37 10 3494 https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9cadba53bbf1967d6750eafd150536b6.pdf a5242bcf85320ae773a85e5d63f0524f PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The importance of value attitudes in solving intercultural conflicts Roma Kriaučiūnienė Vilnius University, Lithvania Submitted: 22.04.2014. Accepted: 22.11.2014. Abstract The contemporary world is complicated and we face many difficult problems that sometimes can turn into conflicts that have to be resolved. As S. L. Dolan (2011) claims, these problems are: environmental pollution, human alienation, unemployment, crimes, drug addiction, disintegration of the family, mistreatment of the elderly, unequal distribution of wealth, food, educational opportunities, and many more. These challenges cause chaos and disturb the established sense of values across cultures. Some Lithuanian researchers (Aramavičiūtė, 2005) also maintain a view that such chaos has a major influence on people’s psychological condition as they lose the sense and meaning of life, which has a negative impact on their intra- and inter-relations.Documents from the EU also highlight the need for educational institutions to promote social cohesion, intercultural dialogue, diversity and equality. The development of personal and social skills and respect for human dignity and shared values are considered to be essential forthe resolution of intercultural problems. The article is based on the research into the cognitive-notional component of value attitudes among students of management and foreign languages. The criteria were the acknowledgement of the importance of values and the depth of understanding of the meaning of values. The conclusion is that students have to be prepared to understand the world, its cultural variety and values, think critically, andmake a stand against injustice.Only then can there be hope for life without prejudice, violence and contempt. Educational institutions have a huge and indispensible responsibility in this respect (Popovici, 2006). Key words: value attitudes, acknowledgment of the importance, depth of understanding, moral values, intercultural competence 237 �The importance of value attitudes in solving intercultural conflicts Introduction Intercultural communication in our contemporary globalised world takes place in all walks of life: political, economic, social and educational. Sometimes this communication might become complicated.Difficult intercultural problems may occur that can develop into disputes and conflicts. Understanding the behaviour of the representatives of other cultures,anticipating the points at which communication may break down and knowing how to deal with emerging problemsrepresent vital skills that we all need in order to communicate successfully in different intercultural contexts. J. W. Neuliep (2006) suggests thatin order to make intercultural communication more effective, one has to have intercultural competence, which enables a person to predict beliefs, attitudes, values and behaviour of others and interact with people from other cultures more successfully.Therefore,institutions of education, as the EU documents highlight, have to take up the responsibility to develop intercultural competence among learners andto promote social cohesion, intercultural dialogue, diversity and equality. Obviously, when we communicate between different cultures, values become especially significant. Values, as B. Tomalin and M. Nicks (2007) suggest, constitute the so-called “psyche of a country”: They determine expectations people might have about one another as well as their behaviour. In other words, recognizing and responding to values is vital to building the cultural chemistry of relations. However, the reality is that sometimes values might be in conflict and intercultural communicatorsmust decide whether or not to adapt to other culture’s values. This can be a difficult process that will very much depend on the context and the situation. As some philosophers (Wick, Freeman, Werhane, Martin, 2010) state, both relativistic and ethnocentric stances eliminate the need for moral reflection and discussion about one’s values and may create problems in further relationships. The same authors suggest that the way out might be universal values or universal moral principles that cut across different cultures and upon which most people can at least agree, such as fairness, justice, helping others in distress, etc. While solving problems that emerge in intercultural relationships, we have to evaluate a situation and make a judgment with respect to thesocial and personal consequences of potential behaviour, as well as acknowledge or reject the arguments for or against a problem with an orientation on values, as the criteria of evaluation. Therefore, the need to understand the meaning of values, focusing not only on one’s personal but other people’s needs and interests and the possible consequences of the actions are of paramount importance. Thus, the object of the research is understanding of importance and meaning of values. The aim of this articleis to present the results of research into the cognitive-notional and behavioural components of value attitudes among students of management and foreign languages. In order to achieve the aim the following objectives were set: 1) to reveal the acknowledgement of the importance of values among students of management and foreign languages; 2) to determine the depth of understanding of the meaning of values amongstudents of management and foreign languages. Methodological background of the research The research was based on an analysis of the phenomenon of value attitudes. Psychological literature presents theoretical and empirical research into attitudes, which prove that attitudes can predict, determine and modify a person’s behaviour, and control his/her cognitive and emotional processes. Theone-component attitude model consists of an affect towards, or evaluation of, the object, which 238 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics does not necessarily have an effect on a person‘s behaviour (Stahlberg, Frey, 1988).The twocomponent attitude model is an integral unity of cognitive and affective components, inseparable from one‘s behaviour and having a consistent influence upon it, thus providing the greatest possibility to infer and understand people‘s behaviour (Lind (1996, 2004). Thethree-component attitude model comprises interconnected cognitive, affective and behavioural components; an analysis of the content of these components allows for better prediction of an attitude influence upon one’s behaviour (Hogg &Vaughan, 2005). Thus, the attitude is defined as the unity of relatively enduring, persisting, positive or negative evaluations, emotional experiences, predispositions and behavioural tendencies towards socially significant objects. Lithuanian scientists of education (Aramavičiūtė, 2005; Bitinas, 2000; Jovaiša, 2007) investigate attitudes mainly following the attitude theory developed by D. Uznadzė (1966) and his school’s representatives, according to which an attitude object is an interrelation between a particular need and the situation that can satisfy that need. The majority of authors support D. Uznadzė’s view that value orientations expressing the motivational content of a personality are considered to be one’s main attitude. Within the system of value orientations, moral values are regarded to be especially significant, laying the foundation for value attitudes. The choice and acknowledgement of moral values, as V. Aramavičiūtė (2005) suggests, depends on traditions, attitudes and context that prevailwhere any individual resides. On the one hand, values influence attitudes, but on the other, attitudes determine the choice of values and certain behavioural tendencies. S. L. Dolan considers values to be: Strategic lessons learned and maintained. These lessons teach us that one way of acting is better than its opposite if we are to achieve our desired outcome(s)—that is, our values and value systems guide our behaviour toward that which we think will turn out well for us. Thus, to the extent that they constitute deliberate or preferentially strategic choices, in the medium to long term, for certain ways of behaving and against others, toward the survival or good life of a particular system, values form the nucleus, the DNA, of human liberty.” (Dolan, 2011, p. 87) Obviously, there are many classifications of values; philosophers still cannot agree upon the hierarchy of values and controversial discussions among scientists (philosophers, psychologists, scientists of education) are ongoing. T. H. McLaughlin (1997), for example, claims that most of the discussions in contemporary democratic societies evolve around the choice of moral values. Being a representative of a liberal educational trend, he suggests that there should be societal values, which, due to their inevitably fundamental nature, should be obligatory to all the members of the society and personal values that could be chosen by everyone freely. Whatever numerous and complicated classifications of values might be, there has been a trend to give priority to moral values: solidarity, peacefulness, respect andlove, which usually manifest themselves in relationships with oneself, others and the world at large. Therefore, the research aims to identify which moral values the respondents acknowledge to be the most important and how they understand their meaning. The choice of these moral values was based on philosophers’ (Halder, 2005; Hildebrand, 1950; Williams, 2002; Žemaitis, 1977) and scientists’ of education (Aramavičiūtė, 2005; Bitinas, 2000; Elliott, 2004; Jovaiša, 2003; Huitt, 2004; Martišauskienė, 2004) viewpoints. To investigate the cognitive-notional level of value attitudes the inventory of moral values was used;this inventory helped researchers in their attempt to elucidate the respondents’ level of acknowledgment of the importance of moral values. The inventory contained eight moral values: responsibility, respect, tolerance, sensitivity, fairness, altruism, openness, and self-respect. The respondents’ understanding of the significance of three moral values (responsibility, openness and altruism) was assessed as well. 239 �The importance of value attitudes in solving intercultural conflicts Research methods Theoretical:Analysis, comparison, evaluation of psychological, philosophical, pedagogical literature, on the basis of which a theoretical-empirical model of moral attitudes and the research instrument were created. Empirical:A studentsurvey was carried outthat aimed at finding outabout the respondents’ acknowledgment of the importance of moral values and to determine the depth of their understanding of the meaning of values. The research instrument was an original questionnairethat was developed on the basis of the theoretical-empirical model of moral attitudes and the inventory of eight moral values (responsibility, respect, tolerance, sensitivity, fairness, altruism, openness and self-respect), the latter being defined according to V. Aramavičiūtė’s (2004) research methodology. Evaluation criteria: theacknowledgment of the importance of moral values, the depth of understanding of the significance of moral values. The respondents were asked to prioritize values according to their importance on a five-point scale, as well as to substantiatethe personal and social meaning of moral values by answering open questions. Statistical:Statistical research methods: descriptive statistics (absolute and percentage frequency, mean, Chi square criterion. The research data was processed using 12th version of the SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences). The research samplewas 134 students (42male, 92female) of management and foreign languages at Vilnius University. The research was carried out in 2013. Research results Cognitive-notional level of value attitudes: the acknowledgment of the importance of moral values. In the process of the analysis of the cognitive-notional level of value attitudes, an attempt was made to determine the level of the acknowledgment of the importance of moral values by the students of management and foreign languages (English, Spanish, French and Russian). The acknowledgment of the importance of moral values was considered to be the evaluation criteria. The respondents were asked to evaluate moral values on a five-point scale. If they thought that a moral valuewas very important, that was considered to be a very high acknowledgment of a moral value; if a moral value was considered to be important, that signified a high acknowledgment; if the respondents thought that a moral value was only partly important, then the acknowledgment of the importance of it was considered to be average; if the respondents found it difficult to determine what the value meant to them, then its importance was low; and if the respondents thought that the value wasinsignificant, then its importance was considered to be very low. This helped to determine which moral values were considered to be of the highest priority to the respondents, which were of average importance and which they considered to be least significant. The following research results were obtained on moral values that the respondents rated as very highorhigh(Fig. 1): Figure 1. The acknowledgment of the importance of moral values by the students of management and foreign languages. 240 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Series1, Openness, 43 Series1, Altruism, 62 Series1, Sensitivity, 68 Series1, Tolerance, 74 Series1, Fairness , 77 Series1, Self -respect, 78 Series1, Respect, 86 Series1, Responsibility, 94 The majority of respondents (94%) considered responsibility to be thehighest priority. The second most-important moral value appeared to be respect (86%). Third place was shared by the values of selfrespect and fairness (78% and 77% respectively). The value of tolerance was also valued quite highly by the research participants (74%). Although sensitivity and altruism were considered to be important by far more than half of the respondents, they still appeared at the low end of the scale of the importance of moral values (68% and 62% respectively), while openness seemed to be least valued, as less than a half of the research participants (43%) acknowledged it to be important. Thus it could be claimed that the acknowledgement of moral values by the students of management and foreign languages is very high and high. This is undoubtedly a very positive phenomenon as values such as responsibility, respect and faithfulness are core moral values; and, as the philosopher D. Hildebrand (1950) claims, they lay a solid foundation for any person’s life. Similarly,American researcher T. Lickona (1991) suggests that respect and self-respect are the main moral values. Cognitive-notional level of value attitudes: the depth of understanding of the importance of moral values. During the research, an attempt was made to reveal how the respondents could interpret the meaning of moral values that they considered to be more or less important. As the Lithuanian scientist V. Aramavičiūtė (2005) suggests, deep understanding of the notion of moral values can alleviate their realisation in real-life situations; in other words, values can turn into the domineering driving force, motivating and directing a certain behaviour in a person. In the process of analysing the cognitive level of value attitudes from this perspective, the depth of understanding of the meaning of values was considered to be the evaluation criteria. If the respondent, while defining the meaning of one or the other value, focused not only on his/her own needs and moral well-being that were dependent on a particular value, but on the other person’s as well,the understanding of that value was considered to be very deep; if a person’s interpretation of the value’s meaning concentrated only on his/her needs and his/her well-being that were dependent on the realisation of a particular value, and this helped him/her turn into a more mature person, then the understanding of its meaning was considered to be deep; if a person concentrated only on his/her hedonistic and egoistic needs, then the meaning was considered to be not very deep; if a person only stated the importance of the value, but failed to explain its social and personal meaning, then it was considered to be lacking depthor ashallow or superficial understanding of a moral value; if the interpretation was erroneous or a person could not describe what the value meant for him/her, the respondent’sunderstanding was considered very shallow or even erroneous. 