorov, Е. Аuerbach, М. Becket, V. Butt, R. Velek, O. Waren, R. Јаkobson, Ј. Lotman,
Ch.K. Оgden, Ј. А. Richards, K. Hamburger, D.H.Pageau, G. Prince, for semiotics and
semiology M. Pozzato, R. Bronwen Martin dheFelizitasRingham, Barthes, Literary theory: A.
Vincadhe M. Becker, essayistics: B. Croce, D. Grlic, etc.
3. Methodology
We have utilized a modern approach as a method of study which is used in all social sciences
and widely used in natural sciences: observation (studying of facts)- interpretation (study of
meaning)- application (study of utility). By means of interpretation all knownlegde is included:
the internal structure of the literary work and its study, the semiologic, semantic, allegoric,
�narratological meaning (types and narrative strategies), monologue, dialogue, thoughts, the
mental and emotional structure of the protagonists, the utilized codes: the doubled, biblical. The
normative group of interpretation, is concerned with literal aspects as well as figurative, cultural
and historic observation, the justification of the text etc.
4. Results and discussion
The novel begins with the words “In the beginning was the Word and the Word was with God,
and the Word was God”. This automatically reminds us of the beginning lines of Faust by
Goethe: in the beginning there was the work, and then the word. And it is the word as such that
in this novel forms the lethal curiosity, integrated in books and rare parchments.
The plot in the novel is set in the period before the upheavals of the renaissance, in the year
1327, while the figure of William represents the intellectual with encyclopedic knowledge,
intuition, sharpness and other admirable traits. He was a humanist, although he had been an
inquisitor, but he never sentenced anybody to death by burning and for ethical reasons he
abdicated from his position, as a man of reason an ratio, while his antagonists are Jorge from
Borges, the Abbot, Ubertini and all the officially undeclared heretics. Adson represents the
implicated narrator who writes with preterition about the events, that occurred in the middle
ages, for those that we are aware but he still writes about them! “the truth, before it is revealed to
all, face to face, we see in fragments (alas, how illegible) in the error of the world, so we must
spell out its faithful signals even when they seem obscure to us and as if amalgamated with a will
wholly bent on evil” .
This kind of semiotics guides us in an anaphoric way to the sequence of events that will follow
within a period of seven days, while William makes very censured investigations in the abbacy.
Adson is fascinated by his teacher for whom he says that he admires him for his knowledge and
the reasonable way in which he perceives things, events, actions and makes very precise
decisions based on his knowledge, experience and intuition. The semiotics of the text represents
the plain of expression and is consistently present from the beginning till the end.
The whole building and the Library are build according to the architectural code, which Eco
mentions in his “Absent structure”, after the typological code that he calls the grammar of
building where he says: “ Based on the dialectics between information and redundancy, we could
�try to build a church, which even being a church, it would be different from the ones that are
seen to this day and as a result it would require us to worship god and to feel the connection to
him in an unusual way: this does not mean that we have violated the rules of architecture and
sociology as of how the churches should be used.” Here Eco puts spiritual temples and labyrinths
in the category of semantic codes, spatial typological crossroads. This abbacy was unlike all of
its sister abbacies in Italy and Europe, in the text it is an arena of events and mystic and macabre
crimes.
According to Bashlar the corner is the negation of space and human beings choose it to find their
cogito. While Sartre calls it the topoanalytics of the external an internal and with this he signifies
the two directions that psychoanalists call introvert and extrovert before life and before passions,
in the scheme of existence itself, the author finds this duality and this means return to himself
and for himself.
Ernst Bloch, a German philosopher, mentions Vitruvius for his architectural utopia and
emphasizes the thought that: “A building must encompass simultaneously the utility, structural
strength and aesthetic beauty! , Vitruvius also thought that the parts of the human body should be
measured and the proportions be used to determine the proportions of a temple in the ancient
times. The building that is the epicenter of the plot, crime and the effort to uncover the truth, was
built in such an aesthetic beauty and manner that not everyone could understand it. Especially
when we take into account that the library was guarded with fanaticism from everyone except the
few who were allowed to roam freely like the librarians and their helpers as future successors.
The secret entrance from the small chapel in the garden and the altar to the ossuary one could
exit to the spiral stairs that led to the library and this was not the only secret way that led to it.
Among other things it was enigmatic for the way it was oriented as well as for the things it kept
secret- the forbidden books and the strange miniatures that caused controversy in the middle
ages. An interesting fact is that virtually everyone was interested in the forbidden artifacts, the
second book of Aristotle that was concerned with the effects of laughing, the books of the so
called infidels, their science, the poetry of the African poets etc. We are able to observe that
Jorge and his apprentice librarian conveyed to their assistants, the secrets of their duty that not
everyone was allowed to visit the library and that this area was forbidden
�5. The narrative aspect as an internal structure of the novel
A novel with historic contents that talks about the history in distance between the author narrator
and the first person narrator.The narrator who tells the history focused on a certain time and
space is Adso, whereas digressive tales often come from William, Ubertino, Salvatore, Nicholas,
Severinus, etc. The old Adso speaks about an early time and his judgment on the past, at a later
time: Middle Age – 18-year-old Adso – 80-year-old Adso + the 20th-21st century reader. It is
about two narrative tenses and one of the reader’s. Adso’s narration is more or less subjective
and it sometimes happens that the border between the narrator and the author is mixed; the
holder of the narration cannot be distinct sometimes, especially in the description of monologs
and other opinions and feelings (the kitchen scene). We can often see that the narrator expresses
his opinions, knowledge and experience, but on the other hand the author too successfully
extracts the plot and the experience from it from previous narrations of Adso. The duplicated
code is felt way to the end. The narrative voice in the text is multiplied; the author,
Adso/narrator, William, Ubertino, Berengar, Salvatore, episodic characters, etc. narrate there;
however, the aim of the narration is common. There are also cases when the narrator addresses
the reader, which adds a special emotional weight to the whole situation. When the author
describes to the narrator all the hidden events, then he tells all intimate things to the reader, i.e.
the sins, mistakes, challenges, temptations, and this case occurs in the scene of love in the
peasant girl and what happens later with Adso; things that other characters cannot see, apart from
the reader and William whom he partially tells the event.
The chronotope of the labyrinth is very special and interesting, in a duplicated form too, physical
and figurative (based on Bakhtin’s form, which he determined as “the chronotope of saloons, of
the provincial city, the sill, the intrigue”1 and I added that of the crossroads and the labyrinth);
the work is a labyrinth of knowledge, scientific information, semiotic information, follows and
discovers the criminal, who is unconsciously helped by both the abbot and the rules of the order.
Jorge appears to be the serial killer with the poison he has put in the book, hidden signs that lead
to him, including the banned books with anecdotes and other texts that have comic contents. He
disdains Aristotle who has given a philosophical importance to laughter.
1
ZdenkoSkreb-AnteStamacUvod u Knjizevdnost, CGP Dello, Ljubljana, 1986, p. 523.
�The whole novel is full of interesting passages from the medieval age which we know very little
about; however, Eco as a good knower of the works by Thomas Aquinas has good knowledge of
that period. Aquinas tried to adapt Aristotle to the teachings of Catholic Church, where his
teachings became the highest level of the medieval scholastic thought and the foundations of the
Christian dogmatism until to date. There is no doubt that Eco has integrated part of his
philosophy because the whole event welters around Aristotle’s book. Not in vain are his verses
admired, where he makes his characters say the following:
“The best treaties of cryptography are a deed of treacherous scholars [...] Bacon was right when
he said that the acquisition of knowledge goes through the knowledge of languages. Abu Bakr
Ahmad ben Ali ben Washiyya an-Nabati centuries ago wrote a book on the devoted human’s
incandescent desire to learn about antique writings and presented many rules in order to shape
and decode mysterious alphabets…”2
The letters of the verses of the Apocalypse are seven, seven days of God who constructed the
world, seven book chapters, according to this sacred number, seven days of investigation, and the
quarter of the seven, the digit that opened the door of the mirror where the book “Super
thronusvigitiquator”; every letter that contained the mechanism of opening the glassy door had
to be typed. That was the secret code.
The critics consider that as a work with a double code, in the semiotic and figurative context,
with the presence of the metaphor, metonymy, allegory, preterition, etc. The five codes
determined by Barthes, such as the hermeneutic, semic, symbolic, proairetic, and cultural, at the
narrative level, are those without which an artistic prose as such cannot exist.
A novel that speaks about a medieval religious community, where the actions of main and
secondary characterscombined with enigmatic elements, even though it seems that William and
Adso are the main characters; in fact, they are characters of narrated situations and have a limited
effect on them, whereas the one that has the central role and moves all the events with a
previously planned mechanism, is Jorge of Silos/Borges. He appears to be the hidden, allknowing narrator, even though the whole situation that is created is brought into play by the old
man himself, appearing at the end, during the dialog between William and Jorge.
2
Umberto Eco Emri i Trëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë 1996, p.151.
�The views from the inside of the portal, sculptures and the complexity of the construction of the
library, which Adso beholds to fantasy and admiration, are overspread in the text with a luxuriant
taste; the esthetic essence here lies on the way of description and narration of those sights and the
feelings they cause in the novice; they also cause an esthetic emotional load in the reader
himself.
The semic code expresses theopinions and actions of main and secondary characters. The other
parts of the novel are supplemented by historic and scientific digressions of the achievements at
that time, representing a piece with general erudition.
The symbolic code has to do with the symbols of figures, pictures and sculptures that are closely
related to the mystical events and circumstances of the time as well as with perspective
digressions. On a return to the abbey years later, Adso finds ruins symbolic of the collapse of
religious authority in the late Middle Ages: “I still glimpsed there, dilated by the elements and
dulled by lichens, the left eye of the enthroned Christ, and something of the lion’s face [...] all
over the place they seemed as some empty eyes from which tears of reptilian carrions were
hanging down. The collapsed roof seemed like capsized angels”.3
External actions as an opposition of what they think and feel, are in fact a caustic irony against
their controversial behavior (monks Salvatore, Remigio, who take an advantage of the little
peasant girl’s misfortune for bizarre aims, Ubertino who led a bohemian life, Abo who asked for
help from William and censored his research, as well as the gathered wealth, jewels and
artworks).
The Latin footnotes in the library show the order of books according to their contents and the
construction based on biblical teachings, analog to the design of the world and the universe by
God. “It was clear where the cartridge phrases had been taken from; they were verses from
John’s Apocalypse, though it was not clear at all why they had been drawn on walls or what
logic of order they had followed”.4 By walking further on, William and Adso got lost and could
not find the way, since they got to where they had previously been, without knowing how to get
3
Umberto Eco Emri i Trëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë 1996, p.447.
Umberto Eco Struktura e papranishme Dukagjini, Pejë, 1996, p. 154.
4
�to the doorsteps. Tired of the library labyrinth, William asked Adso: “What was the last room
from where we got back called?”
I tried to recall:
Equusalbus.5
From the beginning to the end, the novel is a mountain, a semiotic world. According to
apocalyptic predictions, the white horse represents an infectious disease and a wound; these are
the semiotic anaphoric elements from page 30, along with Vrachi/the black horse and the third
horse left in the stall…
Eco uses the ideological and psychological contrast through which he reveals a clear picture of
the mentality and simplicity of the human being, regardless of the century, rules, prohibitions,
nihilism, or other destructive elements, in the struggle with the unavoidable human nature, with
the greedy curiosity for knowledge, new prohibited things, their curiosity dominates prohibition
and obstacles, and gets induced in the infinite world of knowledge; they become demanding till
death in order to posses and enjoy them. The semiotic element is in the center; it is hidden just
after a single word and phrase, even after the concrete and abstract signs: pictures, images,
miniatures, sculptures, signs and codes in the library, cryptographic writings in the Pergament of
Venanci, Adelmo, Berengar, Benchi, etc. However, the photography is a second language for
other reasons as well: because it is a speech that exists to transmit. According to Barthes,
photography is a “target function” in order to understand that it is a symbolic speech in a literary
system and in a social sphere that reflects; it is an issue of imagology.6This has been expressed
through the few poetic verses in the novel: “Oh my lovely Adso, - my teacher told me. – I’ve
been teaching you all the way down the signs, through which the world talks to us, just as a huge
book. The Alan of the Isles used to say:
Every creature in the world
As a book and a picture
5
Umberto Eco Struktura e papranishme Dukagjini, Pejë, 1996, p. 155.
6
Daniel-Henri Pageau, La littѐrature gѐnѐrale et comparѐe Arman Colin Edituer, Paris, 1994, p.106.
�Is like a mirror to us”7
According to Pageau, the picture/drawing is the translation of the other, and a self-translation
too.8
The semiotic integration of cognition, the library represents a conglomerate of signs, from the
way of cataloguing, selection, nomination, placement of rooms based on world map and its sides,
systemization of books and authors in those sections, based on their residential, racial,
anthropologic and theologicalaffiliation, etc.
In Eco’s opinion, the reader-interpreter has to possess a series of competences such as
grammatical competence, semantic-encyclopedic competence, the ability to eliminate ambiguity
of implication, the ability to draw conclusions, etc. in order to comprehend the full meaning of
the work. The semantic-encyclopedic sphere of William’s arrival in the abbacy is understood by
the emergence of his trajectory in a timeframe of seven days; despite the obstacles, he manages
to discover the crime, but the punishment for his discovery is first taken by the abbot who did not
allow even William to step into the library.(There is no doubt that the irony is very perceptive
and we have to deal here with a sadomasochistic oxymoron personified in the figure of the
double-blind friar Jorge (duplicate code).
“From this book, Lucifer’s spark can flash, which would set the whole world on fire: and
laughter would be determined as an art to subdue fear [...] And from this book the new
destructive aspiration can be born in order to outrun death through overcoming fear [...]And see
how these novices are embarrassed when they read the Grotesque parody of Coena Cypriani
[...] The people of God would turn into an assembly of monsters, risen from the abysses of the
unknown land [...]Mythological horses would climb up Peter’s throne, the Blemas would go to
assemblies, stomach-bloated big-headed dwarfs would protect the library! The servants would
do the laws, and we (and you as well), would comply with the absence of any kind of law. A
Greek philosopher (your Aristotle cites him here, as an accomplice filthy authority) once said
7
Umberto Eco Emri i Trëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë 1996, p.31.