241 �The importance of value attitudes in solving intercultural conflicts The research aimed to determine the students’ understanding of the meaning of values of responsibility, openness and altruism. Therefore, they were asked to provide arguments as to why they prioritised these values in one wayor another. Having analysed their answers to these open questions according to the abovementioned criteria, the following results were obtained,as presented in Figure 2 below (Fig. 2). Figure 2. The depth of understanding of the significance of moral values by the students of management and foreign languages. Series1, Altruism, 33 Series1, Openness, 34 Series1, Responsibilit y, 62 Evidently the students demonstrated the best understanding of the value of responsibility, which the majority of them considered to be the most important value. More than half of the respondents revealed deep or very deep understandings of responsibility, whereas deep or very deep understandings of the meaning of altruism and openness were presented by only one third of respondents. Among the answers provided by the students, very mature and very positive interpretations and deep understandings of the importance of moral values could be found: <when you act responsibly, you can be trusted, and the feeling of trust grows in the society and that improves our relations>, <having lost one’s belief in the goodness of others, it could be impossible to live in our society>, <giving is one of the most honourable values that nurtures one’s sensitivity and honesty, which in turn helpus live in our society>, <it is very important to do good things wholeheartedly and sincerely, it should be done without seeking any profit or benefit for oneself, otherwise it is meaningless>, <if we do not seek any material benefit by helping others, then we become more morally mature people>, <it is very important to take care of others, otherwise we lose our humanity>, <by giving more to others, business gains a more “human face”>. However, the following extracts from the students’ answers reveal a greater focus on their own wellbeingrather than on thatof others: <people are mostly selfish, you should be able to differentiate that>, <we are all selfish and we first of all take care of the well-being of our families and only then we can take care of others>, <taking care of others is complete nonsense>, <some people only pretend to be good – you cannot trust them completely>, <you cannot take care of others if you want to gain benefit for yourself>,<one’s well-being is in the first place, you can only give advice to others, but not take care of them>, <believing in others can be harmful to oneself>. Conclusion The results of the research show that the students of management and foreign languages demonstrated to have a mature cognitive-meaningful level of value attitudes. The most important values for them were responsibility and respect, while the values of self-respect, fairness and tolerance were considered to be important. Therefore, the conclusion can be made that the students will acknowledge 242 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics these values later on in their professional careers. However, valuessuch as altruism and openness, which are of great relevance for socially responsible business and sustainable development, avoidance of conflicts, peaceful co-existence of different people within one culture and in contacts with representatives of other cultures, were considered to be the least significant. It should also be mentioned that these results are similar to other research carried out in Lithuania with senior schoolchildren, where responsibility was considered to be the most important value by more than half, but less than half took the same view ofaltruism (Aramavičiūtė, 2005). Another studyby D. Verbylaitė (2005) with future religion teachers also showed a similar priority of values: respect - most important (more than half), followed by sensitivity and responsibility (more than a third). Although the respondents showed a very high acknowledgment of the importance of moral values, the understanding of the meaningfulness of these moral values was not very deep. Just over half of the respondents demonstrated a depth of understanding of thepersonal and social meaning of responsibility, whereas altruism and openness were perceived deeply by only one third of the respondents. Given these research results, we may conclude that the cognitive-meaningful level of value attitudes among the students of management and foreign languages is not very mature. Therefore, educational institutions have a huge and indispensible responsibility to nurture students’ value attitudes and strengthen their capacity to interact with different people and develop their readiness to care more about others – all of which are critical to their personal, social and professional lives, as well as to maintaining much more effective intercultural relationships in an increasingly diverse educational environment. Reference Aramavičiūtė V. (2005). Auklėjimas ir dvasinė asmenybės branda. Vilnius: “Gimtasis žodis“ Bitinas B. (2000).Ugdymo filosofija. Vilnius: Enciklopedija. Dolan S. L. (2011). Coaching by values. iUniverse Publishing Elliott D.C. (2004). Moral Values for Public Education. Academic Exchange 8, 1. Halder A.(2005). Filosofijos žodynas. Vilnius: Alma Littera. Hildebrand D. (1950). Fundamental Moral Attitudes. Retrieved February 18, Quarterly, 2007 from http://www.ewtn.com/library/thelogy/funmore.htm Hogg A., Vaughan G. M. (2005). Social Psychology. Pearson Education Limited. Huitt W. (2004). Moral and Character Development. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Jovaiša L. (2007) Enciklopedinis edukologijos žodynas. Vilnius: Gimtasis žodis Jovaiša L. (2003). Hodegetika. Vilnius: Agora. Lind G. (1996). Testing Moral Judgement Competence. A Response to Rest, Thoma and Edwards. Retrieved August 23, 2011 from: http://www.unikonstanz.de/ag-moral/b-publik.htm Lind G..(2004). The Meaning and Measurement of Moral Judgement Competence: A Dual – Aspect Model. Measurement of Moral Competence. Retrieved August 23, 2011 from: http://www.uni-konstanz.de/ag-moral/b-publik.htm Martišauskienė E.(2004). Paauglių dvasingumas kaip pedagoginis reiškinys. Vilnius: VPUl-kla. McLaughlin T.H. (1997). Šiuolaikinė ugdymo filosofija: demokratiškumas, įvairovė. Kaunas: Technologija. Neuliep J. (2006). Intercultural communication. A contextual approach. 3rd California: Sage Publications, Inc. vertybės, ed. 243 �The importance of value attitudes in solving intercultural conflicts Popovici R. (2006). Integration of Citizenship, human rights and Language Education. In: Coherence of Principles, Cohesion of Competences. Exploring theories and designing materials for teacher education (pp. 59 -69). European Centre for Modern Languages: Council of Europe Publishing.. Stahlberg D., Frey D. (1988). Attitude I: Structure, Measurement and Functions. In Hewstone M., Stroebe W., Codol J.P., Stephenson G.M.(Eds.). Introduction to Social Psychology. Basil Blackwell Ltd. Tomalin B., Nicks M. (2007). The World‘s Business Cultures and How to Unlock Them. London: Thorogood Publishing. Verbylaitė D. (2005). Būsimųjų religijos švietėjų dvasingumas ir jo tobulinimo galimybės universitete. Daktaro disertacija. Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto leidykla. Wick A. C., Freeman R. E. , Werhane P. H., Martin K. E. (2010). Business Managerial Approach. Pearson: Prentice Hall. Williams T. (2002). Is There a Hierarchy of Values? Retrieved March 11, 2009 Ethics. A from: http://regnumchristi.org/english/imprimir/index.phtml Žemaitis V.(1997). Pedagoginis etiketas. Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas, Lietuvos etinės kultūros draugija “Ethos“. Vilnius: Lietuvos etinės kultūros draugija “Ethos“. Узнадзе Д. Н. (1966). Псичологическое иследования. Москва: Наука. 244 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2797 Title A name given to the resource The importance of value attitudes in solving intercultural conflicts Author Author Kriaučiūnienė, Roma Abstract A summary of the resource. The contemporary world is complicated and we face many difficult problems that sometimes can turn into conflicts that have to be resolved. As S. L. Dolan (2011) claims, these problems are: environmental pollution, human alienation, unemployment, crimes, drug addiction, disintegration of the family, mistreatment of the elderly, unequal distribution of wealth, food, educational opportunities, and many more. These challenges cause chaos and disturb the established sense of values across cultures. Some Lithuanian researchers (Aramavičiūtė, 2005) also maintain a view that such chaos has a major influence on people’s psychological condition as they lose the sense and meaning of life, which has a negative impact on their intra- and inter-relations.Documents from the EU also highlight the need for educational institutions to promote social cohesion, intercultural dialogue, diversity and equality. The development of personal and social skills and respect for human dignity and shared values are considered to be essential forthe resolution of intercultural problems. The article is based on the research into the cognitive-notional component of value attitudes among students of management and foreign languages. The criteria were the acknowledgement of the importance of values and the depth of understanding of the meaning of values. The conclusion is that students have to be prepared to understand the world, its cultural variety and values, think critically, andmake a stand against injustice.Only then can there be hope for life without prejudice, violence and contempt. Educational institutions have a huge and indispensible responsibility in this respect (Popovici, 2006). Key words: value attitudes, acknowledgment of the importance, depth of understanding, moral values, intercultural competence Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0a24f9070e14aca648be6ae838c1d811.pdf 2efceffd5d8b43081e299f5aa96b475c PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The art of mitigating disagreement: How EFL learners do it Marija Kusevska University "Goce Delcev," Štip, Macedonia Submitted: 02.04.2014. Accepted: 09.11.2014. Abstract The principal motivation of this study is to investigate how Macedonian learners of English mitigate their disagreement. It is a follow-up of a much broader study in the field of cross-cultural pragmatics focusing on disagreement in Macedonian and American English (Kusevska, 2012). Our cross-cultural analysis reveals that Macedonian and American native speakers show preference for different types of disagreement, the major difference being the frequency of mitigation as well as the linguistic means used for its realisation. For the purpose of this study, we have accepted the definition that mitigation is the linguistic communicative strategy of softening an utterance, reducing the impact of an utterance, or limiting the face loss associated with a message (Fraser, 1980; Caffi, 1999, 2007; Martinovski, 2006; Clemen, 2010; Czerwionka, 2012). As mitigation in disagreement is closely connected with politeness, we have also relied on the model of politeness and the strategies for FTA realisation proposed by Brown & Levinson (1978/1987). We have looked at lexical and syntactic devices such as modal auxiliaries (e.g., can/could; may/might), hedges (kind of, sort of), discourse markers (well, but, look), verbs expressing uncertainty (I think, I don’t think), verbs expressing vagueness (seem, assume, guess), conditionals etc., that learners use to mitigate their utterances. Key words: speech acts, disagreement, politeness, mitigation, EFL learners Introduction Our interest for disagreement was spurred by numerous cases when there was breach of communication between Macedonian and English speakers due to inappropriate launch of opposite opinions. The analysis of how Macedonian learners of English mitigate their disagreement was performed on 195 speech acts of disagreement obtained through a Discourse Completion Task (DCT). The respondents were learners of English at upper-intermediate and advanced levels. Relying on the results 169 �The art of mitigating disagreement: How EFL learners do it of our previous research on disagreement in Macedonian and American English (Kusevska, 2012), we set forth the following hypotheses: 1. Macedonian learners of English do not mitigate their disagreement as frequently as native speakers of English do; 2. They use different linguistic means to mitigate their disagreement; 3. The linguistic means are differently distributed in the speech act; 4. The motivation for mitigating their disagreement and the linguisitic means that Macedonian learners use are at least partly influenced by their native language and culture. Following Brown and Levinson’s theory (1987), we first distinguished direct (on record) and indirect (off record) speech acts. Depending on the kind of linguistic means used in the expressions, direct speech acts were classified as direct disagreement with redressive action (softened disagreement), and direct disagreement without redressive action. However, not all speech acts fell in these two categories. Therefore, some were further classified as strong disagreement. Kakava (2002) also introduces the category of strong disagreement, proposing a continuum of different types of disagreements ranging from strong to mitigated. Analysis of disagreement in English and Macedonian Our previous study of disagreement in English and Macedonian was a cross-cultural study on how disagreement is expressed in the two languages. It showed that American and Macedonian native speakers view disagreement differently and show preference for different types of disagreement. The results in Table 1 demonstrate that Macedonian speakers show preference for strong disagreement, while American speakers show preference for softened disagreement. Table 1. Types of disagreement in English and Macedonian English Softened disagreement 264 48% Strong disagreement 151 27.4% Macedonian Softened disagreement 105 20.5% Strong disagreement 240 46.9% Softened disagreement English has developed a wide number of linguistic means available to speakers for softening their utterances. These include a number of pragmatic markers for mitigation used within the utterance (just, sort of, kind of, I think, I don’t know, etc.), 170 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics linguistic means for minimisation (a little, a bit, etc.), epistemic verbs expressing hesitation and uncertainty (seem, guess, suppose, assume), discourse markers (well, but, etc.), and modal verbs (would, can, could, may, might). Macedonian speakers also use mitigating devices, but to a much lesser extent than American speakers. To mitigate their utterances, Macedonian speakers use expressions containing the verb каже (tell), adversative imperative forms види, гледај, чекај (see, look, wait), discourse markers па, добро, да (well, okay, yeah), modal verb forms, especially може (can), the adverb можеби and its spoken variant може (maybe), the modal particle би (would), pragmatic markers for mitigation used within the utterance like мислам (I think), не знам (I don’t know), само (just), малку (a little), малце (a little, diminutive), the indefinite tenses, the marker for solidarity бе, etc. Бе is a marker used in oral communication and is used to introduce familiarity and solidarity. Tannen (1992) mention a similar marker in Greek (re), concluding that “re is a pervasive formulaic marker of friendly disagreement” (p.29). Table 2 below shows the occurrences of mitigation devices in English and Macedonian. Verbs of hesitation and uncertainty Modal forms well па I think мислам I don’t know не знам Name бе Total English Hedges Table 2. Mitigation devices in English and Macedonian 233 46 403 63 124 25 0 0 894 7 91 106 56 14 81 30 484 Macedonian 65 Both Macedonian and English speakers sometimes preface their disagreement with partial agreement with the previous utterance, and its frequency of occurrence is similar in the two languages: 10.7% in English vs. 7.8% in Macedonian. However, American speakers make more effort to mitigate their utterances. Also, they often push their disagreement further down in conversation, most often by asking questions, making assumptions, associations, analogies, etc. In Macedonian, disagreement is never pushed down in conversation. It is announced in the first turn immediately after the turn that the speaker doesn’t agree with. Generally, softened disagreement in Macedonian is less mitigated than in English. This happens because of the use of strong modal verbs like мора (must) and не може (can’t); multiple use of adversative discourse markers to build the frame of the 171 �The art of mitigating disagreement: How EFL learners do it speech act, sometimes as many as four or five in a sequence; the use of adversative imperative forms; intonation; etc. Explicit / strong disagreement Disagreement in Macedonian is preferably expressed explicitly and is followed by an explanation. This type of disagreement is shaped with a number of adversative markers and imperative forms, which intensify it. In addition, adversative markers, sometimes used in sequences of three, four or even five, enable the speakers to create direct, brief and simple turns that sound sharp, authoritative and confrontational. Such disagreement may spread over several turns in which speakers do not seem willing to put much effort in facework. Linguistic means for mitigation found in Macedonian speakers’ speech acts of disagreement Macedonian learners of English rarely used mitigating devices. There were no occurrences of most of the hedges (just, sort of, kind of), no occurances of the linguistic means for minimisation (a little, a bit, etc.), except for one occurance of a little, and no occurences of epistemic verbs of hesitation and uncertainty (seem, guess, suppose, assume), except for one occurence of seem (don’t seem important). More prominently represented were the pragmatic marker I think and modal verbs. I think In the DCT speech acts produced by Macedonian learners of English, we found 63 occurrences of I think and five occurrences of I don’t think. While many authors list I think as a hedge in expressing politeness (Holmes, 1990; Aijmer, 1997; Kärkkäinen, 2003; Baumgarten & House, 2010), it can also convey the meaning of confidence and persuasion, in which case it does not mitigate the illocution force of the speech act. It is this latter use of I think that is pervasive in the speech acts produced by Macedonian learners of English. The three occurrences of the discourse marker so were all followed by I think, which also confirms that I think is mostly used to express strong opinions: (1) I think people are entitled to a 25-day holiday; (2) We are working very hard and we are trying to do all the work in the company completely and successfully. So I think that we deserve five days more for our holiday. 