Daniel-Henri Pageau, La littѐrature gѐnѐrale et comparѐe Arman Colin Edituer, Paris, 1994, p.106.
8
�that the seriousness of the enemy has to be repudiated with laughter and enemy’s laughter has to
be refuted with seriousness…”9
The narrative level: Adso is the actor/the subject has one goal – to help William in discovering
the crime. Adso and novice the new Benedict (the discursive level) first person narrator of the
Ich form, which is an indicator that the text is homodiegetic with internal focalization. The
discursive trajectory is the place of the emergence of actions, events and crimes abbacy and
especially the library, where knowledge was kept with aggressive and pathetic bigotry by Jorge
of Borges.
Eco says that the novel could have been called The abbey of Crime, as a work with dual code, he
decides to call it The Name of the Rose, a love connotation, which when analyzed from the
semantic-encyclopedic perspective, the position that love takes in the novel is greater than
hatred, bigotry and crime, the oppositional positive fid appears to be more powerful and he calls
it The Name of the Rose.
The steps that the criminal seems to follow, he preaches and commits a crime (he has two faces,
both of them demonic) due to the fact that even the preaching is deconstructive, opposes
laughter, is against the grotesque drawings of Venanci, against poems that motivate imagination
and intimate in sensual love.
The categories of historic non-fictional characters, are known figures of popes, the emperor,
hereditaries, St. Francis of Assisi, St. Benedict, or less known such as monks, friars, who gain
importance only when mentioned by William, Abath, Ubertino, etc. With programs, tasks and
models, the reader gets integrated in the text and discovers the ideology, mentality of characters
that gives the effect of truthfulness of the character. We will use R. Barthes’s denomination in
this case, whereupon we see another category of characters – the deictic ones, which are omens
of the participation of the author of the text in cases where Adso describes and tells, though
between the lines one can feel the intervention of the author’s hand, which becomes easier to
comprehend at the postscript of the novel where he himself says, “Who speaks? The 80-year-old
9
Umberto Eco Emri i Trëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë 1996, p.427.
�Adso or the 18-year-old Adso? Both [...] so, me the narrator and narrative characters, including
the narrative voice.”10
The novel representative or spokesperson is Adso, through whom we find out about all the
events, even though he is not an all-knowing narrator, but understands from others and through
William’s great knowledge and intuition. In the novel, the author’s effect is disguised, hardly
noticeable and silent; however, the issue of the hero is in the center, and in this case, it is
undoubtedly William and his rational behavior, obstacles and challenges during the investigation
of the crime, when he feels weak under unexplainable and surprising circumstances, which
means that the main character is not ideal, unmistakable, and all-knowing, but rather a human
being with mental acuity, knowledge and ratio.
The anaphoric characters Ubertino, Salvatore, Jorges’s signs, semic warnings through library
codes/catalogs and the order of the books, signs on the room walls, all adapted to John’s gospel
for the upcoming of the Apocalypse, he makes calls and warnings in the form of syntagma,
words, paraphrases, other elements essentially organized and cohesive, which are in a way
mnemotechnical signs for the reader, such characters pre-narrators that have the gift of memory,
sculptures, monuments for which Adso daydreams due to the synthesis of beauty, arts, enigma
and semantic depth that they create. Dreams that speak through their symbolism (before the
death of Adelm and Venanci), the scene of omens or faith, memories, flashbacks (William’s past,
as an inquisitor, or Ubertini as Dolchinian), the citation of predecessors (Thomas Aquinas,
Bacon, John of Jandun, Bailek al Kabaiki, William of Okam) penetration, planning, verification
of a program, which are authorized attributes, or figures of those types of characters
(investigation, discovery and punishment).11
According to Bjelinski, “the typical is the author’s emblem” and thinks that “every normal
person can be a type in his daily life. To the reader, the type in a literary work is “an unknown
acquaintance”.12
10
Umberto Eco Emri i Trëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë1996, p.463.
Philipe Amon, Teorija na Prozata, NIP, Nova Makedonija, Skopje, 1996, p. 242.
12
AnicaSavicRebac, Epohe i Pravci u Knjizevnosti, Nolit, Beograd, 1965, p. 122.
11
�The chrononym is present in this novel since chapters themselves have been divided according
to a canonical religious logic in seven days, as long as William’s and Adso’s stay and
investigation in the abbacy lasts, i.e. the time needed to investigate and find the criminal. In
addition to the division in days, this creates the impression of the consciousness flow in Joyce’s
style, which he used in his works. Chapters, i.e. days are also divided in special sections, as part
of the ritual, such as after midnight, praises, the first hour, the third hour, the sixth hour, the ninth
hour, the evening, the hour of the last canonical service of the priests, etc. Chrononyms,
anthroponyms and toponyms help in creating a referential illusion and unification at the
figurative level. The verb tense also matters in terms of the narrative combinations, the narration
that builds on delays in time depths, by breaking the chronological order of events/retrospection;
the continuous tense creates the impression of the author being present in the event he tells,
whereas the transition from the simple past to the past perfect creates a time distance and takes
the reader back in time. These time gradations that can be found in this novel create an emotional
burden in the reader; they strengthen its philosophical and historical subtext, motivate internal
and external actions of the characters, etc.13
The title of the novel
Based on the denotative aspect, The Name of the Rose is a connotation of love, or the house of
God (temple, monastery, abbacy, etc.). The valuable items, books, knowledge, desire, love and
the need of monks for books. The semiotic, symbolic aspect: the rose symbolizes love, having in
mind different types of love: divine love (God, angels, sacred house, saints, prophets), brotherly
(between brothers, friars, and all of those in service to the house of God), human (towards
people, the poor, peasants, the sick, etc.), paternal (the love of Adso for William), whereupon he
says, “Yes, I want to talk about William once and forever, because there were some special
features in him that impressed me a lot, and the youngsters tend to follow an older and wiser
man than them, attracted not only by his words and acuity, but also by his appearance, which
seems to them very alluring, as is the case with the appearance of a holy father in whom you take
notice of everything, the way he moves, the way he darkles, the way he smiles, without being
spoilt by any kind of depravity”14.
13
Floresha Dado, Teoria e Veprës Letrare Poetika, SHBLU, Tiranë, 2003, p. 251.
Umberto Eco Emri i Trëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë1996, p. 22.
14
�The sensual love (the girl towards whom Adso feel mercy, love, pain and empathy; however,
above all, after the fatal night, he feels that all of that spiritual and emotional disturbanceis not
anything else but a forbidden and dangerous love), the love for knowledge, science, books
(monks endanger themselves by getting into the library secretly), love for justice, humanism, etc.
In an abbacy in the north of Italy something absurd happens, something reproaching, which has
powerful elements of theological existentialism, what Sartre explains with the second principle
of the existentialist opinion in Being and Nothingness, the concealment, “When someone tries to
deceive the others and reveal a false image, or rely on hypocrisy.”15
A successful mysticist, monk Jorge, double blind, dream hunter and reader, keeps with bigotry
and nihilism the only copy of Aristotle’s second book On the laughter and comical, the author
chooses this detail in order to achieve the goal of the post-modern novel, admonition, irony,
perhaps contempt about medieval mentality on laughter and comical.
Monasterium sine libris [...] estsicutcivitassineopibus, castrum sine numeris, coquina sine
suppellectili, mensa sine cibis, hortus sine herbis, pratum sine floribus, arbor sine foliis…”16
Spatialization: Places and location included in the discourse. Everything that happens in the
abbacy is closely related to the building itself, the tactics and strategy that William would use is
very limited: “The abbot asked me to investigate Adelm’s death at times when he thought there
was something dull happening among his monks. But now, Venanci’s death induces other
suspicions; perhaps the abbot has felt that the key to the mystery is the library and he doesn’t
like me to investigate in there. That’s why he points at cellar man in order to deteriorate my
focus from the building [...] the abbot told me from the beginning that the library cannot be
touched. He should have his own reasons. He could have been implicated in one of these events
that can have to do something with Adelm’s death, but now recalls that the scandal is spreading
and can grip him as well. Therefore he doesn’t want the truth to be revealed, or at least he
doesn’t want me to discover it...”17
15
JeanPaulSartreQenia dhe Hiçi, Fan Noli, Tiranë,2011, p. 200.
Umberto Eco Emri i Trëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë1996, p.41.
17
Umberto Eco Emri i Trëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë1996, p.141.
16
�The reader follows the directions of the internal moves of the work which is the dynamics of
action of the characters led by the desire and curiosity for prohibited books; he understands and
experiences the emotions that the narrator creates – a suspenseto quench the curiosity. In The
Name of the Rosethe dynamism of actions and thoughts from the past can be felt, which creates
the feeling of irony and judgment on the activities that happen in the abbacy, especially in
relation to the priest Jorge.
Facing the monks’ curiosity and the nihilism of the library custodian priest, throws some light on
the obscurantist medieval thought with the fact that Jesus Christ had never smiled; therefore the
book, or books (because those with cartoons and anecdotes belonged there), in his opinion, were
prohibited, along with a series of books written by the “faithless”, that represented heresy and
danger to the Christian world and the abbacy order.
The labyrinth library, as if its complicated construction was not enough, had to produce smoke at
night by incinerating daydreaming medications in one of the key rooms so that the mirror would
produce a twisted image. He had planned everything, even its self-destruction, because he felt it
as part of his own, and as a young man had worked a lot for it; he had furnished it with rare
books, he had copied and catalogued based on John’s Apocalypse, the strictly forbidden rooms
Finis Africae, Leones, CoenaCiprianu, and especially the mirror, above it and behind it. Nihilism
and spiritual meanness had made him destroy it for the price of death.
In the novel, one can feel the intertextual metanarrative irony, which has been encompassed
within words, old texts; books with miniatures, against the order of life in the monastery, the
untouchable superiority of books can be felt, over this practice in the abbacy. The whole irony is
that Jorge decides for this prohibition, the others do not support him and do not feed his nihilistic
desire. However, the drama occurs in this part of the building; it is cursed and the curse is the
poison, whereas the opposite semiotics is called rose/love. The last scenes are full of anxiety,
delirium, words as if coming from the bottom of hell, Jorge’s sub-consciousness is revealed, the
poison has been stolen and used to kill the knowledge inquiring, William and Adso are anxious
for their lives and the drama that is happening to them, the prepared intrigue by the old man, the
conflict between the danger and salvation and the spillover of the oil, is the resolution of the
sharp conflict, that caused casualties and would continue to do so with the burning of the
building and its further destruction. The esthetic essence, the beauty/the ugliness, the moral/the
�immoral, love/hate/ knowledge/ignorance, etc. The strongest fid wins, love against hatred. The
evil remains buried under the ruins, as planned, taking with it the secret as well. Eco represents
all of these things in a doubled mode, including all sides of the fid.
And the narration for the poisoned book is a parallel approach to the narration of 1001 Nights,
whereupon doctor Duban is sentenced to death after he saves the King’s life. He says that he will
tell him the tale of the crocodile but his request is not accepted. While taking Duban to
execution, he gives the King a book. The doctor’s cut-off head tells him to read it; after he flips
the first seven pages of the book, he sees that they are attached, and he tells him to move further.
After a couple of minutes, the drug begins to react and the King dies. The book that does not
narrate, kills.18The antithesis of the non-narration in 1001 Nights is the narration in the Name of
the Rose, i.e. who tells, dies.
6. Conclusions
At the end of the novel, in the dialog with William, the reader feels Jorge’s demonic apology,
who commits a suicide by eating Aristotle’s book – a controversial action against his faith and
preaching. The last movements are devilish; he has already killed the abbot and now threatens
William too, and has found the proper place where he will put an end to his life, in the mirror
room, especially when adding the fact that he could better “see” in the dark rather than in the
light – a duplication of his blindness. The mess that is created from the darkness and the attempts
to get the book from the Jorge, the fall of Adso, whereupon his lantern falls down, the oil spills
and the pergaments are set o fire, then the shelves and finally the library and the whole building.
The narrative semantic closure ends with the death of old Jorge, although at his very last
moments he was planning to kill William. The novel has a closed ring-like composition by
beginning and ending in abbacy, though now in a burning one, and despite the attempts to put it
out, it had already spread all over the place. The last images reveal the novices, monks and other
workers who were leaving the abbacy. There were dead people, others wounded and hurt from
the ruins and leftovers. The split of William and Adso in Bavaria, the death of William caused by
the plague and the closure of Adso’s diary with blasphemic words, is a powerful turn discovered
at the end as in other novels. He ends his diary with his apostasic words: “God is a complete
18
TzvetanTodorov, Poetika e Prozës, Panteon, Tiranë, 2000, p. 35.
�nothing; He is not touched either by the present or the here”. This is an extreme transformation
of what is said from the beginning to this final stage. Adso confesses his atheism at the end, or
earlier with his intuition and his proven reason, in an implied way, together with William.
He worked like the bees in an empty trunk and filled an emptiness of this time, by placing
powerful figurative emphases on the events, heresies, inquisition, superstitions, occultist sects,
patarins, bogomils, people that marked this era, such as St. Francis of Assisi, Ludwig II of
Germany, Pope John Paul, etc.
References
Barthes, R.(1989).AventuraSemiologjike. Prishtinë.
Baslar, G. (1969). PoetikaProstora, Kultura, Beograd.
Biti, V. (1992).Suvremenateorijapripovedanja. Zagreb.
Bronwen, M-Felizitas, R. (2000).Dictionary of Semiotics, Cassell, London and New York.
Çapaliku, S. (2004).EstetikaModerne,Tiranë.
Dado, F. Teoria e VeprësLetrare-Poetika, SHBLU, Tiranë, 2003.
Daniel-Henri Pageau, (1994).La littѐraturegѐnѐraleetcomparѐe, Arman Colin Edituer, Paris.
Eco, U.(1996).EmriiTrëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë.
Eco, U.(2000).Struktura e Papranishme, Dukagjini, Pejë.
Gërliq, D.(1984).Estetika, Rilindja, Prishtinë.
Gërliq, D.(1986).FjaloriFilozofëve,Rilindja, Prishtinë.
Horhe, L.B. (2002).NjëUniversnënjëRrokje, Tiranë.
Pozzato, M. P. (2005). Semiotika e Tekstit, SHBLU, Tiranë.
Prince, G.(2003).Dictionary of Narratology, University of Nebraska Press.
�Robey, D. &Jefferson, A. (2004).TeoriaLetrareModerne, Tiranë.
Sartre, J. P.(2011).QeniadheHiçi, Fan Noli, Tiranë.
SavicRebac, A. (1965).EpoheiPravci u Knjizevnosti, Nolit, Beograd.
Škreb, Z.-Stamać, A.(1986).Uvod u Književnost, CGP DELO, Ljublana.
Todorov, Tz. (2000).Poetika e Prozës, Panteon, Tiranë.
Vinca, A. (2002).PanteoniiIdeveLetrare, Shkodër.
Тодоров, Ц. (1998). Поетика, Детска Радост, Скопје.
Мекдоналд, М.et al, (1996). Теорија на Прозата, Детска Радост, Скопје.
�
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2908
Title
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TOPIC: ARSCOMBINATORIA IN THE NOVEL “THE NAME OF THE ROSE” BY UMBERTO ECO
Author
Author
Shabani, Emine
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The difference between modernism and postmodernism is difficult to make, but we take as a reference the hypotheses of well-known literary theorists and critics like Terry Eagleton, Pavao Pavliçiç, Roland Barthes, Michel Foucault, Jacques Lacan, Gerard Genette, TzvetanTodorov, JurijLotman Julia Kristeva, MiekeBaletc, a hypothesis of the canadian theorist Linda Hachion, as far as my opinion is concerned is very straightfoward and rational, as far as the definition of postmodern art is concerned, where she sees it as a field where the presence of the past in context of the critical reflex over it, dominates. The poetics of postmodernism is the result of the concept of the domination of irony, the contraverse role, great aesthetic, ideological, substantial paradoxes, the post-modern work of art as such represents a subversive and contraversial phenomenon, that builds and ruines the same phenomena it provokes and raises. Unlike previous currents of art, in postmodernism we have the elements of idelogical and gender movements. Postmodernist writers are: Borges, Marquez, Buzzati, Umberto Eco etc. And it is Umberto Eco’s “The name of the Rose” (Ilnomedellarosa) that is the subject of my study, with a new substantial, ethical, aesthetic, ideological, religious form. In the epilogue of the novel Eco uses the phrase “revisiting tradition” because the past, according to the author cannot be undone but it rather needs to be revisited with irony and not innocence, to highlight the dissension within the head of the church, that in the name of triumph of an idea crimes are commited in an abbey and the epicenter of the occurences is the library rich in ancient and modern texts. The references of our study were libraries, interviews, newspapers, raports and studies published in the internet as well as scientific journals.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
International Burch University
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics,PN Literature (General),PN0080 Criticism
-
https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/343c2ec5eb4312ed2a05e390089cd768.pdf
767189a7bf17b73beda9da0240fa7492
PDF Text
Text
Journal of Economic and Social Studies
An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria
Mohammed Shuaibu
Department of Economics, Ahmadu Bello University
Zaria Kaduna, Nigeria
mohammed_shuaibu@yahoo.com
Abstract: The difference between estimated
parameters of money supply and currency-deposit
ratio is used to examine the behaviour of real deposits
in Nigeria between 1960 and 2012. This is done
using unrestricted error correction modelling within
the bounds testing approach to cointegration proposed
by Pesaran et al. (2001). Our findings revealed that
inflation, real income and interest rates remain major
factors influencing real deposit dynamics in Nigeria.
Interestingly, financial innovation measured by the
ratio of credit to the private sector and GDP was
found to increase real deposits by 0.014% while the
shadow economy accounted for the 0.96% fall in real
deposits recorded. While interest rate and inflation
remain quantitatively important in explaining longrun real deposit behaviour in Nigeria, our finding
further underscores the need for monetary authorities
to mainstream the informal sector into the financial
system given the significant negative influence the
shadow economy exerted on real deposits.
Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015
Keywords: Money Demand; CurrencyDeposit Ratio; Real Deposit; Cointegration;
Error Correction Model;
JEL Classification: E41, E51, G21
Article History
Submitted: 15 October 2014
Resubmitted: 7 November 2014
Resubmitted: 23 January 2015
Accepted: 9 April 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JECOSS15522
127
�Mohammed Shuaibu
Introduction
A requisite component of economic growth and development is a well-functioning
financial system characterised by a banking sub-sector that efficiently intermediates
between surplus and deficit holders of funds. In a developing economy like Nigeria
where the non-bank component of the financial sector is limited, problems in deposit
money banks (DMBs) are instantly transmitted to the rest of the economy (Olofin and
Afangideh, 2008). This is in view of the fact that commercial banks facilitate a bulk
of financial transactions. Nevertheless, banking dominance of the Nigerian financial
system has, however, dropped as controlled financial system assets fell from 90.5% in
2006 to 78.6% in 2011 (IMF, 2013).
The main sources of the banking liquidity in Nigeria are public and private sector
deposits which DMBs transmit to deficit holders of funds. However, growth rate of
deposits have been lopsided in recent times as the rate fell from 65% in 2008 to -11.3%
and -1.6% in 2010 and 2012, respectively (International Monetary Fund, 2013). It
follows therefore that a negative shock to the depositary base will inhibit the flow of
credit, constrain development of domestic industries and adversely affect economic
growth. Therefore, factors influencing savings’ decisions of households and firms
become important determinants of a stable banking sector with particular reference to
its intermediation role.i
An assessment of real deposits has gained ample attention in the literature (See
Tvalodze and Tchaidze, 2011 for Georgia; Kibet, Mutai, Ouma, Ouma and Owuor,
2009 for Kenya; Dadkhah and Rajen, 1988 for India; Felmingham and Qing, 2001
for Australia; Hasan, 2001 for China; Mutluer and Yasemin, 2002 for Turkey; Lucas,
1988 for US; Vega, 1998 for Spain). Similarly, the behaviour of real deposits has been
analysed within the context of currency deposit ratio. In this regard, Khaskeli, Ahmed
and Hyder (2013) analysed the behaviour and determinants of the currency deposit
ratio in Pakistan based on the notion that an increase in currency in circulation reduces
deposits and invariably, loanable funds. This is because an increase in the volume of
currency in circulation implies that deposits are being withdrawn from the banks,
which restrict their ability to meet investors’ credit demand.
Research on the factors affecting real deposit creation in Nigeria is scanty, as inadequate
attention has been given to the behaviour of real deposits with specific reference to the
dynamic interaction of money supply and currency in circulation. The dominant strand
of literature has focused on estimating the determinants and behaviour of real deposits
(See Nwachukwu and Odigie, 2009; Odemero, 2012; Uneze, 2013; Nwachukwu and
Egwaikhide, 2007, Nwachukwu, 2011) while some others have inferred real deposit
behaviour on the basis of money demand models (See Aschani, 2010; Kumar, Webber
and Fargher, 2010; Chukwu, Agu and Onah, 2010; Omotor, 2010; amongst others).
It is against this background that this study departs from the literature by examining
the behaviour of the real deposits in Nigeria by considering the difference between
estimated broad money balance (money supply) and currency deposit ratio.ii
128
Journal of Economic and Social Studies
�An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria
An investigation of the behavioural patterns of real deposits in Nigeria is expected to
play a pivot role in formulating and fine-tuning financial sector and monetary policies,
respectively. Notably, a major component of such policy considerations is increased
transmission of funds to the real sector; particularly geared towards stimulating non-oil
sector growth that has remained at the forefront of government’s policy objectives over
the years. For an emerging economy like Nigeria with high savings and investment gaps,
enhanced real deposit is critical for sustained “trickle-down” growth. This is further
exacerbated by the crucial role of domestic saving mobilisation in the sustenance of
domestic saving-investment-growth chain in developing economies (Nwachukwu,
2011). Moreover, the level of domestic saving and its determinants will not only help
ascertain the policy variables that should be considered in macroeconomic policy
formulation, but stimulate the much needed credit for real sector development.
The empirical analysis is premised on annual data between 1960 and 2012. We utilise
the bounds testing approach to cointegration, developed by Pesaranet al. (2001)
within an autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) framework, to test for a long-run
level relationship. The bound testing approach has certain advantages in comparison
to other cointegration procedures (such as Engle and Granger, 1987; Johansen and
Juselius, 1990). Firstly, endogeneity problems and inability to test hypotheses on
the estimated coefficients in the long-run associated with the Engle-Granger (1987)
method are avoided. Secondly, the long and short-run parameters of the model in
question are estimated simultaneously. Lastly, the approach is relieved of the burden of
establishing the order of integration amongst the variables and of pre-testing for unit
root. The study is organised as follows: Section two examines the trend and behaviour
of real deposits in Nigeria while Section three discusses the related literature. Analytical
framework and estimation techniques are explored in Section four while Section 5
concludes and highlights policy implications.
Facts about Real Deposits and its Potential Determinants
A remarkable development in the Nigerian financial sector that is directly related to real
deposits formation is the recent increase in electronic (e-card transactions). The value
and volume increased accordingly from 195,525,568 and N1,072.90 billion in 2010
to 355,252,401 and N1,671.4 billion in 2011, reflecting an increase of 81.5% and
55.8%, respectively. A plausible explanation for this jump is the increased confidence
in electronic card payments. Data on various e-payment channels indicated that ATMs
remained the most patronised, accounting for 97.8%, followed by web payments, 1.0
percent, Point-of-Sale (POS) terminals, and mobile payments, 0.6% each (Central
Bank of Nigeria, 2011). Likewise, in value terms, ATMs accounted for 93.4%, web
3.5%, Point of Sale (POS) 1.9% and mobile payments, 1.2% (ibid.).
The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) annual report and statement of accounts 2011
revealed that the number of Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) stood at 9,640, while
the volume and value of transactions amounted to 347,569,999 and N1,561.75 billion,
at end-December 2011, respectively. According to the report, these figures reflected
increases of 86.7% and 63.7%, respectively, over the volume and value of186,153,142
Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015
129
�Mohammed Shuaibu
and N954.04 billion, in 2010.Likewise, the volume and value of mobile payments
increased by 215.6 and 185.8% from1,156,553 and N6.7 billion to 3,649,374 and
N19.0 billion, respectively, at end-December 2011.
The level of financial innovation may have accounted for the increased deposits
recorded. Illustratively, aggregate financial savings rose by N427.9 billion or 6.7%
to N6,858.5 billion, compared with N6,430.6 billion in 2010. The ratio of financial
savings to GDP was 18.8%, compared with 32.9% in 2010. The DMBs remained
the dominant depository institutions within the financial system and accounted for
95.2% of the total financial savings, compared with 92.6% in the preceding year.
Other savings institutions, namely, the PMBs, life insurance funds, the pension funds,
the Nigerian Social Insurance Trust Fund (NSITF), and microfinance banks accounted
for the balance of 4.8%.
The depth of the financial system (M2 to gross domestic product ratio) fell to 36.4%
down from the 42.7% and 39.5% recorded in 2009 and 2010, respectively while
the ratio of private sector credit to gross domestic product (GDP) (bank financing
of the economy) stood at 53.1% compared with the 58.8% observed in 2010. In
addition, the intermediation efficiency indicator, as measured by the ratio of currency
outside banks to broad money supply, at 9.4%, remained the same as at 2010.The ratio
of financial savings to GDP declined to 17.9%, from 20.2% in the preceding year.
The ratio of CIC to GDP (volume of cash in circulation) declined slightly to 4.3%
from 4.7%recorded in 2008, 2009 and 2010. Similarly, the size of the DMBs’ assets
relative to the size of the economy, indicated by the ratio of DMBs total assets to GDP,
declined slightly from 58.8% at end-December 2010 to 53.1% in 2011.
Figure 1. Monetary Aggregates and Measures of Financial/Banking Developments
Aggregates (N’
Billion)
2006
2007
2008
Nominal GDP
18,709.6
20,657.3
24,296.3
24,712.7 29,108.0
36,531.9
Broad money (M2)
4,027.9
5,809.8
9,166.8
10,767.4 11,488.7
13,300.3
Quasi Money (Savings)
1,747.3
2,693.6
4,309.5
5,763.5
5,954.3
6,531.9
Currency in circulation (CIC)
779.3
960.8
1,155.3
1,181.5
1,378.0
1,565.8
Currency Outside
banks (COB)
650.9
737.9
892.8
927.2
1,082.2
1,244.8
Credit to Private
Sector (CPS)
2,650.8
5,056.7
8,059.5
10,206.1
9,703.7
12,934.3
DMBs Assets
7,172.9
10,981.7
15,919.6
15,522.9 17,331.6
19,396.6
CBN Assets
10,034.5
8,689.0
10,204.0
8,898.4
8,767.7
15,796.1
Banking System
Assets
17,207.4
19,670.7
26,123.5
27,726.8 26,230.0
28,164.3
130
2009
2010
2011
Journal of Economic and Social Studies
�An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria
Monetary Ratio
(%)
M2/GDP
21.5
28.1
37.7
43.6
39.1
36.4
CIC/ M2
19.3
16.5
12.6
11.0
12.0
11.8
COB/ M2
16.2
12.7
9.7
8.6
9.4
9.4
Quasi Money/ M2
43.4
46.4
47.0
53.5
51.7
49.1
CIC/GDP
4.2
4.7
4.8
4.8
4.7
4.3
CPS/GDP
14.3
24.5
33.2
41.3
58.8
53.1
CPS/Non-Oil GDP
13.7
38.5
55.4
67.2
50.2
58.7
DMBs Assets/GDP
22.1
53.2
65.5
70.9
58.8
53.1
CBN’s Assets/GDP
38.3
48.6
35.8
41.3
30.2
24.0
BSA/GDP
23.6
95.2
107.5
112.2
88.9
77.1
FS/GDP
92.0
12.9
17.5
22.8
20.2
17.9
Source: Central Bank of Nigeria Annual Report and Statement of Account (2008,
2011)
Although the Nigerian financial sector has particularly in the last decade evolved,
many questions regarding real deposit formation and its underlying determinants
remain unanswered. Although banking reforms undertaken in 2004 (banking sector
consolidation) and the progress made subsequently in the regulatory framework with
respect to enhanced risk management have led to a stable financial sector, real deposits
have remained relatively low recording only marginal increments. Stable growth as well
as improvement in governments’ fiscal position has mitigated the economy’s exposure
to risks. This has resulted in the financial sector being a major driver of the Nigerian
economy even in the absence of requisite credit to finance real sector funding deficit.