172 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The use of I think seems more tentative only when used in partial agreement, but such examples are scarce. We noticed only two occurrences of partial agreement formulated with I think and one example when the interrogative form don’t you think was used also in partial agreement, after the marker but. There was also one example when think was used with maybe and could: (3) Maybe we could think about another place and another day. In conclusion, we can stress that sentence-initial I think is used to intensify rather than to mitigate disagreement. Modal verbs In the speech acts of disagreement produced by native American speakers, we found three groups of modal verbs according to their frequency of occurrence: 1. Verbs with high frequency, including the modal verbs would (28%) and can (27%); 2. Verbs with medium frequency, among which the most widespread was could (12%), followed by may (8%), might (7%), will (7%), need (6%), and should (5%); and 3. Verbs with low frequency: must (1) and shall (0). Our findings are similar to the frequency rates of modal verbs found in other corpusbased studies. Biber et al. (2007: 495) assign the low frequency of must to its high command force. For this reason it is often replaced by should, which has a weaker force and is therefore considered more polite in conversation. Our analysis produced somewhat different results. Will (42%) stands out as the most widely used in the speech acts of disagreement produced by Macedonian learners of English. It is followed by a group of three other modal verbs of medium frequency: should (18%), would (15%), and can (15%). The rest of the modal verbs have a much lower frequency: must (4%), need to (2%), could (2%), might (2%), may (0%) and shall (0%). To express their uncertainty and hesitations learners have also used maybe (16) and probably (1). We were not surprised by the high frequency of will. First, learners identify it as a marker for expressing futurity; second, it helps them to express their opinion firmly (example 4). Nor are we surprised that should follows it (example 5). In Macedonian should is translated as треба, which also has high frequency in Macedonian speech acts of disagreement. It is also not surprising that could and might have a very low frequency. Their meaning is elusive for Macedonian learners and their pragmatic function is difficult to grasp. (4) I will stand firmly by my topic and I won’t consider another one. (5) I think we should do the training as soon as possible. 173 �The art of mitigating disagreement: How EFL learners do it We are, however, surprised by the frequency of would, which we would expect to be even lower. It seems that Macedonian learners understand its function as a marker for politeness and that they identify it with the Macedonian particle би, used for this purpose. Would is frequently used in the expression I would like, and this makes it more salient for the learners. Another reason may be that would, like many other language means, is not equally distributed among different speakers. Some learners favoured using would in shaping their disagreement. Other learners preferred a different modal verb. And many of the learners have used them rarely. Partial agreement Learners also used partial agreement to mitigate their disagreement (13%). They framed it with expressions like I agree, but; I don’t know about you, but I think; It’s interesting, but; etc. However, none of them used the most common way that native speakers use to frame partial agreement with Yeah, but. Disagreement frames Macedonian learners of English used the following frames for shaping their disagreement: 1. I think was found in 25% of the speech acts; 2. Disagreement prefaced with the verbs disagree / don’t agree + explanation accounted for 19% of the examples; 3. Disagreement prefaced by I’m sorry, but was noted in 6% of the cases; 4. Explanation without any preface was present in 50 cases (26%); 5. Discourse markers (well, but) were found in 7% of the speech acts; 6. Partial agreement was noted in 14% of the speech acts; 7. Hints had the lowest frequency (3%). The first two groups clearly belong to strong disagreement because Macedonian speakers do not use I think to make room for other people’s disagreement, but to emphasize their own opinion. They also don’t use I’m sorry with the aim of apologizing, but to emphasize that their opinion is different and there is no room for reconciliation. And while there was only one occurrence with I agree with that and one with I don’t disagree in the native speakers’ speech acts, their number of occurrences in the learners’ speech acts was much higher (38). The discourse markers used here (well, so, but, actually) do not always soften disagreement either. Some of the explanations without any preface represented strong disagreement (22), some indicated softened disagreement (22) and only few represented neutral 174 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics disagreement (6). Softened speech acts contained weak modal verbs (can, could, need to, etc.), “if” clauses, and other linguistic means for mitigating disagreement. Conclusion The results of this study have confirmed the hypothesis we put forward at the beginning of this paper. They can be summed up as follows: 1. Macedonian learners of English shape their disagreement as strong (61%), softened (33%), neutral (3%) and as hints (3%). So when they want to disagree, they would most probably opt for strong rather than mitigated disagreement. 2. When mitigating their disagreement, learners use fewer of the linguistic means they had at their disposal than American speakers. Their use of pragmatic markers for mitigation is extremely limited and their use of hedges and verbs for hesitation and uncertainty are rendered null. Although we have seen that they use modal verbs, the most frequent one in their speech acts is will, which conveys firmness and decisiveness. 3. While mitigation devices are distributed throughout Americans’ speech acts, Macedonian learners’ speech acts are prefaced with expressions which help them state their disagreement explicitly. 4. The previous statements about learner’s disagreement mirror the most common way that Macedonian native speakers shape disagreement, thus confirming our last hypothesis that in shaping their disagreement, Macedonian learners are at least partly influenced by their native language and culture. One of the striking questions in this analysis is why Macedonian learners do not use discourse markers, which are pervasive in shaping speech acts in Macedonian. The reason may be that the meaning of these sequences is complex and it would be difficult to find one-to-one correspondences in English, as illustrated below: Види сега вака (see now like this ) – You told me what you thought of it on the basis of your knowledge, or on the basis of your beliefs. However, that is not all that there is to it. So now I’ll tell you what I have to say about it. And what I am going to say will be different. E па (добро) сега – (well but okay now) I don’t like / I don’t agree with what you are saying. You know that we have talked about this (made a choice, we have decided, we have worked a way out, etc.); добро intensifies the utterance. А бе чекај сега малце (but бе hold on a second) - What you are saying can’t be right. We are friends and I respect you, but you have to hear my opinion, and my opinion is different from yours. In conclusion, it is justified to claim that this paper contributes to studies that hold that the speech act of disagreement is culturally constrained. Negotiating opposing views is a reality that learners will have to engage in on daily basis when communicating in the foreign language. Contrastive studies that compare learners' 175 �The art of mitigating disagreement: How EFL learners do it conversation with that of native speakers provide insights into the problems students may encounter when communicating in a foreign language. 176 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics References Aijmer, K. (1997). Epistemic modality as a discourse phenomenon — a SwedishEnglish cross-language perspective. In V. M. U. Fries, From Ælfric to the New York Times. Studies in English Corpus Linguistics (pp. 215-227). Amsterdam: Rodopi. Baumgarten, N., & House, J. (2010). I think and I don’t know in English as lingua franca and native English discourse. Journal of Pragmatics 42, 1184–1200. Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conard, S., & Finegan, E. (2007). Longman grammar of spoken and written English. London/New York: Pearson Education Limited. Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness. Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Caffi, C. (1999). On mitigation. Journal of Pragmatics 31, 881-909. Caffi, C. (2007). Mitigation. New York: ELSEVIER. Clemen, G. (2010). The concept of hedging: Origins, approaches and definitions. In R. Markkanen, & H. Schröder, Research in text theory. Hedging and discourse: Approaches to the analysis of a pragmatic phenomenonin academic texts (pp. 235-256). Munchen, DEU: Walter de Gruyter. Czerwionka, L. (2012). Mitigation: The combined effects of imposition and certitude. Journal of Pragmatics 44 , 1163--1182. Fraser, B. (1980). Conversational mitigation. Journal of pragmatics 4, 341-350. Holmes, J. (1990). Apologies in New Zeland English. Language in Society, Vol. 19, No. 2, 155-199. Kakava, C. (2002). Opposition in Modern Greek discourse: Cultural and contextual constraints. Journal of Pragmatics 34, 1537–1568. Kärkkäinen, E. (2003). Epistemic stance in English conversation. A description of its interactional functions, with a focus on I think. Philadelphia, PA, USA: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 177 �The art of mitigating disagreement: How EFL learners do it Martinovski, B. (2006). A framework for the analysis of mitigation in courts: Towards a theory in mitigation. Journal of Pragmatics 38, 2065-2085. Tannen, D. (1992). Power and solidarity in Modern Greek conversation: Disagreeing to agree. Journal of Modern Greek Study 10: 1, 11-35. Кусевска, М. (2012). Меѓукултурна прагматика. Несогласување во усната комуникација: англиски и македонски. Скопје: Академски печат. 178 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2793 Title A name given to the resource The art of mitigating disagreement: How EFL learners do it Author Author Kusevska, Marija Abstract A summary of the resource. The principal motivation of this study is to investigate how Macedonian learners of English mitigate their disagreement. It is a follow-up of a much broader study in the field of cross-cultural pragmatics focusing on disagreement in Macedonian and American English (Kusevska, 2012). Our cross-cultural analysis reveals that Macedonian and American native speakers show preference for different types of disagreement, the major difference being the frequency of mitigation as well as the linguistic means used for its realisation. For the purpose of this study, we have accepted the definition that mitigation is the linguistic communicative strategy of softening an utterance, reducing the impact of an utterance, or limiting the face loss associated with a message (Fraser, 1980; Caffi, 1999, 2007; Martinovski, 2006; Clemen, 2010; Czerwionka, 2012). As mitigation in disagreement is closely connected with politeness, we have also relied on the model of politeness and the strategies for FTA realisation proposed by Brown & Levinson (1978/1987). We have looked at lexical and syntactic devices such as modal auxiliaries (e.g., can/could; may/might), hedges (kind of, sort of), discourse markers (well, but, look), verbs expressing uncertainty (I think, I don’t think), verbs expressing vagueness (seem, assume, guess), conditionals etc., that learners use to mitigate their utterances. Key words: speech acts, disagreement, politeness, mitigation, EFL learners Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LA History of education,LT Textbooks https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2eea90c36dbeda690e24a3e597f157b7.pdf 753b9568a3caec823f07e71e6b96fde8 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies How Micro-Level Determinants Affect the Capital Structure Choice: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina Jasmina Mangafić School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina jasmina.mangafic@efsa.unsa.ba Danijela Martinović School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina danijela.martinovic@efsa.unsa.ba Abstract: The purpose of this study is to examine two leverage ratios using a sample of non-financial companies in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). It was done by taking into account the joint effect of traditional capital structure determinants and managers’ personal values and aspirations. We applied hierarchical regression analysis to determine the contribution of profitability indicators, firm size indicators, assets, growth, networking, managerial strategies, managerial psychology, managerial human capital and earnings volatility to explain the variance in capital structure. The results suggest that companies with less experienced owners/managers and higher firm growth have higher financial leverage ratios. In the analysis of the balance sheet leverage, financial proxies of capital structure seem to be significant in explaining capital structure variance. Therefore, companies with lower profitability, a lower level of fixed assets and higher growth opportunities have higher balance sheet leverage ratios. The findings provide better understanding of theoretical perspectives that can best explain how companies choose their capital structure in the transition economy context. Furthermore, empirical findings should help corporate managers to make optimal capital structure decisions. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 Key words: Capital Structure Choice, Firm Characteristics, Managerial Traits, Hierarchical Regression Analysis, Transition Economy JEL Classification: D03, G02 Article History Submitted: 10 March 2015 Resubmitted: 23 June 2015 Resubmitted: 14 September 2015 Accepted: 12 October 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JECOSS15529 181 �Jasmina Mangafić, Danijela Martinović Introduction Although there is a universal consensus that financial theories have contributed to the understanding of capital structure decision-making, these financial theories disregard the role played by firm management in determining capital structure, especially for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), where managers exert a greater influence on the financing decisions compared to larger firms (Norton, 1991; Matthews et al., 1994), as is the case in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). Considering the significance of management influence in making financing decisions, management researchers have developed a variety of alternative theoretical frameworks based on diverse paradigms (as strategic management, psychology and sociology) to describe how financing decisions in SMEs are made (Barton and Matthews, 1989; Matthews et al., 1994; Romano et al., 2000; Ang et al., 2010; Hackbarth, 2008). This group of different management-based theories required an overall theoretical framework until Van Auken’s (2005) launch of a model illustrating the dynamics of SMEs capital acquisition decisions, which recognized the primary determinants influencing the decisions on capital acquisition as being built on managerial characteristics and attitudes. This model incorporates a number of managerial factors which may affect the capital structure choice such as experience, risk preference, growth intentions and networking. Using the theoretical structure of Van Auken’s (2005), we identify managers’ influences on capital structure as consisting of managerial features (managerial network ties, education and experience) and attitudes (managerial aversion to external control, risk-taking propensity and growth intentions). Within this framework, we also consider firm-level characteristics such as size, profitability, asset structure, growth opportunity and earnings volatility, proposed by the conventional capital structure theories, to determine the extent to which managerial factors in conjunction with firmlevel characteristics influence the capital structure choice of SMEs. The objective of this paper is to examine the importance of manager traits and attitudes in explaining the decisions made regarding capital structure in companies in developing economies/economies in transition, while using a sample of FBiHi enterprises.Our findings should provide deeper understanding of theoretical perspectives which best explain how companies choose their capital structure in the developing context. In particular, we contend that extending traditional capital structure theory to account for these managerial traits can decrease some important gaps between the known theoretical predictions and the unresolved empirical facts. In particular, financial executives in developing countries may hold different attitudes than their counterparts in developed countries. On the other hand, although there is some evidence (Booth et al., 2001) that developing countries have similar capital structures to those in developed countries, the firm variables have a relatively low effect on the structures. The reason for the poor cause and effect relationship may be due to institutional factors and management preferences. Therefore, this study brings together research on financial and strategic management, decision making, as well as social psychology in order to develop a conceptual model for understanding capital structure decision-making in privately held firms. 