Review of Related Literature
There is a huge pool of studies relating to money demand and currency-deposit that
to assess their determinants. Some authors have focused on estimating money demand
functions such as Odularu and Okunrinboye (2009), Achsani (2010), Kumar, Webber
and Fargher (2010), Chukwu, Agu and Onah (2010), Omotor (2011), Tvalodze and
Tchaidze (2011)found an the existence of a stable money demand functions. However,
efforts by Nwachukwu and Odigie (2009), Uneze (2013), Odemero (2012), Kibetet al.
(2009), Nwachukwu and Egwaikhide (2007), Khaskheliet al. (2013) and Nwachukwu
(2011) have also estimated deposit equations to ascertain its driving factors.
Nwachukwu and Egwaikhide (2007) examined the determinants of private saving in
Nigeria by comparing estimation outcomes of an error correction model with results
from partial adjustment, growth rate and static models. Based on their findings, they
conclude that the error correction model performs better than the other models. Its
results reveal that saving rate rises with the level of disposable income but falls with
Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015
131
�Mohammed Shuaibu
the rate of growth of disposable income. The real interest rate on bank deposits has
a significant negative impact while public saving did not crowd-out private saving.
Furthermore, external terms of trade, inflation rate and external debt service ratio had
a positive impact on private saving.
Kibetet al. (2009) also investigated the underlying factors that influence savings among
groups- teachers, entrepreneurs and farmers- in rural parts of Nakuru District of Kenya.
The sample comprised of 359 teachers, entrepreneurs and farmers which, were selected
through multi-stage sampling technique from seven rural administrative divisions
of the district. Using least squares method the study found that type of occupation,
household income, age and gender of household head, level of education, dependency
ratio, service charge determine household saving, transport costs and credit access.
Finger and Hesse (2009) examined the determinants of commercial bank deposits in
Lebanon. They found that domestic factors such as economic activity, prices, and the
interest differential between the Lebanese pound and the U.S. dollar are significant in
explaining deposit demand, as are external factors such as the economic and financial
conditions of developed countries as well as variables that measure the availability of
funds in the Gulf. Impulse response functions and variance decomposition analyses
underscore the relative importance of the external variables.iii
Nwachukwu and Odigie (2009), predicated on the life cycle hypothesis, examined the
determinants and trend of private saving in Nigeria during the period 1970 – 2007 by
considering the effects of a group of policy and non-policy variables on private saving
(income growth, interest rate, fiscal policy, and financial development). Relying on
error correction modelling approach, the results revealed that saving rate rises with
both the growth rate of disposable income and real interest rate on bank deposits.
However, public saving seems not to crowd-out private saving while the degree of
financial depth was found to have a negative but insignificant impact on saving.
Odularu and Okunrinboye (2009) tried to ascertain whether financial innovations
that occurred in Nigeria after the SAP of 1986 affected the demand for money in
Nigeria using Engle and Granger two-step cointegration technique. While the study
revealed that income is positively related to the demand for cash balances and interest
rate inversely related to demand for real cash balances, it also showed that the financial
innovations have not significantly affected demand for money in Nigeria. This may be
attributed to the fact that a financial innovation does not directly affect money demand
and the expected channel of effect is through real deposits. This issue was addressed
by Tvalodze and Tchaidze (2011) in their study of deposit formation in Georgia. The
authors modelled the demand for the real broad money balances and the cash-deposit
ratio between the period 1996 and 2009. Their findings suggested that the main factors
that affected deposits were income, development of the financial sector and changes in
the tax burden, while changes in the interest rate and inflation played a minor role. The
results also showed that geopolitical events affect banking sector confidence.
132
Journal of Economic and Social Studies
�An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria
Nwachukwu (2011) discusses the trend in Nigerian saving behaviour and reviews policy
options to increase domestic saving. It also examined the determinants of private saving
in Nigeria during the period1970–2010. Employing error correction modelling, the
study revealed that saving rate rises with both the growth rate of disposable income and
the real interest rate on bank deposits. The result also revealed that public saving did not
crowd out private saving; suggesting that government policies aimed at improving the
fiscal balance has the potential of bringing about a substantial increase in the national
saving rate. The degree of financial depth had a negative but insignificant impact on
saving behaviour in Nigeria.
Odemero (2012) investigated the dual determinants of savings mobilisation among
agri-business entrepreneurial self- help groups in Edo state, Nigeria and data for the
study was based on questionnaires issued to 96 agro-allied businesses. The data was
analysed using descriptive statistics (percentages, mean, and other statistical tools) and
inferential statistics (multiple regression analysis). The result showed that interest rate,
farm income and age distribution of savers significantly (5%) contributed to saving
mobilisation.
Uneze (2013) assessed how socio-economic factors of farmer-members of cooperative
in agricultural group lending scheme influence their decisions to make financial
savings with their cooperatives. The focus of the study was on Anambra state and
data was sourced from 296 farmer-members of cooperative societies randomly selected
from National Programme for Food Security (NPFS) and Rural Finance Institution
Building Programme (RUFIN) agricultural group lending schemes. The study relied
on descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution, percentages and means to
analyse the data. The results showed that about 43.1% of the total variation in deposit
mobilisation was explained by the 10 socio-economic variables included in the model.
The significant variables affecting deposit mobilisation in cooperatives by farmers in
the group leading scheme were value of assets, off-farm income, age of household head,
level of farm diversification and total value of farmer’s loan.
Khaskheli et al. (2013) assessed the driving factors underlying the significant increase
in currency deposits ratio since. The authors found a negative relationship between
currency and total private sector deposits which confirmed that an increase in
currency depletes deposits, which in turn inhibits economic growth by restricting
supply of loanable funds. Digging further, using graphical analysis, they attempt
assess determinants of currency deposits ratio and revealed that inflation, government
budgetary borrowing, industrial production index, investment in national saving
schemes, remittances inflow, and wheat procurement were found to be the prominent
factors behind increasing currency deposits ratio.
Nwankwo, Ewuim and Asoya (2013) assessed the effect of cooperatives on the savings
behaviour of members in Oyi LGA of Anambra State Nigeria with data from 195
randomly selected members of various credit cooperatives. Utilising descriptive and
multiple regression analysis the study showed that cooperative membership had a
positive impact on savings behaviour of members. The study found that older members
Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015
133
�Mohammed Shuaibu
had more savings than newer members. The marginal propensity to save (MPS) of
9.3% was significant as it showed that rural dwellers were more inclined towards saving.
Length of membership in cooperative was also found to be an important determinant
of savings thus confirming that older members saved more.
Methodology
Analytical Framework and Model Specification
Economic theory gives no a priori specification as to the correct functional form of
the demand for money relation (Mills, 1978). Nevertheless, the foundation of money
demand functions is rooted in the simple money demand model which postulates that
demand for money depends on income and is algebraically expressed as:
Invoking the Keynesian approach and including interest rate (r) as a measure of the
implicit cost of holding real cash balances rather than a wide range of interest-bearing
assets as well as income (Y), as a measure of the transaction demand for money yields;
Taking the logarithm results in
This implies that the demand for real balances (M) is a function of income and interest
rate. Apriori,
and
While this approach has been adopted in various studies, it independently and explicitly
fails to account for factors affecting households’ savings decisions which are important
determinants of overall financial system stability. As noted by Tvalodze and Tchaidze
(2011), decisions made by households and firms on allocation of financial resources
are significantly affected by the country’s economic conditions and subsequently,
depositors’ behaviour based on these decisions, impacts on liquidity available to DMBs.
This invariably affects the stability of the financial sector. Ezema (2009) noted that
in the Nigerian monetary policy framework, although the currency-deposit ratio is a
function of the cash preferences of the economic agents, it may be sensitive to interest
rate movements. In this regard, Cagan (1965), Boughton and Elmus (1979), Dadkhah
and Rajen (1988), Hasan (2001) examined the behaviour of currency-deposit ratio
considering the role of interest rates and income..
This study is predicated on the following identity:
RD = RBM - CDR
(1)
Where denotes real deposits while RBM and denote real money balances and curren-
134
Journal of Economic and Social Studies
�An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria
cy-deposit ratio, respectively. Real broad money balance ( is modelled as a decreasing
function of interest rate (r) and an increasing function of income (Y) and is presented
as;
(2)
iv
However, we adopt the specification of Tvalodze and Tchaidze (2011) by augmenting
equation 2 with inflation which represents the opportunity costs of holding money
with respect to real assets and is expected to have a negative coefficient.
(3)
Other variables are as earlier defined while and represent inflation rate and the error
term (assumed to be white noise), respectively. In the literature, the currency-deposit
ratio is modelled as a function of income growth (Hasan, 2001), opportunity cost of
holding currency or nominal interest rate (Dadkhah and Mookerjee, 1988), inflation
(Tvalodze and Tchaidze, 2011), financial sophistication (Cagan, 1965) and spread of
the shadow economy (Mathews, 1982). The cash-deposit ratio model is specified as
follows;
(4)
All variables are as earlier defined. and denote the effective tax burden measure and level
of financial innovation. As income (Y) rises, the share of deposits increase and thus, the
ratio fall. Likewise the increase in nominal interest rate (r) reduces the attractiveness
of holding currency relative to deposits and invariably reduces the currency-deposit
ratio. Inflation is also an indirect function of the ratio while an increase in the range
of available liquid financial assets reduces domestic demand for currency. Lastly,
transactions in the informal economy tend to be in form of cash since bank records
could lead to detection by the tax authorities. Thus, it is expected that the demand
for cash will vary directly with the average rate of tax, which, stimulates the shadow
economy.
The following dynamics of the model is rooted in the work of Tvalodze and Tchaidze
(2011). Recall from equation 1; a real deposit is the difference between real broad
money balances and real currency. Assume equations 3 and 4 are re-expressed as follows;
(5)
(6)
Where is a vector of independent variables in the real broad money equation while is a
vector of explanatory variables in the currency-deposit ratio equation. RCIC and RD
refer to real currency in circulation and real deposits, respectively. Recall from equation
1 that
and therefore,
Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015
135
�Mohammed Shuaibu
(7)
Substituting equations 5 and 6 into equation 7 results in;
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
Log-linearising equation 11 results in;
(12)
Estimation Technique
Deposit formation is calibrated using a three-step procedure: (i) estimation of the
money demand function (ii) estimation of the currency-deposit ratio; and (iii) real
deposits is characterised on the basis of the output of (i) and (ii) above. We propose to
use the bounds testing approach to co integration proposed by Pesaranet al. (2001).v
This approach has several advantages over other cointegration techniques. It eliminates
the burden of having to establish the order of integration amongst the variables and/or
pre-testing for unit roots. The ARDL approach to testing for the existence of a longrun relationship between the variables in levels is applicable irrespective of whether the
underlying regressors are purely I(0), purely I(1), or fractionally integrated. Also, the
approach is applicable to studies using data with limited time coverage. The ARDL
representation of equation (3) and (4) are:
(13)
(14)
Where
represent the first differences of real money
balances, currency in circulation, income, interest rate, inflation, effective tax burden
136
Journal of Economic and Social Studies
�An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria
and financial innovation respectively. The bounds test is a Wald Test (or F-test) in
which the joint significance of coefficients for lagged variables is tested with F-statistics
calculated based on the null hypothesis. The distribution of the test statistics under
the null is non-standard, in which critical values depend on the order of integration of
variables involved. The joint significance test with respect to equations (13) and (14) is
conducted based on the following hypothesis:
Based on Monte Carlo simulation, Pesaranet al. (2001) tabulates asymptotic critical
values, depending on whether or not drift and/or time trend terms are included as well
as the number of independent variables. Given the number of independent variables,
if all variables are I(0), the critical value approaches a minimum and, if they are all
I(1), the corresponding critical value becomes a maximum. In the case of a mixture
of integrating order, the critical value falls between a minimum and a maximum.
Therefore, if the calculated F-statistics under the null is located outside the maximum,
the null hypothesis of no cointegration is rejected, while if it is located inside the
minimum, the null is not rejected. Finally, if the test statistics falls between them,
one cannot draw a conclusive decision. In this case, further investigation based on
more information about orders of integration is required to reach a definite conclusion.
Finally, the cumulative sum (CUSUM) and cumulative sum of squares (CUSUMSQ)
stability tests based on the recursive regression residuals are carried out to determine
the stability of the model.
Data Issues
Annual dataset between 1960 and 2012 is utilised. The data is sourced from the Central
Bank (CBN) of Nigeria statistical bulletin (2011) and various issues of the annual
report and statement of account. The price level CPI (INF) is used to capture inflation
while real GDP is used to capture real income (RGDP). Money supply defined as sum
of money outside banks and deposits denominated in local and foreign currency is used
(RBM). The nominal rate of return of broad money is captured by nominal interest
rate (NIR). Financial sophistication of the economy is captured by the credit to the
private sector-GDP ratio (CPGR) since more appropriate measures such as debit and
credit cards in circulation, automated teller machines, point of sale machines etc are
not readily available over a long period of time (CPGR). The shadow economy effect
is captured by the ratio of tax revenues to the nominal GDP (TRGR). All the variables
excluding ratios and rates are in logarithmic form.
Empirical Analysis and Discussion of Results
The summary statistics and correlation analysis of variables used in the estimation are
presented in Tables 2 and 3. The average values of the nominal rate of return on deposit
(NIR), inflation (INF), log of real broad money (lnRBM) and log of real GDP (lnRGDP)
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137
�Mohammed Shuaibu
during the period used in the study are 9.38%, 16.38%, 9.44 and 12.12 respectively.
Currency-deposit ratio (CDR), nominal interest rate (NIR), total revenue-GDP ratio
(TRGR) and private sector credit-GDP ratio (CPGR) recorded mean values of 0.85,
9.4, 0.1 and 14.72, respectively. During the period under review, the minimum and
maximum values of inflation were -3.37% and 72.84% which was significantly above
values recorded for other variables. The lowest minimum and maximum values were
observed for tax revenue-GDP ratio with 0.04 and 0.24, respectively.