182 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �How Micro-Level Determinants Affect the Capital Structure Choice: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina Literature Review Growth intentions and profit maximization are two managerial objectives that have gained the most attention in the literature with regards to their relationship to capital structure. Berggren et al. (2000) assert that decision-makers whose leading aim is business growth will tend to be less control averse and more active in searching for external sources of finance when internally originated funds are insufficient. Although limited empirical work has been conducted on how the manager’s intentions to maximize profit influence financing decisions, it is suspected that firms with intentions to maximize profits in the short-term will seek higher levels of short-term financing to take advantage of economic opportunities that present themselves. Such firms, however, should therefore be less reliant on long-term financing in their capital structure. Barton & Matthews (1989) and Matthews et al. (1994) were the first to emphasize that the risk propensity and control aversion of decision-makers may be significant determinants of capital structure in SMEs. The preceding empirical work performed on SMEs in Western economies validates that some managers prefer internal sources of funds, fearing that dependence on external sources of finance might lead to a loss of control over the firm and restrict the authority of owners to make decisions autonomously (Berger and Udell, 1998; Harvey & Evans, 1995; Hutchinson, 1995). In China and in many other emerging and developing economies, a weak institutional environment reinforces agency problems and leads to greater mistrust between managers and external capital providers (Young et al., 2008). Barton and Matthews (1989) and Matthews et al. (1994) suggest that the risk-taking propensity of SME manager will influence the debt level they are willing to adopt. In general, managers with risk perception bias believe their company is less risky than it actually is and therefore less likely to experience financial distress. Because of a weak institutional environment, risk-taking propensity might be expected to have an even bigger influence on the financing choices of SMEs in emerging and developing economies. Human capital may affect the capital structure of SMEs in a number of ways. The value of a manager’s human capital, defined here as the knowledge and diverse skills of the SMEs managers (Hatch and Dyer, 2004), depends on the firm’s business strategy. Some studies suggest that human capital is positively linked to the use of debt in SMEs (Bates, 1990; Zhang, 2008) while others find no or a negative relationship (Scherr et al., 1993; Romano et al., 2000; Cassar, 2004). For example, Scherr et al., (1993) observe a negative and statistically significant relationship between the age, managerial experience and education level of the manager and the use of debt in the capital structures of SMEs. However, research conducted by Zhang in 2008 on the sample of SMEs in China showed that companies whose managers are more highly educated are more likely to rely on formal debt financing. This positive relationship could be attributed to the fact that managers holding college degrees and/or graduate degrees are assumed to have the additional knowledge required for better decisionmaking and consequently may be more competent than managers without those degrees. Additionally, their educational background might be an indication to outside investors about the firm’s human capital quality and influence the creditor’s willingness Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 183 �Jasmina Mangafić, Danijela Martinović to approve the loan. As far as managers’ experience is concerned, experienced managers should have the capability to better perform risk assessment (Ozgen and Baron, 2007). The owner’s/manager’s background and experience are assets that contribute to the decision-making regarding access to resources – including financial resources - and consequently signal the competitive advantage of that company (Schutjens and Wever, 2005). It is important to note that the human capital immanent in the manager’s prior experience plays a more important role in decreasing the asymmetric information between the firm and external investors in developing economies than is the case in developed economies. Generally, research studies performed in developed economies show a negative relationship or no relationship between the age of the manager and the company’s reliance on external financial sources (Scherr et al., 1994; Romano et al., 2000). Scherr et al. (1994) offer the possible reasons for such findings: the unwillingness of financiers to lend to older people because of shorter anticipated time of their ownership, the fact that older owners/managers are more risk averse in comparison to those younger, but also having in mind that older owners/managers are wealthier than the younger ones, which allows them to use more of their personal wealth to finance their business operations. Applications for bank loans are also influenced by the social capital, i.e. the actual and potential resources reachable through an actor’s network of relationships (NahapietandGhosal, 1998). Because of the lack of publicly-available data on SMEs, financiers often depend on their informal contacts with managers at other firms to assess the creditworthiness of a loan applicant and the feasibility of their business proposals (Nguyen et al., 2006). In this study, we use Wu’s and Leung’s (2005), definition of network ties. Despite a growing amount of work on the role played by network ties in the financing behavior of firms, limited work has examined how network ties might influence the capital structure of companies. Empirical Framework This study is an attempt to give a comprehensive and robust analysis of the determinants of the capital structure of FBiH firms. The conceptualization of corporate structure choice employed in this research adds firm-level characteristics proposed by traditional financing theories to the managerial factors influencing the capital structure choice, to propose and test a new theoretical model (Figure 1). Using Van Auken’s (2005) structure, we identify manager influences on capital structure as consisting of managerial characteristics (managerial network ties, education and experience) and attitudes (managerial aversion to external control, risk-taking propensity and growth intentions). We seek to determine the extent to which each of the proposed factors influences the capital structure of FBiH companies, when pooled together. The research results will provide the following information: (1) To what extent the existing capital structure theories from the finance paradigm can adequately explain the financial behavior of firms in the developing economy context? (2) To what extent the managerial strategy, psychology, human capital and network ties influence the capital structure of firms in FBiH? 184 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �How Micro-Level Determinants Affect the Capital Structure Choice: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of Capital Structure Choice Capital Manager’s Manager’s characteristics Managerial strategy structure level Managerial psychology determinants Manager’s attitudes Managerial human capital Network ties Firm’s level Firm size determinants Profitability Growth opportunity Asset tangibility Risk Source: Framework proposed by authors The main research hypothesis of the study is as follows: • Personal characteristics and attitudes (latent factors: managerial strategy, managerial psychology, managerial human capital and network ties) coupled with traditional capital structure determinants (latent factors: assets, firm’s size, asset tangibility, and growth opportunities with earnings volatility as the observed variable) are determinants of the capital structure. Based on the literature review provided above, assumptions about the influence of managerial characteristics on capital can be articulated through the following hypotheses: 1) the growth intentions of the manager are positively correlated to leverage, 2) the intention of the manager to maximize profit is positively correlated to leverage, 3) the aversion to external control of the manager is negatively correlated to leverage, 4) the manager’s risk-taking propensity is positively correlated to leverage, 5) the educational level of the manager is positively correlated to leverage, 6) the managerial experience of the manager is positively correlated to leverage, 7) the age of the manager is negatively correlated to leverage and 8) manager’s personal network ties with other companies, government officers and banks will be positively correlated to the leverage. Data Collection and Sampling The variables we use for the analysis are taken partly from financial statements and partly from a survey. While surveys have limitations (e.g., non- respondent bias), at least they give a window into executive thinking on capital structure. They try to find the hidden motivation behind the financing choice and have the advantage that they can question difficult to measure and complex factors. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 185 �Jasmina Mangafić, Danijela Martinović Due to the financial statements data availability, this study will focus on one entity, the Federation of BiH (FBiH). We used the AFIP (Agency for the Financial, IT and Intermediary Services) dataset for the 2012 that maintains a comprehensive financial database of all companies operating in the FBiH, containing 19,446 firmyear observations. The AFIP database is made available for commercial use by “Tron Systems”. This database contains the balance sheets and income statements of all companies obliged to submit their reports to the AFIP, under the law. After collecting the data, but before running the main data analyses, we performed a dataset screening process for ungrouped data (Tabachnik and Fidell, 2013). After initial screening, our dataset contained a total of 18,393 firm-year observations, where the limited liability company is the dominant legal form of organization accounting for over 97.5% of the sample analyzed in the observed year. Having in mind that fact, owners will be very often also the managers of their companies. The focus of our empirical enquiry/study is capital structure decision of joint stock (JSC) as limited liability companies (Ltd), stratified by 16 different industries. In order to better understand the characteristics of the homogenous subsets (Albright, Winston, and Zappe, 2006), we had to exclude a certain number of enterprises from the population data. In particular, we eliminated the companies legally organized as neither JSC nor Ltd. Furthermore, banks, financial companies, and insurance companies were also removed from the sample because of their specific financial structure. Investment companies were neither included, because their income mainly results from the value of their holding portfolios. This value depends on the financial structure and business conditions of the firms whose stocks are included in the portfolio rather than the financial structure of the investment companies. This restriction is necessary because banks, as well as insurance and investment companies are subject to rigorous regulations concerning their capital structure and financing decisions and are additionally severely affected by exogenous factors (Rajan and Zingales, 1995). Additionally, out of the entire sample of companies present in 2012, a random selection of 450 companies among different industries was made in order to apply an online questionnaire ensuring additional data on managerial psychology, managerial strategies, managerial, human capital and network ties. The questionnaire was distributed to the sample of enterprises from the dataset used in the first research stage, selected from the sampling frame using: (i) random number tables and (ii) random number generator, such as Research Randomizer (2008). This sampling technique was possible as the sampling frame was vast enough. We applied a questionnaire used in past research on firm financing decisions, including Van Auken (2005) and Carter and Van Auken (2005). The respondents were asked to identify characteristics of their firms, ownership structure, number of employees and the size of market served. The second section asked respondents to rank perceptions (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree) of 25 issues related to network resources, business objectives and external financing. In the third section, we asked them questions about the personal characteristics of the managing director. Pretesting was conducted in order to test for clarity, after which the questionnaire was slightly revised. The main changes were made to the formulation of questions. 186 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �How Micro-Level Determinants Affect the Capital Structure Choice: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina We received 242 questionnaires that satisfied the recommended sample size gained via sample power analysis performed using G*Power 3.1.7. of 205. But the response ratio of 53.78% cannot be ignored, and we needed to check whether there was a presence of non-response bias. We applied the Mann – Whitney U test to see whether there was a statistically significant difference between the values ​​of variables from the financial statements of companies that participated in the survey and companies that did not. Out of the 15 variables from financial statements used in further analysis only two variablesii showed a significant difference between the companies who responded and the companies that did not respond to the survey. Furthermore, we followed up by conducting another mini survey with the sample selected randomly from the nonrespondents (those who did not participate in the actual survey). However, the followup survey was done using a different method of soliciting and data collection, to ensure that differences observed were not due to the survey method’s effects. We conducted telephone interviews with 15 non-respondents asking them to complete the survey over the phone. When this was done, the researchers compared the responses between the respondents and the non-respondents on the key variables from the survey. We found no differences and therefore, we believe that the responses to our survey are non-response biased. Results and Discussion Since the main research objective in this paper is to assess contribution of underlying manager’s personal characteristics and attitudes with traditional capital structure determinants in explaining the firm’s capital structure choices, we have employed standard and hierarchical regression analysis. Leverage was measured by two variables (Welch, 2011): the financial-debt-to-capital ratio (financial leverage) that does not consider non-financial liabilities as debt [PCS1], and the total-liabilities-to assets ratio (balance sheet leverage) that treats financial and non-financial liabilities alike [PCS2]. Empirical capital structure research also faces another key question, which is whether to use book leverage or market leverage (book registered debt is divided by the sum of the registered debt plus the equity market value). We do not have that choice simply because we do not have the data on market values. The normality of distribution of almost all variables is violated before the data are transformed using natural logarithm. Only variables related to company size, balance-sheet leverage (total liabilities to assets ratio) and the age of the general manager meet the assumption of normality. Regression models are developed for each leverage dependent variable respectively. The paper proposes capital structure determinants listed in Table 1. In order to run regression analysis with determinants that are having significant correlation with capital structure indicators, correlation between capital structure and determinants are presented. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 187 �Jasmina Mangafić, Danijela Martinović Table 1. Correlation between Determinants and Capital Structure Determinant Code r Financial Leverage r Balance-Sheet Leverage Natural logarithm of total assets [FSA] .054 -.112 Natural logarithm of total revenues [FSR] .021 -.123 Natural logarithm of employees number The ratio of earnings before interest, taxes and depreciation to total assets The ratio of net income to the total assets The ratio of tangible fixed assets to the total assets The ratio of intangible assets to total assets The ratio of inventories to total assets [FSE] .069 -.122 .072 -.084 -.029 -.136* .023 -.167* .051 -.021 [PA3] .161* .144* The ratio of receivables to total assets [PA4] -.054 -.006 The ratio of difference in the book value of total asset between yeart-1 and yeart divided by the book value of the total assets in yeart-1 The ratio of difference in total revenues between yeart-1 and yeart divided by total revenues in yeart-1 Regression of book value over the total assets over ten years on a time trend ; coefficient of the trend, scaled by the book value of the total assets, as proxy for growth Growth intensions [PG1] .010 -.065 .083 .070 .164* .198** [PMS1] .094 -.004 Profit maximization intensions [PMS2] .069 .045 Control aversion [PMP1] -.071 -.067 Risk propensity [PMP2] .026 .035 188 [PP1] [PP2] [PA1] [PA2] [PG2] [PG3] Journal of Economic and Social Studies �How Micro-Level Determinants Affect the Capital Structure Choice: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina Age of the manager [MHC1] -.057 -.127 Experience of the manager [MHC2] -.142* -.135* Educational level of the manager [MHC3] -.070 -.141* Networking with other firms [PN1] .067 .044 Networking with Government officials [PN2] .073 .047 Networking with Banks [PN3] -.066 -.104 Earning Volatility [PE] -.072 -.076 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). Analysis of correlations between proposed determinants and capital structure indicators shows that statistically significant correlations with financial leverage have the ratios of inventories to total assets [PA3], regression of book value [PG3] and experience of the manager [MHC2]. Companies with higher financial leverage have less experienced manager and with higher ratio of inventories to total assets and higher regression of book value as proxy of growth. Balance-sheet leverage has statistically significant correlations with the ratio of net income to the total assets [PP2], the ratio of tangible fixed assets to the total assets [PA1], the ratio of inventories to total assets [PA3], the regression of book value [PG3], the experience of the manager [MHC2] and educational level of the manager [MHC3]. Companies with higher balance-sheet leverage have less ratio of net income and fixed assets to the total assets, higher ratio of inventories to total assets, higher regression of book value, less experienced manager and lower educational level of the owner and manager. All statistically significant correlations between proposed determinants and capital structure indicators are low (below .20). Total contribution of determinants explaining capital structure will be calculated using linear regression model including only determinants with statistically significant correlations. The model for financial leverage will differ from model for balance sheet leverage considering that balance sheet leverage has more determinants with statistically significant correlations. Regression model with determinants of financial leverage Independent variables in the model are: • • • [PA3]The ratio of inventories to total assets [PG3] Regression of book value of the total assets over ten years on a time trend; coefficient of the trend, scaled by the book value of the total assets [MHC2] Experience of the manager Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 189 �Jasmina Mangafić, Danijela Martinović The ratio of inventories to total assets, regression of book value and experience of the manager explains about 6% of variance of financial leverage. Explained variance is statistically significant (F=6.093; P=0.001) and differs from expected random guess. Even though the model has statistically significant prediction, predictive power is rather low. Table 2. Model Summary for Financial Leverage Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 1 .274a .075 .063 .2759008 The collinearity statistics parameters indicate that there are no issues with multicollinearity among independentt variables (all VIF lower than 2). The ratio of inventories to total assets and regression book of value have significant contribution to explanation of financial leverage variance while experience of the manager does not have significant contribution (chances for random contribution are over 5% but less than 6%). Table 3. Coefficients for Financial Leverage Model 1 Unstandardized Coefficients B Std. Error (Constant) .388 .064 PA3 .174 .064 PG3 .176 MHC2 -.132 Standardized Coefficients t Sig. Beta Collinearity Statistics Tolerance VIF 6.110 .000 .175 2.716 .007 .986 1.014 .064 .176 2.736 .007 .984 1.016 .068 -.125 -1.948 .053 .995 1.005 Before concluding on significant determinants of financial leverage we run hierarchical regression analysis with first block of independent variables being set to the ratio of inventories to the total assets and regression book of values while in second block all other determinants (from Table 1). In such case (amended regression model) experience of the manager and both profitability indicators (the ratio of earnings before interest, taxes and depreciation to total assets and the ratio of net income to the total assets) have additional contribution to financial leverage variance. Hierarchical regression model is rerun with experience and profitability determinants being in the second block of independent variables. Adding second block of determinants improve predictions by 3.1% (adjusted R square) that is statistically significant. 190 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �How Micro-Level Determinants Affect the Capital Structure Choice: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina Table 4. Amended Model Summary for Financial Leverage Model R Change Statistics R Adjusted R Std. Error of Square Square the Estimate R Square F Change df1 df2 Change Sig. F Change 1 .244a .059 .051 .2775929 .059 7.155 2 227 .001 2 .337b .113 .094 .2713040 .054 4.549 3 224 .004 The ratio of inventories to the total assets, regression book of values, experience of the manager, the ratio of earnings before interest, taxes and depreciation to total assets and the ratio of net income to the total assets are all significantly contributing to explanation of financial leverage variance. Higher financial leverage have companies with higher ratio of inventories to the total assets, higher regression book of values, higher ratio of earnings before interest, taxes and depreciation to total assets, lower experience of the manager and lower ratio of net income to the total assets. Table 5. Amended Model for Financial Leverage Coefficients Model Std. Error Beta (Constant) .315 .052 PA3 .180 .064 PG3 .184 .065 (Constant) .406 .066 PA3 .175 .063 PG3 .189 MHC2 B 1 2 Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. Tolerance Collinearity Statistics VIF 6.108 .000 .181 2.792 .006 .988 1.012 .184 2.841 .005 .988 1.012 6.164 .000 .176 2.785 .006 .986 1.014 .068 .189 2.783 .006 .855 1.169 -.147 .067 -.139 -2.186 .030 .985 1.015 PP1 .325 .117 .327 2.787 .006 .287 3.480 PP2 -.360 .117 -.362 -3.086 .002 .288 3.472 Third set of independent variables are entered in the regression analysis to check for possible additional contribution of remaining variables from original model, however none of them had additional statistically significant contribution to explanation of financial leverage variance. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 191 �Jasmina Mangafić, Danijela Martinović Among independent variables that are having significant contribution explaining financial leverage significant positive correlations are between profitability indicators (the ratio of earnings before interest, taxes and depreciation to total assets and the ratio of net income to the total assets), and between regression book of values and both profitability indicators. Correlation between profitability indicators is quite high (over 0.80) while correlations between regression book of values and profitability indicators are smaller (app. 0.35). Table 6. Pearson Correlation between Independet Variables with Significant Predictive Validity of Financial Leverage PA3 PG3 MHC2 PP1 PP2 PA3 1 -.109 -.040 -.045 -.039 PG3 -.109 1 -.056 .345** .349** MHC2 -.040 -.056 1 .058 .012 PP1 -.045 .345 ** .058 1 .841** PP2 -.039 .349** .012 .841** 1 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Regression model with determinants of balance-sheet leverage Independent variables in the model are: • • • • [PP2]The ratio of net income to the total assets [PA1]The ratio of tangible fixed assets to the total assets [PA3] The ratio of inventories to total assets [PG3] Regression of book value of the total assets over ten years on a time trend; coefficient of the trend, scaled by the book value of the total assets [MHC2] Experience of the manager [MHC3]Educational level of the manager • • Independent variables explain about 13.5% of variance of balance-sheet leverage. Explained variance is statistically significant (F=6.970; P=0.000) and differs from expected random guess. Predictive power for balance sheet leverage is about 7.5% higher than for the finance leverage. Table 7. Model Summary for Balance-sheet Leverage Model R 1 .397 R Square a .158 Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate .135 .27656 The collinearity statistics parameters indicate that there are no issues with multicollinearity among independent variables (all VIF lower than 2). The ratio of net income to the total assets, the ratio of tangible fixed assets to the total assets, the ratio 192 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �How Micro-Level Determinants Affect the Capital Structure Choice: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina of inventories to total assets and regression book of value have significant contribution to explanation of balance-sheetleverage variance while experience of the managerand the education level of the managerdo not have significant contribution. Table 8. Coefficients for Balance-sheet Leverage Model B 1 Unstandardized Coefficients Std. Error Beta (Constant) .673 .084 PP2 -.238 .069 PA1 -.145 PA3 Standardized Coefficients t Sig. Collinearity Statistics Tolerance VIF 7.975 .000 -.229 -3.460 .001 .860 1.163 .065 -.139 -2.214 .028 .952 1.050 .148 .065 .143 2.271 .024 .953 1.049 PG3 .282 .069 .270 4.066 .000 .855 1.169 MHC2 -.114 .068 -.103 -1.673 .096 .991 1.009 MHC3 -.113 .065 -.108 -1.746 .082 .981 1.020 Before concluding on significant determinants of balance-sheet leverage we run hierarchical regression analysis with first block of independent variables being set to the ratio of net income to the total assets, the ratio of tangible fixed assets to the total assets, the ratio of inventories to total assets and regression book of value while in second block all other determinants (from Table 1). In such case, (amended regression model) none of the independent variables have additional statistically significant contribution to explanation of balance-sheet variance. Adding second block of determinants does not improve predictions. Higher balance-sheet leverage have companies with lower ratio of net income to the total assets, and lower ratio of tangible fixed assets to the total assets while having higher ratio of inventories to total assets and higher regression book of value. Revised regression model including only these four independent variables explains about 11.9% of balance-sheet variance (adjusted R square). Among independent variables that are having significant contribution explaining balance-sheet leverage significant correlations are between profitability indicators (the ratio of net income to the total assets) and regression of book value, and between the ration of tangible fixed assets to the total assets and the ration of inventories to the total assets. While there is positive correlation between profitability indicator and growth indicators there is negative correlation between assets indicators. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 193 �Jasmina Mangafić, Danijela Martinović Table 9. Pearson Correlation between Independet Variables with Significant Predictive Validity of Balance-sheet Leverage PP2 PA1 PA3 PG3 MHC2 MHC3 PP2 1 -.111 -.039 .349** .012 .091 PA1 -.111 1 -.162* -.100 .014 .015 PA3 -.039 -.162* 1 -.109 -.040 .046 PG3 .349** -.100 -.109 1 -.056 -.039 MHC2 .012 .014 -.040 -.056 1 .056 MHC3 .091 .015 .046 -.039 .056 1 The results in FBiH show a positive relationship between the firm’s capital structure choice and the firm’ growth opportunities. That is contrary to the findings of Titman and Wessels (1988), who concluded that growth has significant negative relationship with the capital structure. Myers and Majluf (1984) argue that the assets owned do affect capital structure and the results in FBiH indicate that the ratio of tangible assets to total assets has a negative relationship with the balance-sheet leverage. Some studies suggest that earnings volatility affects the capital structure; however, their results are inconsistent (Bradley, Jarrell, and Kim, 1984). The results on the sample of FBiH companies show that the earnings volatility within the capital structure model defined in this paper does not significantly contribute to the overall prediction. Newman (2010) investigated the determinants of the capital structure of companies in China. He confirmed that the firm size and age are positively related to leverage (short term, long term and total) and that there is no relationship between the asset structure and leverage He also found that profitability is negatively related to capital structure choice. The results for FBiH show that balance-sheet leverage is negatively related to the firm’ assets and profitability but positively related to the firm’ growth. The firm size in FBiH companies was not related to leverage as in China’s companies, while assets show negative relationship with leverage, which was not proven in the China’s case. Harris and Raviv (1991) summarized the results of several studies on capital structure. They found that leverage in general increases with fixed assets, non-debt tax shields, growth opportunities and firm size and decreases with the volatility, advertising expenditures, research and development expenditures, bankruptcy probability, profitability and uniqueness. Some of their determinants are part of the capital structure model in this paper. We find that only higher growth opportunities relates to increased leverage, while the remaining relationships are not proved. Several authors tested the capital structure structural equation model with contradicting results (Titman and Wessels, 1988). Their structural models in entirety prove to be weak, but the results on the relationships between growth and assets with leverage are 194 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �How Micro-Level Determinants Affect the Capital Structure Choice: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina in line with our findings. The results further indicated that only one factor related to managerial-level variables influenced the capital structure of sampled firms. The human capital of owners/managers measured by their experience was found to be negatively related to the leverage of sampled firms. In particular, the data analysis revealed that firms run by a manager with a longer experience tended to have a lower financial leverage than those with less experienced owners/managers. This is in line with previous studies that found a negative influence of managerial experience on the leverage of SMEs (Scherr et al., 1993; Coleman andCohn, 2000; Cassar, 2004). Furthermore, these findings suggest that financiers place greater emphasis on the experience of owners/ managers when making lending decisions than on their educational background. They might also be partly explained by the fact that more experienced owners/managers tend to be more control averse than those with less experience. Conclusions This study is an attempt to identify determinants of capital structure, and develop a plausible model that efficiently discriminates companies with a high and low leverage. The intention was to integrate classical financial theories of the capital structure and personal proxies’ theories in order to create a model that combines the companies’ characteristics with those of decision makers. Both firm and managerial level determinants can be divided into three groups: those which influence the willingness of decision makers to take on debt (risk propensity, control aversion, length of experience), those which influence the firm’s need for debt (profitability, manager’s growth/profit maximization intentions) and those which influence the ability of the firm to take on external debt (length of manager’s experience, managerial network ties, firm-level variables) (Newman, 2010). The study is based on two alternative leverage ratios, the financial leverage ratio and balance-sheet leverage ratio. The findings show that the financial leverage is significantly explained by two independent variables. One of them comes from the traditional financial proxies of capital structure and the other from new theories of personal traits. Companies with a less experienced manager and higher firm growth have a higher financial leverage ratio. Therefore, the level of financial leverage depends on the factors influencing the ability of the firm to access external debt, but also on the factors that influence the firm’s willingness to take on external debt. The collateral value of the assets, return-onassets (ROA) as a profitability indicator, and firm growth opportunities are statistically significant predictors of the balance sheet leverage. The financial proxies of capital structure seem to be significant in explaining the capital structure variance in analyzing the balance sheet leverage. Its level depends on the factors influencing the demand for external debt as well as the factors influencing the firm’s ability to access external debt. Therefore, companies with lower profitability, lower level of fixed assets and higher growth opportunities have higher balance sheet leverage ratios. The results prove that both financial proxies and personal traits are statistically significant predictors of the capital structure. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 195 �Jasmina Mangafić, Danijela Martinović In other words, this suggests that certain commonly observed micro-leveldeterminants that are relevant for explaining capital structure in the developed economies are also relevant in the FBiH. This means that some of the insights from the modern finance theory are applicable to our country despite profound institutional differences that exist between the FBiH and those developed countries. Furthermore, based on the findings we could develop path models for prediction of financial and balance sheet leverage that will probably yield covariance matrices in line with the observed covariance matrices. Such proposed models are presented below. Figure 2. Path Model for Financial and Balance-sheet Leverage In order to verify the model they should be tested in a follow up study. However, explanatory power of the proposed model is expected to be low. We have found a difference between the results achieved when the leverage is defined by total liabilities instead of only financial debt. The determinants within the model related to the balance-sheet leverage can explain a higher percentage of capital structure variance (13.5%) than the determinants explaining the financial leverage (6%). Second, the achieved low explanatory power of leverage determinants is in line with previous studies in transition economies (Joeveer, 2006; Delcoure, 2007). They identified that a number of core determinants are able to explain only about 8% of the variation in leverage if the majority of firms in the sample are unlisted. For the listed firms, about 22% of the variation in leverage is explained by traditional determinants. Of course, the variation explained by traditional determinants in transition economies is lower than in developed economies. This is not surprising because the information asymmetryis higher and observable firm-specific characteristics are not fully reliable from a financial institution’ point of view. Due to the complex number of forces that influence firm relations and managerial activity, capital structure decision is not simply a matter of deterministic, prescriptive principles, but it is, rather, an art, despite all the innovations in financial engineering and changes in the competitive context. It cannot be separated from the intellectual skill of “good” financial managers. Managerial behavioral factors therefore also provide ample opportunities for future research. 196 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �How Micro-Level Determinants Affect the Capital Structure Choice: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina References Albright, S., Winston, W. & Zappe, C. (2006). Data Analysis & Decision Making 3rd ed., Thomson South-Western: Mason, Ohio.USA. Ang, J., Cole, R. & Lawson, D. (2010). 