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of Variables used in Estimation
INF
lnRBM
lnRGDP
CDR
NIR
TRGR
CPGR
Mean
16.38
9.44
12.12
0.85
9.38
0.09
14.72
Median
11.58
9.58
11.14
0.72
8.00
0.07
12.46
Maximum
72.84
11.22
17.33
1.84
26.00
0.24
51.66
Minimum
-3.73
7.82
7.71
0.20
3.46
0.04
4.78
Std. Dev.
16.27
0.93
3.25
0.44
5.44
0.05
9.67
Skewness
1.80
-0.05
0.19
0.64
0.80
1.57
2.01
Kurtosis
5.73
2.48
1.66
2.58
2.90
4.06
7.31
Jarque-Bera
45.06
0.62
4.32
3.99
5.62
24.27
76.69
Probability
0.00
0.73
0.12
0.14
0.06
0.00
0.00
868.14
500.10
642.29
45.18
497.02
4.62
780.15
44.68
548.00
9.92
1539.97
0.15
4860.07
53
53
53
53
53
53
Sum
Sum Sq. Dev. 13771.73
Observations
53
Table 3. Correlation Analysis of Variables used in Estimation
CDR
CPGR
INF
NIR
lnMS
lnRGDP
TRGR
CD
1.00
-0.63
-0.11
-0.23
-0.75
-0.71
0.70
CPSG
-0.63
1.00
-0.02
0.04
0.66
0.60
-0.28
INF
-0.11
-0.02
1.00
0.47
0.19
0.19
-0.36
IR
-0.23
0.04
0.47
1.00
0.54
0.55
-0.38
MS
-0.75
0.66
0.19
0.54
1.00
1.00
-0.54
RGDP
-0.71
0.60
0.19
0.55
1.00
1.00
-0.53
TRG
0.70
-0.28
-0.36
-0.38
-0.54
-0.53
1.00
Long-run and Contemporaneous Dynamics
In order to ascertain the existence of a long run relationship among the variables in
equations (13) and (14), the F-statistic (Wald test) for the bounds test was computed.
The F-statistic and critical bounds values for testing the null hypothesis of no
cointegrating relationship are reported in Table 4. The computed F-statistics of 5.40
and 4.30 in both models were found to exceed the lower and upper bounds critical
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Journal of Economic and Social Studies
�An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria
values at the 5% significance level using the critical values provided by Pesaranet
al. (2001). Therefore, the null of no cointegration is rejected. This implies that the
variables in equations 13 and 14 are cointegrated.
Table 4. Bound Testing for Cointegrationvi
Critical Bound
F-stat
Lower
Upper
k
Model 1 (Equation 13)
5.40
3.47
4.45
3
Model 1 (Equation 14)
4.30
3.03
4.06
4
The long run coefficients are presented in Table 5. In the case of model 1, the estimated
long run elasticities for interest rate (NIR) and income (RGDP) are 0.532 and -0.015
respectively. Both estimated elasticities have the expected signs but only real income
was statistically significant at the 5% level of significance. For example, our results
suggest that a 1% increase in real income (RGDP) will increase real broad money
(RBM) by 0.53% while an increase in the opportunity cost of holding money will
reduce real money demand (RBM) by 0.015%. Unexpectedly, our results also showed
that a 1% increase in inflation engenders an infinitesimal 0.008% decrease in money
demand. Nevertheless, inflation was found to be insignificant in explaining money
demand. The currency deposit equation expressed in model 2 revealed that the degree
of responsiveness of the currency-deposit ratio (CD) to income and interest rate are
0.493% and 0.107% and are both statistically significant. The financial innovation
measure, captured by credit to the private sector to GDP ratio (CPSG) was positive
and statistically significant at the 5% level. The measure of the shadow economy (TRG)
was also positive but statistically insignificant.
Table 5. Estimated Long-run Coefficients
Model 1 (Dep. Var.: RBM
Variable
Model 2 (Dep. Var.:CD
Coefficient
Prob.
Constant
1.220
0.081
Trend
0.120
0.000
lnRGDP
0.532
NIR
INF
Variable
Coefficient
Prob.
Constant
-2.246
0.035
Trend
-0.163
0.001
0.000
lnRGDP
0.493
0.005
-0.015
0.170
NIR
0.107
0.000
-0.008
0.843
CPSG
0.037
0.008
TRG
0.480
0.753
Notes: ARDL (2,0,0,1) selected based on Schwarz Bayesian Criterion.
The estimates of the error correction model are presented in models 1 and 2 of
Table 6. Evidently, the results of the long-run estimates are not supported except for
inflation whose coefficient was negative and statistically significant. From model 1,
the coefficient of the first difference of income and real money demand were both
statistically significant with coefficient values of 0.141% and -0.004%, respectively. In
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139
�Mohammed Shuaibu
the short run, the effect of the first difference of inflation is significant and negatively
related to money demand as a 1% increase in price will reduce money demand by
0.003% in Nigeria.
In model 2, the short run estimates of the currency-deposit equation are presented.
While the first difference of real income is found to be negatively related to currency
deposit ratio, interest rate was found to be positively related to currency deposit ratio.
Both findings were statistically significant. However, a pertinent observation is the
negative effect of the first difference of the one period lagged value of nominal interest
rate which was found to be negative and statistically significant. However, contrary
to expectation, financial deepening or innovation did not have the expected negative
effect on currency-deposit ratio as the Nigerian financial system, despite significant
deepening, is faced with high currency in circulation and less deposits.vii In other
words, a 1% increase in the depth of the financial sector induced a 0.004% increase
currency-deposit ratio.
The error correction terms ect(-1) in both models are negative and statistically
significant, thus corroborating the results of the cointegration tests which suggested
the existence of a long run relationship between the variables. The error correction
value of -0.265 in model 1and -0.359 in model 2 indicates that 26.5%and 35.9% of
the previous year’s deviation from long run equilibrium will be restored within a year.
Table 6. Error Correction Representation of ARDL Model
Model 1 (Dep. Var.: D(RBM))
Variable
Coefficient
T-Ratio
(Prob.)
C
@TREND
D(lnRGDP)
D(NIR)
D(INF)
ect(-1)
0.323
0.032
0.141
-0.004
-0.003
-0.265
1.161(0.114)
3.331(0.002)
4.102(0.000)
-1.311(0.196)
2.751(0.009)
-5.241(0.000)
R-Squared
Adj R-Squared
S.E. of
Regresion
F-Statistic
Prob.
(F-Statistic)
DW-Statistic
0.67
0.62
0.08
14.58
0.00
2.09
Model 2 (Dep. Var.: D(CD))
Variable
Coefficient
T-Ratio(Prob.)
C
@TREND
D(lnRGDP)
D(NIR)
D(NIR(-1))
D(TRG)
D(CPSG)
ect(-1)
-0.805
-0.058
-0.041
0.001
-0.024
-0.96
0.014
-0.359
-2.338(0.024)
-3.804(0.000)
-3.364(0.718)
0.320(0.750)
-3.319(0.002)
-1.735(0.090)
3.600(0.001)
-4.070(0.000)
R-Squared
Adj R-Squared
S.E. of
Regresion
F-Statistic
Prob.
(F-Statistic)
DW-Statistic
0.5
0.38
0.1
5.8
0.00
2.44
Notes: 51 observations (1962-2012) were used and ARDL (1,1,2,1,0) was selected
based on Schwarz Bayesian Criterion.
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Journal of Economic and Social Studies
�An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria
The diagnostic tests of our model revealed no evidence of serial correlation. The model
passes the Jarque-Bera normality tests suggesting that the errors are normally distributed.
The RESET test indicates that the model is correctly specified while the F-forecast test
indicates the predictive power of the model. Finally, the adjusted R-square of 0.67
(model 1) and 0.56 (model 2) indicate that 67% and 56% of the variation in broad
money and currency-deposit ratio is explained by the independent variables in the
respective models. Also, the Durbin-Watson statistic in both models is approximately
2. The outcome of these statistical diagnostic tests suggests the model is well behaved.
The model also satisfies the stability test- the CUSUM of recursive residuals (Figure 1)
and the CUSUMQ of recursive residuals tests (Figure 2) of structural stability. Both
figures show that the parameters of the model are stable during the sample period.
Model 1 Stability Test
1.4
20
1.2
15
1.0
10
0.8
5
0.6
0
0.4
-5
0.2
-10
0.0
-15
-0.2
-0.4
1975
1980
1985
1990
CUSUM of Squares
1995
2000
2005
2010
-20
1975
1980
1985
1990
CUSUM
5% Significance
1995
2000
2005
2010
5% Significance
Model 2 Stability Test
1.4
20
1.2
15
1.0
10
0.8
5
0.6
0
0.4
-5
0.2
-10
0.0
-15
-0.2
-0.4
80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12
CUSUM of Squares
5% Significance
-20
80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12
CUSUM
5% Significance
In order to obtain the final specification for real deposits, invoking equation 1, we
combine two equations as stipulated in the identity represented by equation 1. The
resulting equation yields;
Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015
141
�Mohammed Shuaibu
This equation reveals that the degree of responsiveness of real deposits to changes in
income is 0.182%. This implies that people increase their deposits as the economy
expands. Unexpectedly, interest rates and its one period lagged value were found to be
negatively related to real deposits while inflation, in line with theoretical expectation
was found to negatively affect deposits. The effect of financial innovation is marginal
but positive as increased financial sophistication spurred deposits. The reason for this
outcome may be the growing financial innovations provided by DMBs and the cashless
policy pursued by the central bank of Nigeria, which increases the attractiveness of
deposits relative to cash. Another plausible explanation for the very low coefficient
observed is that in Nigeria, security of e-banking and e-payment services remains an
issue of concern to depositors as it would take time to adjust to such technological
changes and innovations in the banking sector. Notably, the shadow economy had a
negative effect on deposit formation in Nigeria.
Conclusion
The paper assessed the formation of real deposits in the Nigerian banking sector
between 1960 and 2012. Real deposit was modelled as an identity that captures the
difference between an estimated money demand and currency-deposit ratio models.
The ARDL bounds testing approach to cointegration and unrestricted error correction
model was used to ascertain the long- and short-run relationships. Our findings showed
that inflation, real income, money supply and financial depth where negatively related
to depositary base. This implies that if prices are high, real deposits will fall while
higher incomes, contrary to theory led to a fall in deposits. A deeper financial system
characterised by innovations increases the incentive to save. The one-period lagged value
of the currency-deposit ratio and interest rate where found to be positive functions of
real deposits. In other words, higher interest rates enhance saving behaviour. Evidently,
financial innovation, domestic price and interest rate play a significant role in real
deposit behaviour. The effect of income did not conform to theory as it exerted a
negative effect on depositary base and we expected that higher incomes should enhance
savings. However, this was not the case in Nigeria and this may be partly explained
by the general increase in prices and low purchasing power occasioned by high
inequality and poverty which negatively affects real deposit behaviour of households.
A major implication of our finding is the need to increase access to financial services
as a deepened financial system was found to significantly influence depositors’ saving
behaviour even though the coefficient was low. In addition, reducing the financial
transactions through the informal sector may spur real deposits as our measure of the
shadow economy negatively affected real deposit formation. Also, government may
consider the pursuit of labour-intensive policies that create wealth thereby increasing
disposable incomes and encouraging deposits.
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�An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria
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Narayan, P. K., & Smyth, R. (2005). The residential demand for electricity in Australia: An application of the bounds testing approach to cointegration. Energy Policy 33,
457–464.
Nwachukwu, T. (2011). Determinants of private saving Nigeria, Journal of Monetary
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and Economic Integration 11(2) 85-106.
Nwachukwu, T. & Egwaikhide, F. O. (2007). An error correction model of the determinants of private saving in Nigeria, A Paper presented at the African Economic
Society (AES) Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, July 2007.
Nwachukwu, T. E. & Odigie, P. (2009). What drives private saving in Nigeria, A
Paper Presented at the Centre for the Study of African Economies (CSAE) Conference,
University of Oxford, March 2009.
Nwankwo, F., Ewuim, N., &Asoya, N. P. (2013).Effect of cooperatives on the savings
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Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015
145
�Mohammed Shuaibu
Appendix
Table A1: Autoregressive Distributed Lag Estimates
Model 1viii
Model 2ix
Variable
Coefficient
T-Stat (Prob)
Variable
Coefficient
T-Stat (Prob)
c
@trend
MS(-1)
MS(-2)
RGDP
IR
INF
INF(-1)
0.323
0.032
1.156
-0.421
0.141
-0.004
0.003
-0.003
1.612 (0.114)
3.331(0.002)
9.329(0.000)
-3.811(0.000)
4.102(0.000)
-1.312(0.197)
2.751(0.009)
-3.099(0.003)
c
@trend
CD(-1)
RGDP
RGDP(-1)
IR
IR(-1)
IR(-2)
TRG
TRG(-1)
CPSG
-0.805
-0.058
0.641
-0.04
0.218
0.002
0.013
0.024
-0.96
1.132
0.013
-2.338(0.024)
-3.804(0.000)
7.278(0.000)
-0.364(0.718)
2.089(0.043)
0.320(0.750)
1.826(0.075)
3.319(0.002)
-1.735(0.091)
2.353(0.024)
3.600(0.001)
Diagnostic Tests
R-Squared
0.99
R-Squared
0.95
Adj.
R-Squared
0.99
Adj. R-Squared
0.94
S.E.
Regression
0.08
S.E. Regression
0.10
F-Stat.
13.90
F-Stat.
76.25
Prob. (F-Stat.)
0.00
Prob. (F-Stat.)
0.00
DW-Statistic
2.09
DW-Statistic
LM Version
F Version
0.300(0.58)
0.249(0.621)
Functional
Form
2.859(0.09)
2.495(0.122)
Normality
1.131(0.57)
Heteros.
0.093(0.76)
Serial
Correlation
2.44
LM Version
F Version
Serial
Correlation
3.993(0.046)
3.313(0.076)
Functional
Form
3.892(0.049)
3.222(0.080)
na
Normality
50.978(0.000)
na
0.089(0.766)
Heteros.