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Social capital, intellectual capital, and the organizational advantage. Academy of Management Review, 23(2), 242–266. Newman, A. (2010). Capital structure determinants of private small and medium-sized enterprises in China, PhD thesis, University of Nottingham. Nguyen, T. & Ramachandran, N. (2006). Capital structure in small and medium-sized enterprises: The case of Vietnam, ASEAN Economic Bulletin, 23(2), 192-211. Norton, E. (1991). Capital structure and small public firms. Journal of Business Venturing, 6(4), 287-303. Ozgen, E. & Baron, R. (2007), Social sources of information in opportunity recognition: Effects of mentors, industry networks, and professional forums. Journal of Business Venturing, 22, 174-192. Rajan, R. & Zingales, L. (1995). What do we know about capital structure? Journal of Finance, 50(5), 1421-1460. 198 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �How Micro-Level Determinants Affect the Capital Structure Choice: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina Romano, C., Tanewski, G. & Kosmas, X. (2000). Capital structure decision making: A model for family business. Journal of Business Venturing, 16(3), 285-310. Scherr, F., Sugrue, T. & Ward, J. (1994). Financing the small firm start-up: Determinants for debt use. Journal of Small Business Finance, 3(1), 17-36. Schutjens, V., & Wever, E. (2005), Determinants of new firm success, Papers in Regional Science, Urban Research Centre Utrecht, Utrecht University, 79, 135–159. Tabachnick, B. & Fidell, L. (2013). Using multivariate statistics 6th ed., Pearson Education. Titman, S. & Wessels, R. (1988). The determinants of capital structure. Journal of Finance, 43(1), 1-19. Van Auken, H. (2005). A model of small firm capital acquisition decisions, International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 1, 335-352. Young, M., Peng, M., Ahlstrom, D., Bruton, G. & Jiang, Y. (2008). Corporate governance in emerging economies: A review of the principal-principal perspective. Journal of Management Studies, 45(1), 198-220. Zhang, G. (2008). The choice of formal or informal finance: Evidence from Chengdu, China. China Economic Review, 19(4), 659-78. Welch, I., (2011). Two common problems in capital structure research: The financial-debt-to-asset ratio and issuing activity versus leverage changes. International Review of Finance, 11(1), 1–17. Wu, W. & Leung, A. (2005). Does a micro-macro link exist between managerial value of reciprocity, social capital and firm performance. Asia-Pacific Journal of Management, 22(4), 445-63. Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) consists of the two entities and one dictrict: the Federation of BiH (FBiH) and the Republika Srpska (RS), as well as of the Brčko District. ii Firmsizebytotalrevenues (ln) and Firmsizebyaveragenumberof employees (ln) i Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 199 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2936 Title A name given to the resource How Micro-Level Determinants Affect the Capital Structure Choice: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author MANGAFIĆ, Jasmina MARTINOVIĆ, Danijela Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: The purpose of this study is to examine two leverage ratios using a sample of non-financial companies in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). It was done by taking into account the joint effect of traditional capital structure determinants and managers' personal values and aspirations. We applied hierarchical regression analysis to determine the contribution of profitability indicators, firm size indicators, assets, growth, networking, managerial strategies, managerial psychology, managerial human capital and earnings volatility to explain the variance in capital structure. The results suggest that companies with less experienced owners/managers and higher firm growth have higher financial leverage ratios. In the analysis of the balance sheet leverage, financial proxies of capital structure seem to be significant in explaining capital structure variance. Therefore, companies with lower profitability, a lower level of fixed assets and higher growth opportunities have higher balance sheet leverage ratios. The findings provide better understanding of theoretical perspectives that can best explain how companies choose their capital structure in the transition economy context. Furthermore, empirical findings should help corporate managers to make optimal capital structure decisions. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ac5df06008b3da2626151da5af3adc31.docx 2b49fbca1c537fb0235597b9cbbbc2ef https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2eb55337d51df036e61ed7a71d2042d6.pdf d0080069eaf93b625d466cd870e32f8d PDF Text Text Stručni članak Mr. sc. Borjana Miković, viši asistent Fakultet političkih nauka Univerziteta u Sarajevu ZAŠTITA PORODICE S DJECOM U SOCIJALNOM ZAKONODAVSTVU FEDERACIJE BOSNE I HERCEGOVINE Sažetak: U radu, shodno odredbama Zakona o osnovama socijalne zaštite, zaštite civilnih žrtava rata i zaštite porodice s djecom FBiH, analizirana su odgovarajuća zakonska rješenja o zaštiti porodice s djecom s posebnim osvrtom na mogućnost praktične primjene ovog instituta. Primjena federalnog Zakona, koji normira da se propisima kantona bliže ureĎuju uvjeti, način, postupak, organi i finansiranje prava porodice s djecom, stvara pretpostavke za diskriminaciju i povećanje siromaštva, posebno socijalno najugroženijih porodica. Ovakav zaključak proizlazi iz činjenice da su u okviru deset kantona FBiH utvrĎeni različiti iznosi osnovica i naknada porodicama s djecom. Uz to, manji broj kantona, ukupno tri, još uvijek nije usvojio kantonalne zakone o zaštiti porodice s djecom, dok pojedini kantoni uopšte ne isplaćuju odreĎene naknade, odnosno u svojim kantonalnim zakonima ne predviĎaju prava koja su porodicama s djecom zagarantovana federalnim Zakonom. Ključne riječi: zaštita porodice s djecom, osnovna prava, Federacija BiH, kantoni, ostvarivanje, nejednakosti. 1. Uvod Državno ureĎenje BiH, dva entiteta i distrikt,1 predstavlja ključnu prepreku i kamen spoticanja za većinu pravnih pitanja koja se, uz ostalo, dotiču socijalno najugroženijih kategorija graĎana i ostvarivanja njihovih osnovnih ljudskih prava. Istovremeno, zahvaljujući ovakvom državnom ureĎenju, BiH je jedna od rijetkih država na svijetu koja ima četrnaest ustava, od kojih su deset kantonalni. Dodatnu teškoću čini i to što je Ustav BiH (dio Dejtonskog mirovnog sporazuma), kao najviši izvor ljudskih prava, odnosno pravni akt s najvećom pravnom snagom, zapravo oktroirani (nametnuti) Ustav, donesen da bi se zaustavio višegodišnji rat iz 90-tih godina prošlog stoljeća, te kao takav i ne ureĎuje neka od osnovnih pitanja graĎana BiH, u koja spada i socijalna zaštita. S druge strane, prava iz socijalne zaštite su tek spomenuta u entitetskim Ustavima, tako da Ustav FBiH propisuje zajedničku nadležnost Federacije i kantona u ovoj oblasti,2 što ima za posljedicu da je zakonsko ureĎenje socijalne zaštite u FBiH 1 Federacija Bosne i Hercegovine (FBiH), koju čini deset kantona i Republika Srpska (RS) te Brčko Distrikt BiH (BD BiH). Federacija BiH je pri tome podijeljena na 10 kantona: Unsko-sanski kanton (USK), Posavski kanton (PK), Tuzlanski kanton (TK), Zeničko-dobojski kanton (ZDK), Bosansko-podrinjski kanton (BPK), Srednjo-bosanski kanton (SBK), Hercegovačko-neretvanski kanton (HNK), Zapadno-hercegovački kanton (HNK), Kanton Sarajevo (KS) i Kanton 10 (K10). 2 Čl. 2. tač. e Ustava FBiH propisuje zajedničku nadležnost Federacije i kantona u socijalnoj politici čiji je neizostavni dio socijalna zaštita. Ustav je dostupan na: 219 �znatno komplikovanije nego u RS i BD. Ovo posebno zbog činjenice što je zakonodavstvo RS-e iz oblasti socijalne zaštite doneseno na nivou entiteta čime su stvorene pretpostavke da svi graĎani, korisnici socijalne zaštite, uživaju ista socijalna prava. Dodatno, u ovom entitetu formiran je i Javni fond za dječju zaštitu RS-e putem kojeg se, izmeĎu ostalog, finansiraju naknade svim porodicama s djecom koje po osnovu zakona na to imaju pravo. Drugim riječima, za razliku od RS-e, gdje je sistem socijalne zaštite centraliziran, u FBiH egzistira decentralizirani sistem socijalne zaštite u kome socijalna davanja zavise od finansijske moći kantona. Na taj način se, primjenom osnovnih prava, utvrĎenih Zakonom o osnovama socijalne zaštite, zaštite civilnih žrtava rata i zaštite porodice s djecom FBiH,3 porodice s djecom dovode u stanje diskriminacije i nejednakosti ne samo zbog ostvarivanja neujednačenih prava, nego i zbog različitih novčanih iznosa naknada po osnovu prava utvrĎenih na nivou kantona. 2. Pojam, cilj i zakonsko uređenje instituta zaštite porodice s djecom Socijalna prava, odnosno prava iz socijalne zaštite su dio ljudskih prava, čiji je ključni cilj zaštita svih članova društva od različitih socijalnih rizika s posebnim naglaskom na zaštitu vulnerabilnih društvenih skupina, koje su i najizloženije riziku od siromaštva. Stoga se primjenom socijalnih prava u društvu očekuje ne samo ublaženje prisutnog siromaštva i nejednakosti, nego i stvaranje jednakih šansi za sve članove društvene zajednice. Budući da je u BiH, kao i u većini drugih tranzicijskih društava, siromaštvo porodice s djecom jedan od dominantno prisutnih problema, zaustavljanje njegovog rasta, smanjenje i prevencija, uz zadržavanje ili podizanje kvalitete porodičnog života, jedan je od prioritetnih zadataka ne samo različitih nivoa vlasti, nego i cjelokupne društvene zajednice. Ovo posebno što posljednji podaci Agencije za statistiku BiH i entitetskih zavoda za statistiku, iz 2011. godine, ukazuju da 177.277 domaćinstava (17,2 % od ukupnog broja domaćinstava), ili 566.025 stanovnika u BiH (17,9 % od ukupnog broja stanovnika), živi u relativnom siromaštvu. Od 100 siromašnih domaćinstava u BiH 58,7 % živi u FBiH, gdje otprilike svako šesto domaćinstvo živi u oskudici. Isti podaci takoĎer govore da u FBiH domaćinstva koja nisu siromašna u prosjeku imaju manji broj članova (3,1 član) od domaćinstava koja su siromašna (3,4 člana), dok je relativno siromaštvo u BiH, poslije jednočlanih domaćinstava, najviše koncentrirano unutar domaćinstava koja imaju 5 ili više članova (stopa siromaštva 21,6 %), a potom, poslije tzv. samačkih domaćinstava osoba starijih od 65 godina, kod bračnih parova s djecom i drugim srodnicima (24,5 %), te kod tzv. samohranih roditelja s drugim srodnicima (20,4 %). Nasuprot navedenom, najmanje stope siromaštva su kod bračnih parova bez djece gdje je nosilac domaćinstva mlaĎi od 65 godina (9,9 %), kod bračnih parova s jednim djetetom (12,7 %), te samačkih domaćinstava s osobama http://www.ustavnisudfbih.ba/bs/dokumenti/ustav_precisceni_tekst.pdf, pristup: 15.03.2015. 3 "Sl. novine FBiH" br. 36/99, 54/04, 39/06 i 14/09. 220 �mlaĎim od 65 godina (13.1 %). U 2011. godini u BiH su djeca mlaĎa od 16. godina živjela u 32,4 % domaćinstava, dok je u FBiH taj procenat veći i iznosi 35,3 %. Približno svako 11. domaćinstvo u BiH u kojem žive djeca mlaĎa od 16 godina ne može djeci osigurati novu odjeću, dva para obuće odgovarajuće veličine, niti obrok od svježeg voća ili povrća bar jednom dnevno. 4 Sve pobrojano ukazuje da porodične potrebe i izazovi danas u BiH zahtijevaju drugačiji pristup, posebno porodici s djecom koja predstavlja garant ne samo društvenog razvoja, nego i opstanka društva uopšte. S tim u vezi uspostava drugačijeg odnosa izmeĎu porodice i države, s naglaskom na veću društvenu zaštitu i osnaživanje uloge porodice u odgoju i podizanju djece putem različitih vrsta društvene pomoći i brige, danas se čini potrebnijom nego ikada prije. Društvena svijest o tome, makar i samo normativno, očito je prisutna i u Zakonu o osnovama socijalne zaštite, zaštite civilnih žrtava rata i zaštite porodice s djecom FBiH, gdje se u glavi četiri (IV), pod naslovom: Zaštita porodice s djecom, posebno odreĎuju: 1) Pojam i cilj instituta zaštite porodice s djecom i 2) Osnovna prava porodice s djecom. Prije normiranja cilja i osnovnih prava porodice s djecom Zakon u svojim odredbama zaštitu porodice s djecom odreĎuje kao „osiguranje porodice kroz materijalna i druga davanja radi pomaganja u podizanju, odgoju i zbrinjavanju djece, kao i njihovom osposobljavanju za samostalan život i rad, u najboljem interesu djeteta“ (čl. 87). Datim odreĎenjem zaštite porodice s djecom u središte društvenog interesa stavlja se socijalna sigurnost porodice, kao osnovna pretpostavka za pravilan rast i razvoj djeteta, odnosno ostvarenje njegovih najboljih interesa. Stoga ovako odreĎenje, pored društvene pomoći porodici u podizanju djece, putem materijalnih i drugih davanja, govori i o svjesnosti društva da sva djeca imaju iste, posebno egzistencijalne potrebe, te da se zaštitom porodice smanjuje i prevenira dječje siromaštvo. Cilj instituta zaštite porodice s djecom, shodno Zakonu (čl. 88), je da se svoj djeci osiguraju približno jednaki uvjeti za zdrav i pravilan tjelesni, intelektualni i emocionalni razvoj u porodici, te potpora u ostvarivanju reproduktivne uloge porodice, kao i njezine uloge u podizanju, odgoju i zaštiti djece, ali i poboljšanju kvaliteta života porodice, uz razvijanje humanih odnosa sukladno načelima graĎanskog morala i solidarnosti. Pored pobrojanog, u istom članu se utvrĎuje da je cilj zaštite porodice s djecom i to da se djetetu bez oba roditelja kao i djetetu koje živi u jednoroditeljskoj porodici, ali i porodici koja ima dijete sa onesposobljenjem, te porodici u kojoj su oba ili jedan roditelj osobe s invaliditetom, osiguraju povoljniji uvjeti u stjecanju i ostvarivanju prava i veći iznosi materijalnih i drugih davanja. Praktična primjena i ostvarivanje navedenih ciljeva instituta zašite porodice s djecom normirana je u Zakonu kroz implementaciju sljedećih osnovnih prava porodice s djecom(čl. 89): 1. dodatak na djecu, 4 Agencija za statistiku BiH, Federalni Zavod za statistiku i Zavod za statistiku RS: Anketa o potrošnji domaćinstva u BiH 2011, Sarajevo, 2013, str. 63 – 6. i 92. 221 �2. naknada umjesto plaće ženi - majci u radnom odnosu, za vrijeme dok odsustvuje s posla radi trudnoće, poroĎaja i njege djeteta, 3. novčana potpora za vrijeme trudnoće i poroĎaja žene - majke koja nije u radnom odnosu, 4. jednokratna potpora za opremu novoroĎenog djeteta, 5. potpora u prehrani djeteta do šest mjeseci i dodatna ishrana za majke - dojilje, 6. posebni psihosocijalni tretman bračnih drugova, koji žele djecu i trudnica, 7. smještaj djece uz osiguranu ishranu u ustanovama predškolskog odgoja, 8. osiguranje jednog obroka u vrijeme nastave u školama osnovne naobrazbe, 9. školarine i stipendije Ďacima i studentima. Pobrojana prava ostvaruju se u okviru kantona, odnosno kantonalnih ministarstava rada i socijalne politike, čija je nadležnost donošenje kantonalnih zakona iz oblasti socijalne zaštite, ali i drugih propisa kojima se bliže odreĎuju uvjeti, način, postupak, uspostava odgovarajućih službi socijalne zaštite (organi) i finansiranje (čl. 90). Uz navedeno, Zakon ostavlja slobodu da kantoni mogu posebnim propisima proširiti krug korisnika socijalne zaštite, odnosno utvrditi druga šira prava porodice s djecom od prava definiranih ovim Zakonom, u skladu s programima razvoja socijalne zaštite i specifičnim prilikama kantona (čl. 12. st. 2). Primjena datih odredaba dovela je do stanja da se danas u FBiH i kantonima FBiH primjenjuje osam zakona iz oblasti socijalne zaštite,5 uz više podzakonskih akata, koji reguliraju osnovna prava propisana federalnim Zakonom. Navedeno dodatno usložnjava i to da su tri kantona (HNK, PK i K10) donijela samo Zakon o socijalnoj zaštiti,6 ali ne i zakon o zaštiti porodice s djecom. Razlog ovakvog stanja vjerovatno treba tražiti u činjenici da federalni Zakon o osnovama socijalne zaštite, zaštite civilnih žrtava rata i zaštite porodice s djecom ne sadrži kaznene odredbe za kantonalna ministarstva i odgovorno lice u ministarstvima u slučajevima kršenja ili nepostupanja prema odredbama ovog Zakona, gdje spada 5 Pored Zakona o osnovama socijalne zaštite, zaštite civilnih žrtava rata i zaštite porodice s djecom FBiH, na području ovog entiteta usvojeno je još sedam kantonalnih zakona s istim nazivom: 1. Zakon o socijalnoj zaštiti, zaštiti civilnih žrtava rata i zaštiti porodice sa djecom, Unskosanski kanton (“Sl. glasnik USK” br. 5/00 i 7/01); 2. Zakon o socijalnoj zaštiti, zaštiti civilnih žrtava rata i zaštiti porodice sa djecom, Tuzlanski kanton („Sl. novine TK“ br. 12/00, 05/02, 13/03, 08/06, 11/09 i 17/11); 3. Zakon o socijalnoj zaštiti, zaštiti civilnih žrtava rata i zaštiti porodice sa djecom, Zeničkodobojski kanton („Sl. novine ZDK“ br. 13/07 i 13/11); 4. Zakon o socijalnoj zaštiti, zaštiti civilnih žrtava rata i zaštiti porodice sa djecom, Bosanskopodrinjski kanton (”Sl. novine BPK Goražde” br. 10/00, 5/03, 5/05, 3/08, 2/13, 12/13 i 4/14); 5. Zakon o socijalnoj zaštiti, zaštiti civilnih žrtava rata i zaštiti porodica sa djecom Srednjobosanskog kantona („Sl. novine SBK“ 10/05, 2/06); 6. Zakon o socijalnoj zaštiti, zaštiti civilnih žrtava rata i zaštiti obitelji sa djecom, Zapadnohercegovački kanton („Sl. novine ZHK“ 16/01, 11/02, 4/04, 9/05); 7. Zakon o osnovama socijalne zaštite, zaštite civilnih žrtava rata i zaštite porodica sa djecom, Kanton Sarajevo („Sl. novine KS“ 16/02, 08/03, 2/06, 21/06, 17/10, 26/12, 15/13 i 18/14); 6 Kantonalni zakoni u kojima nije normirana zaštita porodice s djecom su: 1. Zakon o socijalnoj skrbi, Hercegovačko-neretvanski kanton („Sl. novine HNK“ br. 3/05); 2. Zakon o socijalnoj skrbi, Kanton 10 („Narodne novine K10“ br. 5/98); 3. Zakon o socijalno zaštiti, Posavski kanton („Narodne novine PK“ br. 5/04 i 07/09). 222 �i nedonošenje kantonalnih propisa kojima se preciznije regulišu način, uvjeti, postupak i finansiranje osnovnih prava porodice s djecom. Dodatni problem čini i to da su u FBiH nadležnost i nadzor u provoĎenju socijalne zaštite rascjepkani izmeĎu više institucija na različitim nivoima vlasti. Tako je, pored činjenice što Ustav BiH propisuje zajedničku nadležnost FBiH i kantona u socijalnoj zaštiti, Ministarstvo rada i socijalne politike FBiH nadležno, uz ostalo, za planiranje i programiranje, donošenje zakona iz ove oblasti te koordiniranje socijalne zaštite izmeĎu kantona. S druge strane, kantoni, odnosno nadležna kantonalna ministarstva socijalne politike nadležni su za provoĎenje socijalne zaštite, donošenje kantonalnih zakona iz ove oblasti i formiranje službi socijalne zaštite. Kantoni takoĎer, u skladu s odredbama federalnog Zakona, mogu donositi posebne propise iz oblasti socijalne zaštite, odnosno zaštite porodice s djecom, ali i proširiti obim prava koja se ostvaruju u kantonu u odnosu na prava utvrĎena federalnim Zakonom. Postojeće stanje, u kojem se federalnim Zakonom utvrĎena osnovna prava porodice s djecom na području FBiH ostvaruju različito, u zavisnosti od toga kako je to kantonalnim zakonodavstvom normirano, ali i u zavisnosti od vrste prava, još više usložnjava prisutnost velikih razlika u visini planiranih budžetskih sredstava za ove namjene. Uz navedeno, dodatnu teškoću čini i to što su sve naknade socijalne pomoći u FBiH, uključujući i naknade vezane za osnovna prava porodice s djecom, većinom zasnovane na pravu, a ne na potrebama, što nerijetko ima za posljedicu da su najsiromašnije porodice s djecom zapravo najmanje zaštićene. To se posebno odnosi na kantone gdje se pojedina ili većina federalnim Zakonom propisanih prava uopšte ne ostvaruje ili se ostvaruje minimalno. S druge strane, mogućnost normirana federalnim Zakonom da kantoni u svojim zakonima prošire obim postojećih prava porodice s djecom, zbog loše finansijske situacije u pojedinim kantonima, pretvara se u svoju suprotnost, odnosno vrši se smanjivanje obima prava utvrĎenih federalnim Zakonom. Ovo je izrazito prisutno u kantonima koji su donijeli samo zakon o socijalnoj zaštiti, a ne i zakon o zaštiti porodica s djecom, obzirom da se u tim kantonima, ukoliko se uopšte i ostvaruju, prava porodice s djecom većinom regulišu odlukama vlada kantona. Ovako stanje takoĎer neminovno dovodi do značajnih nejednakosti u ostvarivanju osnovnih prava porodice s djecom u pojedinim kantonima. 3. Nejednakosti u ostvarivanju osnovnih prava porodice s djecom Uz zakonske neujednačenosti, u ostvarivanju osnovnih prava porodice s djecom posebnu teškoću, s predznakom diskriminacije, predstavljaju i prepreke vezane za obezbjeĎenje finansijskih sredstava u budžetima kantona u odnosu na visinu, planiranje i raspodjelu sredstava namijenjenih zaštiti porodice. To takoĎer za posljedicu ima prisustvo nejednakosti, posebno u dostupnosti, visini i redovnosti isplate naknada porodici s djecom po kantonima. Ovo tim prije što jedan manji broj kantona, iako u kantonalne zakone nisu preuzeli sva prava porodice s djecom iz federalnog Zakona, npr. KS i BPK, raspolaže budžetom 223 �koji omogućava ostvarivanje osnovnih prava porodice s djecom, predviĎenih kantonalnim zakonima o socijalnoj zaštiti. U drugim kantonima budžetska sredstva za ove namjene su mahom nedostatna, što ima za posljedicu da je redovna isplata naknada porodici s djecom uvjetovana smanjivanjem visine naknada, npr. ZDK,7 ili enormnim kašnjenjem njihove isplate i to u prosjeku oko tri mjeseca u većini kantona, pa čak i do jedne godine, npr. ZHK, ili USK gdje je posljednja naknada za zaposlene i nezaposlene porodilje, zaključno sa 03.12.2013. godine, isplaćena za mjesec maj 2013. godine. 8 Tabela 1: Ostvarivanje osnovnih prava porodice s djecom po kantonima u 2013. godini Osnovna Ostvarivanje prava po kantonima prava US P T ZD BP SB HN ZH K K1 porodice s K K K K K K K K S 0 djecom Dodatak na djecu Ne Ne Da Da Da Da Ne Ne Da Ne Naknada, umjesto plaće, ženi majci u radnom odnosu, za Da vrijeme dok odsustvuje sa posla radi trudnoće, poroĎaja i njege djeteta Novčana pomoć za vrijeme trudnoće i Da poroĎaja žene-majke koja nije u rad. odnosu 7 Ne Da Da Da Da Ne Da Da Da Da Da Da Da Da Ne Da Da Da Prema Uputstvu o načinu utvrĎivanja i trebovanja novčanih naknada korisnicima prava iz socijalne zaštite i zaštite porodice sa djecom, broj: 09-14-4034-3/13, od 08.05.2013. godine, iznos novčane naknade propisan zakonom smanjen je za 10 %. 8 Izvještaj o radu JU Centar za socijalni rad Velika Kladuša za 2013. godinu sa Izvještajem o radu upravnog odbora, Velika Kladuša, 2014, str. 3, dostupno na stranici: http://www.czsrvelikakladusa.ba/attachments/article/110/IZVJE%C5%A0TAJ%20O%20RADU%202013. pdf, pristup: 01.03.2015. 224 �Jednokratna pomoć za opremu Ne Ne Ne Da Da Da Da Da Da Da novoroĎenog djeteta Pomoć u prehrani djeteta do šest mjeseci i Ne Ne Da Da Da Da Ne Ne Da Da dodatna ishrana za majke – dojilje Poseban psihosocijalni tretman bračnih drugova koji žele djecu i trudnica Smještaj djece uz osiguranu ishranu u Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Da Ne ustanovama predškolskog odgoja Osiguranje jednog obroka u vrijeme Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne nastave u školama osnovnog obrazovanja Školarine i stipendije Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Ďacima i studentima. Dodatna/drug Ne Ne Da Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne Ne a prava Izvor: Izvještaji i informacije o radu kantonalnih ministarstava za 2013. godinu. Analizom prezentiranih podataka dolazi se do zaključka da se u najvećem broju ostvaruje pravo na novčanu pomoć za vrijeme trudnoće i poroĎaja žene – 225 �majke koja nije u radnom odnosu i to u svim kantonima, izuzev HNK-a, iako je visina naknade, ali i vremensko trajanje ostvarivanja ovog prava od kantona do kantona različito.9 Naknadu umjesto plaće ženi - majci u radnom odnosu za vrijeme dok odsustvuje s posla radi trudnoće, poroĎaja i njege djeteta isplaćuju svi kantoni, izuzev PK i HNK. Ova naknada se isplaćuje u različitim iznosima, po stopi od 50 – 100 % prosječne plate žene majke, ostvarene unazad jednog do devet mjeseci prije poroĎaja, ili prosječne plate kantona, odnosno FBiH. Većina kantona u svojim zakonima, odnosno odlukama sadrži i odredbu da naknada plaće ženi – majci u radnom odnosu ne može biti manja od najniže plate FBiH koja se obračunava u skladu s Odlukom Vlade FBiH o najnižoj neto satnici pomnoženoj sa 176 sati na mjesečnom nivou. Prisutne razlike u ostvarivanju ovog prava od kantona do kantona konkretno prikazuju manjkavosti federalnog Zakona, označene prisutnom diskriminacijom u njegovoj praktičnoj primjeni.10 Jednokratna pomoć za opremu novoroĎenog djeteta je pravo koje se ne ostvaruje u tri kantona (USK, PK i TK), s tim da u preostalih sedam kantona visina pomoći varira u iznosu od 108 – 500 KM. Prisutne razlike se ogledaju i u tome što ZHK ovu pomoć daje ne samo majkama koje su nezaposlene (500 KM), nego i majkama koje su zaposlene (300 KM). Pravo na pomoć u prehrani djeteta do 6 mjeseci i dodatna ishrana za majke dojilje realizira se u šest kantona (TK, ZDK, BPK, SBK, KS i K10), s tim da se visina ove pomoći, u kantonima gdje se isplaćuje, kreće u rasponu od 72 KM (ZDK) do 210 KM (KS). 9 Prema podacima dobijenim u neposrednom kontaktu sa nadležnim kantonalnim ministarstvima, kao i na osnovu analize njihovih izvještaja o radu, u 2013. godini, najprisutnije neujednačenosti po kantonima u primjeni prava na novčanu pomoć za žene – majke koje nisu u radnom odnosu su sljedeće: Dva kantona (USK i ZHK) isplaćuju jednokratnu pomoć u iznosu od 100 KM. Za razliku od ovih kantona, K10 isplaćuje isti iznos pomoći, 100 KM, i to u 2013. godini u trajanju od 6 mjeseci, a u 2014. u trajanju od jedne godine. U ZDK ova pomoć iznosi 150 KM, jednokratno. Isti iznos, 150 KM, isplaćuje se i u PK, ali u trajanju od 6 mjeseci. KS ovu vrstu pomoći je do 27.06. 2014. godine isplaćivao u iznosu od 120 KM, a od tog datuma ženama – majkama koje su nezaposlene ili se nalaze na redovnom školovanju, isplaćuje se iznos od 180 KM. BPK novčanu pomoć ženi majci koja nije u radnom odnosu isplaćuje u iznosu od 150KM. U TK pomoć za žene - majke koje nisu u radnom odnosu iznosi 15 % od prosječne plate Kantona. U SBK ova vrsta novčane pomoći je jednokratni iznos, 35% prosječne plate Kantona, ali samo za žene-majke čije je dijete ostvarilo pravo na dječiji dodatak. 10 Najdrastičniji primjeri nejednakosti/diskriminacije u ostvarivanju prava na naknadu, umjesto plaće ženi- majci u radnom odnosu koja je na porodiljskom odsustvu je da žene - majke zaposlene u institucijama BiH, u skladu sa čl. 36. st. 1 Zakona o radu u institucijama BiH („Sl. glasnik BiH“, br. 206/04, 7/05, 48/05 i 60/10), imaju pravo na mjesečnu nadoknadu za vrijeme trudnoće, poroĎaja i njege djeteta, odnosno na porodiljsko odsustvo u trajanju od 12 mjeseci neprekidno. Odlukom o načinu i postupku ostvarivanja prava na naknadu za porodiljsko odsustvo u institucijama BiH („Sl. glasnik BiH“, br. 95/10) utvrĎeno je da zaposleni u institucijama BiH na porodiljskom odsustvu ima pravo na mjesečnu naknadu u visini prosječne neto plate koju je ostvario u toku posljednja tri mjeseca prije otpočinjanja porodiljskog odsustva. 226 �Navedeni pokazatelji upućuju na zaključak da se u najvećem broju kantona ostvaruju tzv. kratkotrajna prava koja su limitirana odreĎenim privremenim stanjem/potrebom korisnika, te su kao takva i vezana za ograničeni vremenski period. U prilog ovom zaključku govori i to da se dječji dodatak isplaćuje samo u pet kantona i to: TK, ZDK, BPK, SBK i KS. Pravo na smještaj djece uz osiguranu ishranu u ustanovama predškolskog odgoja ostvaruje se samo u KS, dok se preostala dva prava, osiguranje jednog obroka u vrijeme nastave u školama osnovnog obrazovanja i pravo na školarinu i stipendiju Ďacima i studentima, ne ostvaruju niti u jednom kantonu. Dodatna/druga prava, normirana čl. 90 federalnog Zakona, ostvaruju se samo u TK i to jedno pravo: subvencioniranje troškova prevoza djece, učenika i studenata za školsku 2013/14. godinu. Prisutne neujednačenosti, kako u ostvarivanju prava porodice s djecom, tako i u preuzimanju tih prava iz federalnog u kantonalne zakone, djelimično su uvjetovane i neodgovarajućom/nepreciznom terminologijom, obzirom da se u skupu normiranih prava, uz tzv. klasična prava, nalazi i dio usluga iz oblasti socijalne zaštite. Primjer za to je „pravo na posebni psihosocijalni tretman bračnih drugova koji žele djecu i trudnica“, koje se ne nalazi niti u jednom izvještaju o radu kantonalnih ministarstava. Ovo vjerovatno zbog toga što primjena ovog prava u pravilu zahtijeva usluge socijalnog i drugog stručnog rada, odnosno angažman različitih profila stručnjaka zaposlenih u ustanovama socijalne zaštite, npr. porodično savjetovalište, centra za socijalni rad itd. Uz navedeno dodatnu teškoću u analizi ostvarivanja načina i mogućnosti prava porodice s djecom u FBiH čini i to što se jedan dio ovih prava, npr. smještaj djece uz osiguranu ishranu u ustanovama predškolskog odgoja, osiguranje jednog obroka u vrijeme nastave u školama osnovnog obrazovanja i pravo na školarinu i stipendiju Ďacima i studentima, finansira i ostvaruje na opštinskom nivou, pa su shodno tome i podaci prezentirani u tabeli br. 1 nepotpuni. Potvrdu za ovu tvrdnju nalazimo u činjenici da Federalno Ministarstvo rada i socijalne politike raspolaže podacima o broju korisnika, osnovnih prava porodice s djecom na području FBiH u 2012. godini (tab. br. 2), što takoĎer govori o prisutnim nedosljednostima u primjeni federalnog Zakona na kantonalnom nivou. 227 �Tabela br. 2: Broj korisnika prava porodice s djecom u FBiH u 2012. godini Osnovna prava porodice s djecom Broj korisnika Dodatak na djecu 74.178 Naknada, umjesto plaće, ženi - majci u radnom odnosu, 7.282 za vrijeme dok odsustvuje sa posla radi trudnoće, poroĎaja i njege djeteta Novčana pomoć za vrijeme trudnoće i poroĎaja žene - 4.875 majke koja nije u radnom odnosu Jednokratna pomoć za opremu novoroĎenog djeteta 3.673 Pomoć u prehrani djeteta do šest mjeseci i dodatna 1.764 ishrana za majke – dojilje Smještaj djece uz osiguranu ishranu u ustanovama 596 predškolskog odgoja Osiguranje jednog obroka u vrijeme nastave u školama 110 osnovnog obrazovanja Školarine i stipendije Ďacima i studentima. 938 Izvor: FMRSP, mart 2014, prema: Vijeće ministara BiH, Izvještaj o razvoju BiH za 2013. godinu, Sarajevo, 2014, str. 65. Podaci prezentirani u tabeli br. 2 nedvosmisleno pokazuju da se u FBiH od svih prava porodice s djecom koja su propisana federalnim Zakonom, u najvećem broju, iako samo u pet ili 50 % od ukupnog broja kantona, ostvaruje pravo na dječji dodatak, dok je pravo na osiguranje jednog obroka u vrijeme nastave u školama osnovnog obrazovanja najmanje zastupljeno. Navedeno, još jednom potvrĎuje ranije da različitost primjene zakonskih propisa po kantonima dovodi do drastičnih nejednakosti u ostvarivanju osnovnih prava porodice s djecom, i to tako da najsiromašnije porodice, posebno one koje žive u tzv. „siromašnim“ kantonima, imaju najmanje mogućnosti da ta prava i ostvare. 3.1. Nejednakosti u ostvarivanju prava na dodatak na djecu Pravo na dodatak na djecu, kao jedno od osnovnih prava porodice s djecom, prema odredbama federalnog Zakona (čl. 91), pripada porodici čiji ukupni mjesečni prihod ostvaren po svim osnovama, izuzev primanja ostvarenih iz socijalne zaštite i zaštite porodice s djecom, po članu domaćinstva ne prelazi iznos koji je utvrĎen propisom kantona kao najniži iznos prihoda dostatnih za izdržavanje. Istim Zakonom (čl. 88. st. 2), normirano je i to da se djetetu bez oba ili jednog roditelja, te porodici koja ima dijete s invaliditetom, kao i porodici u kojoj su oba ili jedan roditelj osobe s invaliditetom osiguravaju povoljniji uvjeti u sticanju i ostvarivanju ovog prava, kao i veći iznosi naknada. Zakon takoĎer propisuje da djeca mlaĎa od 18 godina, odnosno do 25. godina ukoliko su na redovnom školovanju/studenti imaju pravo na dječji dodatak. Nejednakosti u ostvarivanju prava na dječji dodatak, kao i kod ostvarivanja svih drugih prava porodice s djecom, zapravo su uvjetovane odredbama entitetskog Zakona o osnovama socijalne zaštite, zaštite civilnih žrtava rata i 228 �zaštite porodice s djecom FBiH. To se prvenstveno odnosi na već citiranu odredbu kojom se kantonima daje mogućnost da sami u svojim propisima utvrde najniži iznos prihoda porodice dovoljan za izdržavanje. Upravo ovako odreĎenje, obzirom na različite finansijske mogućnosti kantona, dovodi do utvrĎivanja različitih mjesečnih iznosa prihoda porodice po članu domaćinstva, kao uvjeta za ostvarivanje prava na dječji dodatak (najčešće 15% od prosječne plate u kantonu), odnosno različitih iznosa dječjeg dodatka (u prosjeku 5% prosječne plate kantona). Tabela br. 3: Iznos imovinskog cenzusa, dodatka na djecu i uvećanog dodatka na djecu po kantonima za 2013. godinu Dodatak na djecu po kantonima U FBiH TK ZDK BPK SBK KS Imovinski 7% od 15 % od 15 % od 15 % od 20 % od cenzus pros. pros. plate pros. plate pros. plate pros. plate plate Kan. Kan. Kan. Kan. Kan. Dodatak na 20 KM 11,7 KM 29 KM 29 KM 33KM djecu . Uvećani 50 KM 21,60 KM 43,5 KM / 49,5 KM dodatak na djecu Izvor: Izvještaji i informacije o radu kantonalnih ministarstava za 2013. godinu Iznosi: Iz analize prezentiranih podataka vidljivo je da se iznosi dječjeg dodatka u pet kantona FBiH, koji su stvorili pretpostavke za ostvarivanje ovog prava, kreću od 11,7 KM (ZDK) do 33 KM (KS). TakoĎer, navedeni pokazatelji nedvosmisleno ukazuju i na činjenicu da se time što federalni Zakon omogućava da kantoni sami, u zavisnosti od prosječne plate ostvarene na nivou kantonu, odreĎuju mjesečni najniži prihod po članu domaćinstva dovoljan za izdržavanje kao i iznos dječjeg dodatka, zapravo ozakonjuje prisutna diskriminacija i nepoštivanje najboljih interesa djeteta. To se odnosi i na tzv. uvećani dodatak na djecu, zasnovan na Zakonom utvrĎenom pravu izrazito vulnerabilnih skupina djece i roditelja s invaliditetom, kao i djece koja su bez jednog ili oba roditelja, gdje se iznosi ovog oblika dječjeg dodatka kreću u rasponu od 0 (BPK) do 50 KM (TK). Ovakvo stanje, ne samo u oblasti zakonodavstva, nego i u njegovoj implementaciji, je u suprotnosti s općeprihvaćenim društvenim standardima prisutnim u različitim zemljama, meĎu koje spadaju i Bosni i Hercegovini susjedne zemlje, gdje je, bez obzira na cenzus za sticanje prava na odreĎenu beneficiju, dječji dodatak standardiziran i isti za sve, tako da postoji jedna konzistentna mjera za ocjenu „sredstava“ i jedinstven način registracije podnositelja zahtjeva.11 11 Svjetska Banka: Socijalna davanja u Bosni i Hercegovini: Kreiranje održivog sistema socijalne zaštite zasnovanog na stvarnim potrebama, Sarajevo, 2009, str. 26. 229 �Uz navedeno, zakonska odredba da se u ukupnim prihodima kod utvrĎivanja cenzusa za ostvarivanje prava na dječji dodatak izuzimaju primanja ostvarena iz socijalne zaštite, koliko god namjera zakonodavca bila na prvi pogled ispravna i u najboljim interesima porodice s djecom, takoĎer se može makar djelimično smatrati diskriminirajućom, jer se njenom primjenom u praksi najsiromašnije porodice s djecom nerijetko dovode u neravnopravan položaj. Ovdje se posebno misli na činjenicu da su naknade za pojedine kategorije korisnika socijalne zaštite za naše uvjete izrazito visoke, npr. lična invalidnina i dodatak za njegu i pomoć od strane drugog lica ratnim vojnim invalidima. Kako je osnovica za odreĎivanje ova dva prava 734 KM,12 a raspodjela sredstava zavisi od kategorije u koju ratni vojni invalid spada, onda je moguće zaključiti da su naknade, posebno siromašnim porodicama s djecom, koje žive u isto tako siromašnim kantonima, neuporedivo manje, a pravo na dječji dodatak imaju i jedni i drugi, s tim da porodicama u kojima su oba ili jedan roditelj osobe s invaliditetom, prema Zakonu, treba osigurati povoljnije uvjete u sticanju i ostvarivanju ovog prava. Drugim riječima ove porodice imaju pravo na tzv. uvećani dodatak na djecu. Stoga je neophodno sva novčana davanja/pomoć porodici s djecom, gdje spada i dječji dodatak, temeljiti isključivo na potrebama korisnika, a ne na pravima i statusu korisnika.13 Navedeno stanje je u suprotnosti i sa, u federalnom Zakonu, utvrĎenim ciljevima zaštite porodice s djecom, čija je osnovna pretpostavka ostvarivanje osnovnih prava porodice s djecom kako bi se poboljšalo njihovo materijalno stanje i na taj način smanjio rizik ili ublažilo postojeće siromaštvo. Na istom tragu je i kontinuirano provoĎenje ankete o potrošnji domaćinstava u BiH, Agencije za statistiku BiH i entitetskih zavoda za statistiku, s ciljem pravljenja procjene i utvrĎivanja ključnih karakteristika siromaštva, ali i kristaliziranja broja siromašnih domaćinstava u koje spadaju i domaćinstva s djecom. Pokazatelji dobiveni ovim putem trebaju, uz ostalo, poslužiti i za to da se najsiromašnijim domaćinstvima pruži odgovarajuća društvena pomoć i umanji prisutno siromaštvo. Problemi u primjeni prava porodice s djecom u svim izvještajima različitih organa vlasti većinom se vežu za nedostatak finansijskih sredstava, iako država BiH na novčana davanja za socijalnu pomoć troši 4,6 % bruto domaćeg proizvoda, što je, prema mišljenju Svjetske Banke i OSCE-a, svrstava meĎu „najveće potrošače u regionu Europe i Centralne Azije“, odnosno „u red najvećih potrošača u smislu rashoda za socijalnu zaštitu“.14 S druge strane, ono u čemu se svi, od naučne javnosti do meĎunarodnih organizacija, slažu, je to da ključni problem predstavlja raspodjela izdvojenih sredstava za socijalnu pomoć, jer se tri četvrtine isplaćuje boračkim kategorijama i njihovim porodicama, a ostatak - nešto više od 1% bruto društvenog proizvoda, za tradicionalnu funkciju 12 Zakon o pravima branilaca i članova njihovih porodica, čl. 12, „Sl. Novine FBiH“, br, 33/04, 70/07. 