8.435(0.004)
9.710(0.003)
This stability is affected as liquidity of DMBs is influenced by depositors’ saving and investment decisions
which, are in turn influenced by domestic macroeconomic conditions and external shocks.
i
146
Journal of Economic and Social Studies
�An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria
This is further reinforced by the effectiveness of money demand and currency deposit ratio parameters in
explaining real deposit behavior (See Tvalodze and Tchaidze, 2011 for a lucid exposition of the linkages).
iii
At the micro level, the authors also found that bank-specific variables such as perceived riskiness of
individual banks, liquidity buffers, loan exposure, and interest margins significantly influence demand
for deposits.
iv
It is pertinent to note that inflation and real interest rate enter the model independently in a bid to
distinguish between two effects: the interest rate on deposit is the rate of return on broad money with an
expected positive sign, while inflation represents the implicit cost of holding money relative to real assets
with an expected negative sign.
v
Also, the Engle and Granger (1987) co-integration test and the Johansen (1988) and Johansen and
Juselius (1990) co integration test, which may not may not be appropriate, especially when a small sample
size is considered (see, Narayan and Smyth 2005).
vi
No trend and intercept were considered in models 1 and 2. Table C1.v: Case V with unrestricted
Intercept and unrestricted trend Pesaran et al. (2001).
vii
There are at least two economic costs of currency in circulation that need to be highlighted. First,
an increase in currency in circulation implies a decline in deposits and consequently a decrease in the
availability of loanable funds for investment by restricting credit creation which is crucial for economic
growth. Second, a rise in currency in circulation signals inflationary pressures (Khaskheli et al. 2013).
viii
ARDL(2,0,0,1) selected based on Schwarz Bayesian Criterion.
ix
ARDL (1,1,2,1,0) selected based on Schwarz Bayesian Criterion.
ii
Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015
147
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An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria
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Shuaibu, Mohammed
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Abstract: The difference between estimated parameters of money supply and currency-deposit ratio is used to examine the behaviour of real deposits in Nigeria between 1960 and 2012. This is done using unrestricted error correction modelling within the bounds testing approach to cointegration proposed by Pesaran et al. (2001). Our findings revealed that inflation, real income and interest rates remain major factors influencing real deposit dynamics in Nigeria. Interestingly, financial innovation measured by the ratio of credit to the private sector and GDP was found to increase real deposits by 0.014% while the shadow economy accounted for the 0.96% fall in real deposits recorded. While interest rate and inflation remain quantitatively important in explaining long-run real deposit behaviour in Nigeria, our finding further underscores the need for monetary authorities to mainstream the informal sector into the financial system given the significant negative influence the shadow economy exerted on real deposit
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Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Issues in acquisition of non-temporal meanings of tenses in
English by native speakers of Croatian
Ines Skelac & Ružica Stanić
University of Rijeka, Croatia
Submitted: 15.04.2014.
Accepted: 16.11.2014.
Abstract
Native speakers of Croatian often have problems with appropriate usage of English
tenses that do not exist in Croatian, frequently associating past forms in English with
perfective meanings in Croatian and non-past forms with imperfective meanings
(because Croatian has verb aspect). They also encounter difficulties with nontemporal uses of English tenses.
Apart from the central meaning of tense as temporal reference, there are four nontemporal meanings of English tenses (Tyler, 2000): (1) emotional distance or
intimacy; (2) the relative salience or status of the information being conveyed; (3)
negative epistemic stance towards a particular scenario; (4) to express requests,
commands and invitations.
Although some non-temporal meanings are very similar to those in English, there are
also significant differences that cause difficulties to native speakers of Croatian in
learning English as L2. Some of the differences are caused by metaphorical and
metonymical shifts in meaning between the source domain (time distance) and the
target domain (distance between wish and reality, simulating of distance in order to
avoid direct appeal, distance of the deictic centre, counterfactual possible situation,
etc.). In order to examine those assumptions, 102 students – English learners – were
tested. Differences mainly occurred in cases when the past tense is used in English to
signal (1) a negative epistemic stance towards a particular scenario and (2) tense as
an expression of attenuation: invitations, requests and suggestions, because Croatian
speakers tended to use the present tense in some cases.
We argue that a consistent description of non-temporal uses of tenses in Croatian and
English, with analysis of differences, can facilitate the learning of these frequently
occurring non-temporal uses of English tenses.
Keywords: Croatian, English, meaning, second language acquisition, tenses
109
�Issues in acquisition of non-temporal meanings of tenses in English by native speakers of Croatian
110
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Introduction
Native Croatian speakers often have problems with appropriate usage of English
tenses that do not exist in Croatian, frequently associating past forms in English with
perfective meanings in Croatian and non-past forms with imperfective meanings
(because Croatian has verb aspect); they also encounter difficulties with nontemporal uses of English tenses.
In order to investigate how differences in non-temporal uses of tenses in English and
Croatian cause difficulties to native Croatian speakers in learning English as L2, four
groups of non-temporal uses in English (as presented in Tyler & Evans, 2000) will be
analysed and compared with non-temporal uses in Croatian. The data obtained by the
research carried out with 102 students will be processed. The conclusions may be
used in further investigations with the purpose of facilitating the learning and
teaching of those frequently occurring non-temporal uses of English tense in the case
of native speakers of Croatian and related languages.
Theoretical background
Tenses are primary used to determine whether an event takes place in the past,
present or future; moreover, to express modality or some kind of distance (emotional,
the change of reference point, unreality, etc.). Some authors, like Peter Ludlow
(1999), argue that grammatical phenomenon called tense is a mixture of other
phenomena, including modality and evidentiality, therefore tense is a compounded
category developed by combining those categories.
As people have problems in comprehending time, especially its flow and direction,
they often map features of space relations to time relations. Many scientists
concluded that tense is a deictic phenomenon which refers to time with respect to a
deictic centre (a reference point in relation to which a deictic expression is to be
interpreted).
There is a strong connection between temporal concept 'now' and locational concept
'here'; we cannot perceive the present moment differently than in frames of our
physical environment and sensory experience. Therefore, it is not surprising that time
and space are conceptually strongly connected, which can be shown by conceptual
metaphors such as TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p. 42).
In accordance with that metaphor, the future is considered as moving towards us, for
example:
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�Issues in acquisition of non-temporal meanings of tenses in English by native speakers of Croatian
(1) The time has come to stand for all we believe in.
(2) I look forward to your arrival.
(3) Time flies.
By virtue of TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT metaphor, time receives a front-back
orientation facing in the direction of motion, as any moving object. These metaphors
facilitate conceptualizing time by reducing it to something more familiar and
concrete.
Non-temporal use of tenses entails the use of tenses not in order to talk about time,
but some other phenomena. As the past tense is by default used to express that an
event took place in the past, if the same tense is used when talking about the present,
it obviously means something else than past reference. Hence, time distance is
mapped onto some other type of distance, for example, distance between wish and
reality, simulating distance in order to avoid direct appeal, distance of the deictic
centre (in the case of reported speech), distance of a possible world that contradicts
the real world, etc.
Tyler and Evans (2000) argue that temporal use of tenses precedes the non-temporal
one, but they emphasize the importance and appropriate treatment of non-temporal
use, which is not arbitrary and peripheral phenomenon.
There are four main groups of non-temporal uses of tenses in English:
1. Emotional distance or lack of intimacy: My first husband was Italian. Now
he is a super star.
2. Relative status of the information (i.e. the past tense signals background
information, while the present tense signals foreground status: In November
1859, Darwin’s Origin of the Species was published in London. The central
idea in this book is the principle of natural selection.
3. Negative epistemic stance towards a particular scenario (contrary to fact
wish or a belief opposite to reality): If she studied harder, she would get
better grades; I wish I knew what he'll say next.
4. Tense as an expression of attenuation: invitations, requests and suggestions:
Excuse me, I was wondering if this was the train for York.
There are some differences between non-temporal uses in English and Croatian. In
Croatian, non-temporal uses are not necessary regarding epistemic stance, because
sentences like I wish I knew what he'll say next can be translated in two ways, using
the present tense or conditional mood and appropriate connective ('da' plus present or
'kad' plus conditional): Da barem znam što će sljedeće reći; Kad bih barem znao što
112
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
će sljedeće reći. Furthermore, in some cases of expressing attenuation, when there is
past tense in English, the present tense is used in Croatian: Oprostite, zanima me je li
ovo vlak za York. If the past tense were used in that sentence, it would have temporal
meaning.
Non-temporal uses of English tenses are presented in the following schema:
Source domain
Target domains
The target domain is always temporal, i.e. talking about past or present events, while
the source domains include metaphorical and metonymical shifts.
Analysis of the data
In order to examine the issues native Croatian speakers encounter in the acquisition
of non-temporal meanings of English tenses, 102 students at the University of Zagreb
and at the University of Rijeka were examined. The average age of students was 23,
there were no students of English language and literature and they had studied
English for approximately 9 years in primary and secondary school.
The questionnaire contained ten statements and four translations for each of the
statements. Eight of the statements were in Croatian with English translations and
two were in English with Croatian translations. The students were instructed to
choose one or more translations for the statement in question. They were also given
113
�Issues in acquisition of non-temporal meanings of tenses in English by native speakers of Croatian
an option of providing a different translation. There was no time limit for completing
the questionnaire.
Emotional distance and lack of intimacy
(1) a. Moj je prvi dečko bio Talijan. Sad je velika zvijezda.
The correct translation of these sentences is
(1) b. My first boyfriend was Italian. Now he is a superstar.
The vast majority of the students (85%) selected the correct answer. However, some
respondents chose incorrect translations:
(1) c. My first boyfriend is Italian. Now he is a superstar.
(1) d. My first boyfriend has been Italian. Now he is a superstar.
A possible explanation for these mistakes could lie in the second sentence: the first
boyfriend is still alive (Now he is a superstar) and he hasn't change nationality,
therefore, he hasn't stopped being Italian. In example (1) a. the use of was does not
code time, as the first boyfriend is still Italian. Since the sentence describes a
romantic involvement, some degree of intimacy is implied. The degree of intimacy is
distal because the adjective first suggests that there were other boyfriends. The use of
past simple implicates a relationship which is no longer intimate.
Tense is employed in reported speech also to express distance, but between the
reference point and the speaker in direct and indirect speech act: the hearer in the
direct speech act becomes the speaker in the indirect speech. In English, the change
of the reference point and the distance regarding transfer of someone else's words
result in the change of tense, while in Croatian the tense remains unchanged. The
respondents chose the correct translation predominately (71%), as it was expected,
because they have learned how to convert direct speech into indirect speech.
Relative status of the information
Tense is employed to express saliency and to signal the relative status of the
information. Even if an event took place in the past, if it is still relevant, it can be
expressed using the present tense.
(3) a. U studenom 1859. godine u Londonu je objavljena Darwinova knjiga
Podrijetlo vrsta. Središnja je ideja te knjige princip prirodne selekcije.
The predicate in the first sentence in (3) a. is in the past tense and the predicate in the
second sentence is in the present tense. Though there is a correspondence between
tenses in English and Croatian, almost one-third (32%) of the students didn't choose
the appropriate translation:
(3) b. In November 1859, Darwin’s Origin of the Species was published in London.
The central idea in this book is the principle of natural selection.
114
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
The publication date is not the central idea of the paragraph. Was in (3) b. establishes
background information (Origin of the Species' publication date) for the important
information, which is in the second sentence – the principle of natural selection.
The appropriate epistemic stance towards a particular scenario
A fact or belief opposite to reality
In counterfactual conditionals and similar constructions containing if-clauses,
hypothesizing a situation that seems highly unlikely to occur, for example Imagine if
you were the president of the USA. What would you do to make the world a better
place?, the past tense in the if-clause does not signify a past event, but the fact that
the content expressed by the if-clause is not true or even does not have the real
possibility to become realized. In Croatian, if-clauses in those constructions can
contain both the past and the present tense.
In both examples used in the questionnaire students needed to select the correct
translation of a Croatian sentence containing present tense in the if-clause. The
majority of them chose the right translation in both cases, but 32% chose translations
with the present tense in the if-clause in the case of counterfactual conditional. This
result may be explained by the occurrence of present tense in the Croatian original.
Contrary to fact wish
As in the previous examples, English past tense is used to express a contrast between
the speaker's wish and the state of affairs. In Croatian the same information is
expressed by present tense and the connective 'da' or conditional mood and the
connective 'kad', which are used in if-clauses of counterfactual conditionals.
Therefore, English sentence
(6) a. It's freezing today. I wish it wasn’t so cold.
has two correct translations:
(6) b. Danas je mrzlo. Da barem nije tako hladno.
(6) c. Danas je mrzlo. Kad barem ne bi bilo tako hladno.
Almost all of the students (99%) chose one or both of the right answers.
Surprisingly, a similar conclusion cannot be drawn regarding example (7) a., which
seems similar to (6) a.:
(7) a. I wish I knew what he'll say next.
Only 64% of the students selected the right answer:
(7) b. Da barem znam što će sljedeće reći.
One student offered an alternative, also correct answer:
(7) c. Kad bih barem znao što će sljedeće reći.
115
�Issues in acquisition of non-temporal meanings of tenses in English by native speakers of Croatian
A significant number of respondents (35%) picked one of the wrong answers, which
included the past tense in the if-clause. In Croatian, the past tense cannot appear in
those sentences because it would change the meaning, i.e. the sentences would refer
to an event occurring in the past, not in the present.
Tense as an expression of attenuation: invitations, requests and
commands
Attenuated invitations
The English past tense is sometimes used where the present tense could be expected,
its intention being to avoid directness of the question and decrease the amount of
imposition on the hearer. The Croatian past tense is sometimes used for the same
reason, but as far as requests are considered, it is not as important to attenuate them
by tense, therefore the present tense is used.
In (8) a. the past tense is used to avoid directness of the question because the
situation is probably unpleasant for both the speaker and the hearer.
(8) a. Ona: O čemu razmišljaš? On: Pitao sam se bi li izašla sa mnom.
The correct translation also has the past tense, so the majority of respondents selected
translations containing the past tense. 72% chose the accurate translation (8) b. and
6% chose translation (8) c., containing the past simple, instead of past continuous,
while 22% thought that the present simple or present continuous was the correct
tense.
(8) b. I was wondering if you'd like to go out with me.
(8) c. I wondered if you'd like to go out with me.
116
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Attenuated requests
It was different in a Croatian sentence with the present tense:
(9) a. Oprostite, zanima me je li ovo vlak za York.
Only 44% of the students chose the correct translation:
(9) b. Excuse me, I was wondering if this was the train for York.
Others assumed that the present simple or present continuous should be employed.
English expression “I was wondering” is considered more polite than “I am
wondering...” In this particular case, it's not possible to employ past tense in Croatian
with the same intention, because it would mean that you were interested whether the
train was for York sometime in the past.
Attenuated commands
Finally, past tense is used to attenuate commands, making them more polite by
mitigating the amount of opposition on the hearer. For that purpose the past tense is
used in the English subordinate clause, contrary to the present tense in Croatian.
(10) a. Krajnje je vrijeme da odemo.
Only 26% of the respondents chose sentence (10) b. as the translation of the given
sentence:
(10) b. It's high time we left.
A high number of students (70%) selected the sentence that contained present tense:
(10) c. It's high time we leave.
This mistake occurred because of the difference in tense in Croatian and English
iterations of the same statement: sentence (10) b. contains only present tense. A small
number of students (3%) recognized the difference in tenses, yet chose the incorrect
translation:
(10) d. It was high time we left.
Conclusion
This paper has given an account of the issues native Croatian speakers encounter
when acquiring non-temporal meanings of English tenses. Our research has shown
that native Croatian speakers are often misled by the tense used in their native
language, except in the cases when they had learned the rules for e.g. counterfactuals
and reported speech. Due to the fact that the past tense is employed in both English
and Croatian, no significant deviation was found between expected and obtained
responses in examining an example expressing emotional distance and the lack of
intimacy. Croatian indirect speech uses the same tense as direct speech;
consequently, native speakers sometimes have problems with converting direct
speech into indirect speech in English. The research has shown that Croatian
117
�Issues in acquisition of non-temporal meanings of tenses in English by native speakers of Croatian
speakers have some difficulties understanding the use of English past tense when it
expresses actuality, especially when the past tense appears in the if-clause of a
conditional sentence. The past tense cannot be employed in Croatian to attenuate
invitations, requests and suggestions in all of the same situations as in English,
because in Croatian it sometimes has temporal meaning. For that reason, Croatian
speakers displayed difficulties concerning the non-temporal use of past continuous to
attenuate requests and invitations and past tense to attenuate commands.
In conclusion, if native speakers were referred to the differences between nontemporal use of tenses in Croatian and English, especially if the approach were
focused on presenting non-temporal use as a systematically organised and structured
appearance in language, it is conceivable that learners would show better
comprehension and therefore better use of those non-temporal meanings, as in the
cases of reported speech and counterfactual conditionals.
References
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live By. London: University of
Chicago Press.
Ludlow, P. (1999). Semantics, tense and time: an essay in the metaphysics of natural
language. Cambridge, Mass.; London: MIT Press.
Tyler, A. (2008). Applying cognitive linguistics to second language teaching: the
English modals. In N. Ellis & P. Robinson (Eds.), The handbook of
cognitive
linguistics and second language acquisition (pp. 456–
488). New York and
London: Routledge.
Tyler, A. & Evans, V. (2000). My first husband was Italian (and he still is):
examining
“exceptional” uses of English tense and pedagogical
grammar. Essen: LAUD.
118
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Title
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Issues in acquisition of non-temporal meanings of tenses in English by native speakers of Croatian
Author
Author
Skelac, Ines
Stanić, Ružica
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Native speakers of Croatian often have problems with appropriate usage of English tenses that do not exist in Croatian, frequently associating past forms in English with perfective meanings in Croatian and non-past forms with imperfective meanings (because Croatian has verb aspect). They also encounter difficulties with non-temporal uses of English tenses. Apart from the central meaning of tense as temporal reference, there are four non-temporal meanings of English tenses (Tyler, 2000): (1) emotional distance or intimacy; (2) the relative salience or status of the information being conveyed; (3) negative epistemic stance towards a particular scenario; (4) to express requests, commands and invitations. Although some non-temporal meanings are very similar to those in English, there are also significant differences that cause difficulties to native speakers of Croatian in learning English as L2. Some of the differences are caused by metaphorical and metonymical shifts in meaning between the source domain (time distance) and the target domain (distance between wish and reality, simulating of distance in order to avoid direct appeal, distance of the deictic centre, counterfactual possible situation, etc.). In order to examine those assumptions, 102 students – English learners – were tested. Differences mainly occurred in cases when the past tense is used in English to signal (1) a negative epistemic stance towards a particular scenario and (2) tense as an expression of attenuation: invitations, requests and suggestions, because Croatian speakers tended to use the present tense in some cases. We argue that a consistent description of non-temporal uses of tenses in Croatian and English, with analysis of differences, can facilitate the learning of these frequently occurring non-temporal uses of English tenses. Keywords: Croatian, English, meaning, second language acquisition, tenses
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature,PR English literature
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Text
LANGUAGE AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN THE NON-DIVERSE CLASSROOM
Lindita Skenderi & Carly Terese Jerome
State University of Tetovo
Article History:
Submitted: 05.06.2015
Accepted: 10.07.2015
Abstract: The aim of the paper is to propose some simple ways of promoting linguistic and
cultural diversity in a homogenous classroom made of students brought up in a bi-lingual
environment and country. The ideas and suggestions come from the experiences of the authors in
different environments and workplaces. The comparing groups are of different ages from
compulsory school to a university/college level. The paper will be divided in two parts: on one
hand there are suggestions which would be useful in a classroom with a teacher coming from the
same place as the students, and on the other hand how would those and other ways work out in
promoting a linguistic and cultural diversity in a classroom where the teacher/lecturer comes
from another cultural and linguistic background. What has been the meeting point, how this type
of cultural and language diversity would affect the critical thinking of the students; why would
students benefit from diversity-promoting classes are some of the questions answered in the
paper. This is a cross-sectional study which tries to put together some possible forms of
promoting diversity in the aspect of a language and culture in the classroom which does not
mean that is based on a longitudinal type of research but on personal experiences and views of
the authors. Moreover it is based on a questionnaire and displays its results
Keywords: classroom, culture, language, diversity, teacher, students
�INTRODUCTION
The armed conflict which occurred during 2001 brought the Republic of Macedonia to
the brink of civil war. The end of the conflict was marked by the signing the Ohrid Framework
Agreement (further on: OFA), under which certain constitutional and legal changes were adopted
to reform the organization and functioning of the state.
On the surface, at least, the accord put relations between the Macedonian and Albanian
communities on a new footing, especially those reforms which boosted Albanian representation
in state institutions and local government1. Still a lot of work has to be done in Macedonia's
quest for a peaceful and democratic society. As one of the changes as a result of the OFA refers
to the use of the language of ethnicities, this research would try by exploring the foreign
language classroom to promote the culture as a tool to promote diversity in a not very diverse
classroom thus becoming a vehicle to a peaceful coexistence in the country.
The area of Tetovo, the schools and the State University of Tetovo could be considered
as a micro society out of which lessons could be learned to be implemented into the wider
society of Republic of Macedonia and in a foreign language classroom. The objects of the
empirical research are individuals/ teenagers/ students/teachers of ethnic Albanian and
ethnic Macedonian origins who are mutually involved in co-education in the Republic of
Macedonia.
The research subject is the promotion of diversity in the classroom. The assumptions
have been that not much culture elements are brought into the classroom and there is a need to
further raise the awareness among the teachers and the students about the role of the culture in
the classroom for getting to know and understand the other better. Although multicultural
country, the state schools of the Republic of Macedonia regardless if Albanian or Macedonian
have been languages of instruction, do not always provide enough space among the classroom
activities for culture to be promoted as a tool to cherish the diversity in the classroom. The belief
is that the foreign language classroom could be used as a way to accomplish it. Hence, the
representatives of the two or the more cultures would be brought closer. Moreover, by getting to
know to each other better they would understand better. That would be a step forward to a
better coexistence. Based on these assumptions a questionnaire has been developed. Students
(teenagers and college level) both Macedonian and Albanian and teachers also of both
nationalities have been interviewed.
Limitations of the research: The number of interviewees is not high enough to give
more reliable results. However, I do hope that this research could generate ideas for further
studies in the area of the foreign language teaching in my country and would raise the awareness
about the role of culture in the foreign language classroom. Further more about it being a vehicle
for promoting diversity in the classroom which by itself is not very diverse.
1
OFA – Framework agreement,13.08.2001.
�1. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The purpose of this section is to offer a theoretical framework to provide concepts to be
applied to the specific case of Macedonia or just to establish the grounds based on which the
specific case of Macedonia provided in the research component of the paper has been
established. It starts with the issues emerging in the post conflict systems and through the
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages establishes the idea to promote the
culture as a vehicle to promote diversity in a non diverse environment.
One of the particularly problematic issues for post-conflict school systems in multiethnic
and multilingual societies is determining which languages will be used to instruct schoolchildren.
Although it is important for children of a multilingual country to learn the language (and, by
extension, culture) of other main groups of citizens in addition to their own mother tongue,
having too many official languages in the schools can promote semi literacy, poor performance,
high repetition, and high dropout rates (as seen in many African countries). At the same time, the
rising importance of English as a useful language in the global marketplace is increasingly
influencing language policies.2 Here comes in the role foreign language teaching could play.
How might a culturally responsive educator push against human nature's natural aversion to the
unknown and help students become more respectful of cultures with different ideas? The best
way to combat this tendency is to provide students with ample evidence that people that don't
look like them are, at the core, people just like them. Such a viewpoint can be taught by
promoting a culture of learning from one another rather than a culture of passing judgment on
differences in values and beliefs.3 In addition, all too often, students are exposed to ethnic
stereotypes on television and in movies. Providing diverse students with role models who
demonstrate exceptional leadership qualities and make social contributions in a non-stereotypical
way helps students recognize the limitless ways in which they can have a positive impact on
society. 4 Moreover, if students are taught about the contributions that people of various
ethnicities, genders, and creeds have made to a variety of different artistic, scientific, and
political fields then they're more likely to respect and value diverse cultural backgrounds as a
whole. Such touches will help promote an environment in which students from diverse
backgrounds feel more comfortable being themselves and will help insulate students from the
cultural and ethnic stereotypes that pervade television and other mass media outlets. 5 Native
American educator Cornel Pewewardy (1993) asserts that one of the reasons Indian children
experience difficulty in schools is that educators traditionally have attempted to insert culture
into the education, instead of inserting education into the culture. However, culturally relevant
2
Unite or Divide, The challenges of teaching history in societies emerging from violent conflicts, Special USIP
Report, Elizabeth A. Cole and Judy Barsalou
3
Promoting Respect for Cultural Diversity in the Classroom, Matthew Lynch, Ed.D,
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/matthew-lynch-edd/promoting-respect-for-cul_b_1187683.html? (accessed on
25.03.2015)
4
5
Ibid.
Ibid.
�teachers utilize students' culture as a vehicle for learning.6 Despite the recommendations of the
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (2001) and the national curricula for
language teaching in many countries, the focus of language learning and teacher education is
still, to a large extent, the development of grammatical and lexical competence. A good
knowledge of grammar rules, a rich vocabulary, a few memorized speech acts and cultural facts
will not sufficiently help non-native speakers of a foreign language to socialize, negotiate or
make friends in the foreign language. Furthermore, native or near native fluency alone will not
necessarily help native or non-native speakers of a language to successfully communicate with
people from other cultures either. Unfortunately, there is still very little emphasis placed on the
cultural dimension of language learning because very few teacher training institutions include
intercultural communication training in their curriculum, and intercultural competence usually
does not feature among their graduation criteria. Moreover, when language teachers are asked
about what culture means to them, they most frequently answer by listing subjects such as
literature, geography and arts. Although these subjects are all extremely important ingredients, it
seems that there are other equally significant components of culture that should find their way
into second and foreign language classrooms.7 In line with the above said the author of the paper
conducted a survey. Presented below are the findings of the research which make the case of
Macedonia.
2. THE RESEARCH
The first idea has been to conduct the survey with various groups of students starting from a
rather lower classroom age up to the highest being at the university. However, as the
questionnaire has been developed based on the assumptions that there is a low level of awareness
about having culture as part of the language classroom instruction at such a young age and for
the purpose of this research it has been realized that it would be more appropriate to target the
survey at the higher school level of students, the teenagers who are still “pure” and open to new
things. Hence, it has been conducted with two categories of students or more specifically high
school students with language of classroom instruction being Albanian, but also with students
whose native language is Macedonian. Thus, the Macedonian and the Albanian students would
make the two subcategories. The school whose students are interviewed is a High School in
Tetovo ( a town and area with predominantly Albanian population). The same goes for the
College level students. Interviewed students are from the State University of Tetovo (later in the
text: SUT) which is a university with teaching instruction in Albanian language but also with
6
Ladson-Billings, But That’s Just Good Teaching!, THEORY lNTO PRACTICE, Volume 34, Number 3, Summer
1995 Copyright 1995 College of Education, The Ohio State University
0040-5841/95$1.25
7
Developing and assessing intercultural communicative competence, A guide for language teachers and teacher
educators, Ildikó Lázár, Martina Huber-Kriegler, Denise Lussier, Gabriela S. Matei and Christiane Peck,
http://www.ecml.at.
�students whose native language is Macedonian. The common ground for them in a foreign
language classroom is the foreign language, in this case the English. On the other hand, the
teachers have been classified based on the working experience and not the age. This would mean
that among the high school English teachers there would be more experienced teachers and more
samples could be obtained regarding the level of awareness about the role of the culture as a tool
for promoting diversity in a not very diverse environment in this case being the language
classroom.
The questionnaire had nine (9) questions. Six (6) of them were statements and a number from 1
to 5 was to be circled (1 being “agree at least”, 5 “agree the most”). The assumptions have been
that these would display respondents’ attitude and feelings, thus providing how homogeneous or
various their feeling are upon the issue being asked. The other three were of open type
necessitating some narration hoping that the answers the respondents would provide would
display their opinions and understanding of the concepts i.e. ideas.
The questionnaire was given to 12 respondents of each category and the expectations were that at
least 10 of each category of respondents would respond. As the media of conduct was an
electronic communication (the stake of today’s world) the number of respondents varies.
However, it is still enough the make some conclusions.
For the purpose of this paper the results are given in tables. Tables 1 - 6 are the results of the
teenagers followed by interpretation. Tables 7- 12 are the results of the SUT students followed
by interpretation. Tables 13 – 18 are the samples obtained from the teachers followed by
interpretation. Although one of the variables is the work experience based on the obtained
samples the tables have been sub categorized as Albanian and Macedonian teachers. Reasoning
behind Questions 7-9 has been to see how the interviewed samples define and understand the
culture. The obtained samples from the teenagers and students do not show high level of
awareness about the culture and for them it is mostly the life in general. Consequently for the
purpose of the paper the answers of the teachers are provided in the tables related to the
Questions 7-9) as they are those that could initiate and implement the changes in the classroom.
Teenagers’ samples (Tables 1-6)
Q;1.Many teachers have little or on training in working with children from
diverse cultural and linguistic background
Teenagers
Macedonian
Responses by
people
1
1
2
3
2
3
4
Albanian
5
1
2
3
4
5
�4
5
6
7
8
TOTAL
/
1
1
2
2
2
/
0
/
0
/
4
/
1
2
Q;2.Cultural differences have little effect on the way students learn
Teenagers
Albanian
Macedonian
Responses by people
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 2 3 4 5
/
TOTAL
1
0
5
1
1
/ / / /
1 0 1 2 3
Q3. Young children don’t really notice differences, so why make a big deal of multicultural education.
Teenagers
Albanian
Macedonian
Responses by people
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
�7
8
/
TOTAL
3
0
2
0
/
3
/
1
/
3
2
Q4. Schools in which there are no minority groups don’t need a multicultural perspective
Teenagers
Albanian
Macedonian
Responses by people
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
/
/
/
/
/
TOTAL
2
4
0
1
1
2
3
0
1
1
Q5. Multicultural education is a total curricular and instructional approach
Teenagers
Albanian
Macedonian
Responses by people
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
TOTAL
1
/
0
0
4
1
3
2
/
2
3
/
0
4
/
1
5
/
0
4
/
0
1
�Q6. Children from minority groups are considered to be weaker students than the majority group
students
Teenagers
Albanian
Macedonian
Responses by people
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
/
/
/
/
/
TOTAL
2
1
2
0
3
2
2
3
0
0
According to the responses provided by the teenagers it seems that Albanians are more
convinced that many teachers have little or on training in working with children from diverse
cultural and linguistic background. Macedonian ones feelings seem to vary and they are not
sure about it.
About the question whether cultural differences have little effect on the way students learn
both Macedonians and Albanians feel concentrate something in between presumably meaning
they are not very sure or they have not thought about it a lot.
As for the statement that Young children don’t really notice differences, so why make a big
deal of multicultural education Macedonian students mostly least agree while the Albanian
feelings are divided. There is almost equal number of those who strongly agree and disagree.
Both Albanians and Macedonians have the same opinion about the statement that Schools in
which there are no minority groups don’t need a multicultural perspective. They least agree
about this issue.
It seems that for the both of groups multicultural education is a total curricular and
instructional approach. An interpretation of this might mean that if it is by the book then it
should be part of the class if not they would not feel that they have missed a lot in the class.
Children from minority groups are considered to be weaker students than the majority
group students like a question could be interpreted in various ways depending who is
considered to be the minority group whether the Macedonians in the predominant Albanian
�environment or vice versa so the responses could be a subject of a further interpretation or a
research. Regardless of this the provided answers display that Albanian teenagers have various
feelings about this. Macedonians are mostly of a same opinion of the issue and their feelings
concentrate along 1-3 on a scale from 1-5 where one is least agree and 5 being the most agree.
Students’ responses (Tables 7-12)
Q1. Many teachers have little or no training in working with children from diverse cultural and linguistic background
Students
Albanian
Macedonian
Responses by people
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 /
/
/
/
/
11 /
/
/
/
/
12 /
/
/
/
/
TOTAL
Q2 Cultural differences have little effect on the way students learn
Students
Albanian
Macedonian
Responses by people
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 /
/
/
/
/
5
�11 /
12 /
TOTAL
/
/
0
/
/
1
/
/
4
/
/
1
3
1
0
6
2
3
Q3. Young children don’t really notice differences, so why make a big deal of multicultural education
Students
Albanian
Macedonian
Responses by people
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 /
/
/
/
/
11 /
/
/
/
/
12 /
/
/
/
/
TOTAL
2
0
4
1
2
2
3
3
1
3
Q4. Schools in which there are no minority groups don’t need a multicultural perspective
Students
Albanian
Responses by people
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 /
11 /
12 /
2
/
/
/
3
/
/
/
Macedonian
4
/
/
/
5
/
/
/
1
2
3
4
5
�TOTAL
5
2
0
1
1
5
4
2
1
1
Q5.Multicultural education is a total curricular and instructional approach
Students
Albanian
Macedonian
Responses by people
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 /
11 /
12 /
TOTAL
2
/
/
/
1
3
/
/
/
2
4
/
/
/
0
5
1
2
3
4
5
4
0
0
2
6
4
/
/
/
2
Q6. Children from minority groups are considered to be weaker students than the majority group
students
Students
Albanian
Macedonian
Responses by people
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 /
11 /
12 /
TOTAL
2
/
/
/
4
3
/
/
/
1
4
/
/
/
2
5
1
2
3
4
5
2
6
3
1
1
1
/
/
/
0
�The second category of respondents the students related to the statement that many teachers
have little or no training in working with children from diverse cultural and linguistic
background feel similar. Since the answers of both categories vary on the scale it implies they
are not sure if this is true or not,
As or the statement that Young children don’t really notice differences, so why make a big deal
of multicultural education with both groups the feelings vary but are mostly concentrated on the
medium level like they are not very sure.
Both groups strongly disagree that schools in which there are no minority groups don’t need a
multicultural perspective. They seem to be getting aware for the need of a multicultural
perspective.
Macedonian students mostly feel that multicultural education is a total curricular and
instructional approach, while Albanians feelings vary upon this issue.
However, their feelings about children from minority groups being considered to be weaker
students than the majority group students are similar on the line that most of the both groups
and mostly disagree.
Teachers’ samples (Tables 13-18)
Q1. Many teachers have little or no training in working with children from
diverse cultural and linguistic background
Teachers
Albanian
Macedonian
Responses by people
OTAL
1
2
3
4
5
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2
3
4
2
3
2
/
0
0
3
2
3
0
Q4.Schools in which there are no minority groups don’t need a multicultural perspective
Teachers
Albanian
Macedonian
Responses by people
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
�2
3
4
5
6
7
8
TOTAL
ponses by people
TAL
5
0
2
1
0
4
2
1
0
Q5. Multicultural education is a total curricular and instructional approach
Teachers
Albanian
1
2
3
4
5
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0
0
4
3
1
0
1
Macedonian
2
3
4
2
1
4
Q6. Children from minority groups are considered to be weaker students than the majority group students
Teachers
Albanian
Macedonian
Responses by people
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
TOTAL
4
1
2
0
1
1
3
3
1
5
0
�Teachers both Albanian and Macedonian are more inclined to feel that many teachers have
little or no training in working with children from diverse cultural and linguistic
background.
Both groups are not certain whether cultural differences have effect on the way students
learn.
However, both groups think even if there are no minority groups in the schools they need a
multicultural perspective.
As their feelings are in the middle as far as the statement about multicultural education being a
total curricular approach it seems that in the real class they would adhere to the curriculum
and if it is out of it they would avoid.
Both groups seem to feel inclined to disagree that children from minority groups are considered
to be weaker students than the majority group students, although Albanians are much stronger in
this respect.
Questions 7 – 9 have been summarized in the tables below:
Nationality
QUESTION 7. What culture means to you? Try
to explain
.....Culture is a collection of beliefs and values
shared by a particular group of people.
Albanian answers
Culture embraces the system of knowledge,
beliefs, religion, art, law, social habits, attitudes,
and values ... possessions acquired by of a group of
people through generations.
Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a
particular group of people, defined by everything
from language, religion, social habits, music and
arts.
Culture means realizing that you belong
somewhere, being part of something and sharing
your differences with someone.
Culture for me is the unique characteristic that
makes each community different, special. It is
what an individual grows up with, how an
individual is “carved” in life. It is tradition,
religion, it is food, it is clothes, speech, attitude
etc.
�Macedonian
answers
Nationality
Albanian
Way of living and behaving. Each culture has its
own specifics and it is very important if we learn
those specifics for the cultures that are surrounding
us. In addition, it is said that if you learn a new
language, you have learnt a new culture.
For me culture is way of life, how we learn, eat,
behave, feel, think...
Culture is the way of living, eating, talking,
celebrating, cooking ,. Culture for me as a teacher
is what the students bring with him/her to school,
beliefs, values, meanings, religion etc.
The beliefs, traditions, attitudes, customs of a
particular country or society
Culture can be seen in different ways. Someone
sees it as language, someone as way of living,
someone as religion.
Culture is way of expressing, living, speaking and
collection of little things that make us complete
Culture is the student identity, teaching culture is
alpha omega in order to have an good education
and society. Culture is the background, the history
and the present of a person.
Culture for me means a way of life and a way of
behaving.
Culture is a wide term in which different aspects of
life are included.
QUESTION 8. Are enough teaching materials
being used in your classes which include
different cultures?
.....I try to include lesson materials from various
ethnic and religious backgrounds in my classes,
such as studying literature written by minority
authors or literature that has subject matter relating
to minorities’ life experiences
Not really, because I have a non-diversity class of
students.
Yes I try to use different materials teaching culture
through music, art, movies
�I must admit that I am lucky enough to work at a
private teaching institution, where I possess all the
necessary tools and equipment. I feel sorry for my
colleagues working within state owned schools.
Not really. We tend to actually use American
culture more than culture in which we life in.
Not really. We are learning only about one culture,
and that is Technology.
Not enough!
No there aren’t. I would like to use these kind of
teaching materials during my classes.
Magazines, articles, stories, songs, videos,
literature
No, we use only books for grammar or vocabulary
Macedonian
We try to use some magazines or internet sources
Yes, I mostly make my own materials (combined
with textbooks) depending on my group of
students.
There are no enough teaching materials that
include different cultures.
There is not enough materials. It should be
invested in materials, programs, hours and tools
and training for professionals.
Nationality
QUESTION 9.Do you organize/attend school events to
celebrate various religious holidays?
No.
Not really, just some of them like Easter, Eid, New Year...!
Albanian
�Not really unfortunately
Occasionally we receive various invitations from other
institutions to participate in different religious festivals,
which we gladly accept and join them. However, since we
live in a multicultural society where we have various
religious festivals with regards different religions, we are
being extremely careful to respect all of our students’
diversity by organizing some celebrations of behalf of the
major religious festivals considered as national holidays in
R. Macedonia.
Since I work at university level, I do not usually organize
such events. I think they are more appropriate for younger
students.
At our university, we really don’t celebrate religious
holidays, we mostly celebrate national holidays. Religious
holidays are celebrated home with families.
Unfortunately, I haven’t attended at various religious
holidays! I have attended only at our religion holidays!
Our school never organizes or celebrates various religious
holidays. “We” enjoy having a day off without knowing
the reason. The pleasure that there is no school is higher
than the curiosity or respect.
Events such as Halloween, Mother’s Day
We only celebrate national holidays.
No never
Yes, again it depends on the groups of students:
Christmas, Easter, Eid, New Year etc.
Yes, our school organizes celebrations for Bajram and
Easter.
Macedonian
No.
CONCLUSIONS
The survey shows that there is some awareness and a need for a multicultural perspective
in a foreign language classroom. The feelings of all the interviewed categories seem to be mixed.
�In some cases their answers could be misinterpreted. Still, Republic of Macedonia being a
multicultural country needs to take care of this issue and the multicultural perspective especially
in a non diverse classroom environment regardless if it is dominant Albanian or Macedonian
should be promoted. Foreign language teaching (FLT) seems to be the most suitable for it.
Having in mind the large number of classroom instruction allocated to FLT not only the English
language instruction but other foreign languages classes can be used to introduce cultural
element. FL curriculum is mostly topic based and the abundance of topics and the large number
of classroom instruction provide many opportunities to cover plenty of cultural elements related
not only to the culture of the target language be it English, German or other FL but to the states’
one of the Macedonians, Albanians and the languages of the other ethnicities of the country not
necessarily present in the given class. By doing so, and getting each other better the ties among
the communities would strengthen and this would lead to the real multicultural environment as
the State constitutionally is.
�References
1. OFA – Framework agreement, 13.08.2001
2. Unite or Divide, The challenges of teaching history in societies emerging from violent
conflicts, Special USIP Report, Elizabeth A. Cole and Judy Barsalou
3. Promoting Respect for Cultural Diversity in the Classroom, Matthew Lynch, Ed.D,
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/matthew-lynch-edd/promoting-respect-for-cul_b_1187683.html?
(accessed on 25.03.2015).
4. Ladson-Billings, But That’s Just Good Teaching!, THEORY lNTO PRACTICE, Volume 34,
Number 3, Summer 1995 Copyright 1995 College of Education, The Ohio State University
0040-5841/95$1.25.
5. Developing and assessing intercultural communicative competence, A guide for language
teachers and teacher educators, Ildikó Lázár, Martina Huber-Kriegler, Denise Lussier, Gabriela
S. Matei and Christiane Peck, http://www.ecml.at.
�
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2955
Title
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LANGUAGE AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN THE NON-DIVERSE CLASSROOM
Author
Author
Skenderi, Lindita
Jerome, Carly Terese
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The aim of the paper is to propose some simple ways of promoting linguistic and cultural diversity in a homogenous classroom made of students brought up in a bi-lingual environment and country. The ideas and suggestions come from the experiences of the authors in different environments and workplaces. The comparing groups are of different ages from compulsory school to a university/college level. The paper will be divided in two parts: on one hand there are suggestions which would be useful in a classroom with a teacher coming from the same place as the students, and on the other hand how would those and other ways work out in promoting a linguistic and cultural diversity in a classroom where the teacher/lecturer comes from another cultural and linguistic background. What has been the meeting point, how this type of cultural and language diversity would affect the critical thinking of the students; why would students benefit from diversity-promoting classes are some of the questions answered in the paper. This is a cross-sectional study which tries to put together some possible forms of promoting diversity in the aspect of a language and culture in the classroom which does not mean that is based on a longitudinal type of research but on personal experiences and views of the authors. Moreover it is based on a questionnaire and displays its results
Publisher
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International Burch University
Date
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2015
Keywords
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Article
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)