13 V. opširnije: Habul, U, Socijalna zaštita u Bosni i Hercegovini – Tranzicija, zakonodavstvo, praksa , Fakultet političkih nauka, Sarajevo, 2007, str. 19. 14 Svjetska banka 2009: 9, OSCE 2012: 8, prema: Unicef, Analiza nedostataka u oblasti politika socijalne zaštite i inkluzije u BiH, Sarajevo, 2013, str. 18 i 19. 230 �socijalne pomoći,15 gdje spada i zaštita porodice s djecom. Stoga se s puno osnova može reći da je BiH jedna od zemalja koja najmanje troši na socijalnu pomoć u njenoj tradicionalnoj funkciji, što neminovno ima za posljedicu probleme u ostvarivanju osnovnih prava porodice s djecom, čija je primjena dodatno uvjetovana zakonskim svoĎenjem socijalne zaštite na kantonalni nivo i različitim finansijskim mogućnostima kantona. 15 Ibid, str. 18. 231 �Mr. Sc. Borjana Miković, Senior Assistant Faculty of Political Sciences, University of Sarajevo PROTECTION OF FAMILIES WITH CHILDREN WITHIN SOCIAL LEGISLATION IN FEDERATION OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA Summary: In this paper, according to the provisions of the Law on Social Protection, Protection of Civilian War Victims and Families with Children, were analyzed the appropriate legal provisions on protection of families with children with special focus on the practical implications of this institute. With a particular reference to the provisions of the Law on Social Protection, Protection of Civilian War Victims and Families with Children of FBiH, the present paper looks at specific legal instruments for the protection of families with children and its implementation. Evidently, the implementation of the Federal Law which stipulates the right of the cantonal authorities to enact detailed regulations of the conditions, methods, procedures, institutions and financing of rights of families with children, creates an ambient conducive to discrimination and rise of poverty. This concerns in particular the most vulnerable families. This conclusion is based on factual evidence which shows that the ten cantons of FBiH have established practices of different levels of benefits for families with children. In addition, in three out of ten cantons, the respective authorities did not adopt specific cantonal regulations on the protection of families with children. Moreover, evidence shows that certain cantons do not provide certain benefits, that is to say that cantonal legislation does not provide fulfillment of rights families with children guaranteed by Federal Law. Keywords: protection of families with children, fundamental rights, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, cantons, implementation, inequality. 232 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2998 Title A name given to the resource ZAŠTITA PORODICE S DJECOM U SOCIJALNOM ZAKONODAVSTVU FEDERACIJE BOSNE I HERCEGOVINE Author Author MIKOVIĆ, Borjana Abstract A summary of the resource. U radu, shodno odredbama Zakona o osnovama socijalne zaštite, zaštite civilnih žrtava rata i zaštite porodice s djecom FBiH, analizirana su odgovarajuća zakonska rješenja o zaštiti porodice s djecom s posebnim osvrtom na mogućnost praktične primjene ovog instituta. Primjena federalnog Zakona, koji normira da se propisima kantona bliže uređuju uvjeti, način, postupak, organi i finansiranje prava porodice s djecom, stvara pretpostavke za diskriminaciju i povećanje siromaštva, posebno socijalno najugroženijih porodica. Ovakav zaključak proizlazi iz činjenice da su u okviru deset kantona FBiH utvrđeni različiti iznosi osnovica i naknada porodicama s djecom. Uz to, manji broj kantona, ukupno tri, još uvijek nije usvojio kantonalne zakone o zaštiti porodice s djecom, dok pojedini kantoni uopšte ne isplaćuju određene naknade, odnosno u svojim kantonalnim zakonima ne predviđaju prava koja su porodicama s djecom zagarantovana federalnim Zakonom. Ključne riječi: zaštita porodice s djecom, osnovna prava, Federacija BiH, kantoni, ostvarivanje, nejednakosti. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Law faculty of University Džemal Bijedić Mostar Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),K Law (General) https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/92ee658a7b89470eb44e2ced34a9864e.pdf 2d28f92a8c2271070cae8086cc6aad49 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Academic Writing Proficiency: The Role Of Academic Writing Instruction In Efl Preparatory Programs Ryan Mcdonald & Hannah Murtagh Koç University, Turkey Submitted: 19.06.2014. Accepted: 22.11.2014. Abstract In studies of writing, linguistic proficiency has been assumed to play an important factor contributing to writing proficiency (Raimes, 1987; Bereiter&Scardamalia, 1987; Hayes 1996). Additional factors such as “cognitive” processes (i.e. planning and reviewing) (Ellis, 2005), memory (McCutchen, 1996, Alamargot&Chanquoi, 2001), and the matter of the quality of writing and lexical fluency (Van Gelderen&Oostdam; 2002, 2004) and error correction (Ferris & Roberts, 2001; Ferris;1999, 2002, 2004) have been among the focus areas. This study examines whether instruction in a university preparatory EFL program increases the quality of writing. A typical criticism from university academic writing classes often argues that short preparatory programs do not produce able, coherent, and proficient writers as preparatory reading and writing programs face the dual challenge of integrated skills instruction as well as covering many of the conventions of academic writing. In an effort to evaluate the effects of teaching academic writing within an EFL preparatory program, this research aims to compare the quality of writing within two groups of students, low level EFL students (preintermediate and intermediate levels) after a two-three semester program against students whose initial fluency was significantly higher at the time of university entry (direct-entry students with an IELTS 6.5 equivalency or higher). To this aim, four factors which are readability, lexical density, coherence and grammar complexity in 50 essays have been examined quantitatively. In this presentation, we aim to highlight implications of the findings for academic writing instruction at EFL university settings and for the broader context academic programs in EFL context. Our findings indicate that EFL students graduating from the ELC score well below their direct-entry peers in a number of categories. Keywords: linguistic proficiency, EFL program, instructions, integreted skills Introduction Our students are as diverse as their needs, and as Raime’s (1991) noted, “there is no such thing as a generalized EFL student” (p. 420). Students arrive in our classrooms from a variety of heterogeneous contexts, which adds an additional dimension of difficulty to an already challenging situation. However, that does not mean we are reduced to helplessness. Ferris and Hedgecock( 1998) remind us that “there are ways of identifying, categorizing, and working with these multiple variables” (p. 14). Teachers often rely on their instincts, rubrics, and checklists to determine the overall quality of student writing, but this can only provide a limited (and arguably biased) approach to assessment (Rezaei, A. R., &Lovorn, M. 2010). As EFL preparatory teachers, we are concerned about our students’ writing ability in relation to their peers. The question then becomes more about how to assess the quality of writing and the ability of the student. Rather than focus on ways to improve qualitative analysis, this study attempts to eliminate subjectivity and analytically evaluate student papers quantitatively. We are aware of the challenges of quantifying a skill that is arguably qualitative in nature, and it’s not unusual to find that students’ levels of proficiency differ from their writing ability (Raimes, 1985). However, our university is relatively new (20 years) with an expanding EFL program. There has been a reworking of past EFL curriculum to focus more on integration and production skills with common end 247 �How to Build an English Clause goals for all students graduating from the English Language Center (ELC). Upon graduating from the ELC, these students have to compete alongside direct-entry students who have greater faculty with English. Therefore, research is needed to determine if and where students graduating from the ELC are falling short of their direct-entry peers, and what we, as educators, can do to marginalize those inequalities. This study focused on two major questions: 1: Is there value in quantifying the quality of student compositions after graduation from the ELC preparatory program? 2: What does the data suggest about the preparedness of our students when they graduate (in terms of readability, lexical density, coherence, and grammar complexity) and what still needs to be improved? While we attempted to stay focused on these two areas, we did occasionally find useful or interesting data that varied slightly from our original goals. Methods & Procedures Data Collection The participants in this study were 50 EFL college students,typically 17-19 years old, enrolled in Academic Writing at a private Turkish university. They were selected based on a several control factors. Direct entry students – a “control group” – comprised of 13 students who learned English outside the university (typically in high school or international school settings) and directly entered the university (bypassing the ELC) with a TOEFL IB test of 80 or greater or an academic IELTS score of 6.5 or greater. These students took the Academic Writing class in their first semester of university. The second student group was chosen based on their successful completion of the ELC and consisted of two sub-groups; 13 pre-intermediate students and 24 intermediate students. Both groups were chosen based on the following factors: they had all successfully completed the program (none of the participants had dropped out during the semester to participate in outside preparatory English classes) in 2-3 semesters (Fall, Spring, and Summer semesters of 2012-13), they all participated in the Academic Writing class during the first semester of their first academic year (2014), and they had all entered the university directly after leaving the ELC, meaning they did not take a semester or year of leave (this does not include the summer semester if they had passed out after semester two). All students were enrolled in ACWR 101 with five instructors and nine classes. The student’s papers were chosen based on their first written drafts in response to an academic article and discussions taken place during class time. The topics of the articles and papers showed significant variety. It should be noted that G1 will from this point refer to students who started the preparatory program at pre-intermediate level students; G2 at the intermediate level; and G3 as students directly entering the university. Data Analysis The data was viewed based on several factors: readability, lexical density, coherence and grammar complexity, and each shall be observed separately. *Note on parametric values:The research data gathered was run through the program for Statistical Analysis in Social Sciences (SPSS) and tested for validity using the Shapiro-Wilk test of normality and 248 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics a Q-Q plot for additional verification. Data that was found not to be parametric was considered for further thought, but will be noted as non- parametric; unless otherwise noted, all data can be assumed normal according to these measurements. Readability Considering readability, this project viewed several sub-groups, including words per sentence, passive sentence use, academic vocabulary word use, Flesch Reading Ease, and the Flesch Kincaid Grade Level. 249 �How to Build an English Clause Vocabulary Usage Students need to have a wide range of disposable vocabulary in order to be confident users of language. While grammar can be understood as the framework of language, educators understand that grammar is an arbitrary and meaningless construct without vocabulary (Dagut, 1977; Laufer, 1990; Meara 1996). It is also well documented that students often consider vocabulary as one of the primary barriers to communication and comprehension (Raims, 1985; Spack 1988;). This research looked at the rate in which ELC students used frequent and academic vocabulary in relation to the direct-entry students. Our primary concern was whether or not our students were using the vocabulary we were teaching them. Over the course of a year, G1 and G2 students were provided with explicit instruction on as many of the Coxhead570 semantic fields as possible, placing emphasis on academic vocabulary, while addressing frequent words as they arise. In terms of vocabulary usage, this study focused on three subgroups, K1 (1-1000), K2 (1001-2000), and the Academic Word List, as measured by Lextutor.Surprisingly, the data showed that student starting proficiency levels did not significantly influencevocabulary.Regardless of the slight mean average difference between the groups, the percentage of common and academic words did not vary greatly between the three groups. All three groups ranged from 74.7 – 77.6 percent of words on the K1 list; 4.5-5.9 on the K2 list;and 6.6 – 8.5 percent on the AWL. Similarly, the range in ability within these groups did not significantly differ. Sentence Length In order to gain a general idea of how well students were able to write, in terms of complex and compound sentences, the study briefly surveyed sentence length using Microsoft Word. Although this is useful for an overview, in is by no means conclusive on the level or accuracy of the sentence structure. This quick analysis does not validate grammar use, nor does it check for run-on sentences. However, the study found a statistically significant difference between the ability to write more words per sentence and the starting English level. Students from the G1 level were writing a mean average of 15 words per sentence (wps), while G2 were writing at 20wps, and G3 at 23 wps. Additionally, the range of sentence length decreased significantly (18, 11, 12 respectively) between the lower and advanced starting level as well. 250 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Flesch Reading Ease and Flesch Kincaid Grade Level Using the Flesch Reading Ease scores and FleschKincaide Grade Level, as calculated in Microsoft Word, this study compared the reading difficulty between the three groups of students. The results confirmed our suspicion that students starting in G3 had an advantage over the G1 and G2 students. Regarding the Flesch Reading Ease, while the average mean for students in G1 & G2 was very similar, there was a statistically significant variance between the G1 – G3, G2 – G2 average means (see Chart 1 & Chart 2 below). Chart 2 Chart 1 Mean Pair 1 G1 40.0250 Pair 2 G3 G1 51.9417 Pair 3 G2 G2 G3 40.0250 52.1667 52.1667 51.9417 Sig. tailed) Pair 1 G1 – .006 G3 (2- Pair 2 G1 – .942 G2 Pair 3 G2 – .018 G3 As expected then, the Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level showed similar correlations. G1 students were typically writing at the high end of a ninth grade reading level (G2 scored slightly higher at just over 11th grade). However, the G3 level students were starting comfortably in the first year university level at 13.2. Again, only the G1-G3 and G2-G3 pairs showed a statistical difference with a p value at .002 and .043 respectively, as can be seen in chart 3 and chart 4. Chart 4 Chart 3 G1 G2 G3 Range Mean 7.00 9.8250 5.40 11.0583 5.60 13.1583 Sig. tailed) Pair 1 G1 – .002 G3 Pair 2 G1 – .165 G2 Pair 3 G2 – .043 G3 (2- Lexical Density When considering lexical density, we again usedLextutor to compare functional word tokens with the total number of tokens in each essay to determine lexical density. However, the mean average of each group was almost identical, with G1, G2, and G3 scoring .556, .538, and .547 respectively. Additionally, when compared using a SPSS paired sample t-tests, p value showed no statistically significant difference. Coherence 251 �How to Build an English Clause This study looked specifically at the use of transitional devices and connectors to consider coherence, which overlaps into the field of cohesive devices.We viewed these devices in four categories; additive, adversative, causal, and temporal. Documents were searched in Microsoft Word and thenvisually countedto find correct use of each device. Within each category, we looked at the use of specific words: additive (also, and, for example, in addition, furthermore, moreover, for instance, in other words, besides, likewise); adversative (however, but, on the other hand, in fact, on the contrary, as a matter of fact, nevertheless, in contrast); causal (so, therefore, as a result, consequently, hence, then to that end, in this case, thus); and temporal (first(ly), (second(ly), third(ly), then, following, in summary, in conclusion, to conclude). The data collected was viewed, using Shapiro-Wilks, and found to be non-parametric. The usage of the different types of these devices did not seem to show and advantage or disadvantage in terms of ability and starting level of the students. However, in the lower entry level, namely G1 and G2, we did see a tendency to overuse certain devices. For example, the average mean of usage in additive device in G1 was about 34 uses per page. However, of these 34 uses, 27 were “and.” Additionally, 5 of the 13 G1 students exclusively used “and” and no other additive device. The same overuse was found with “but” and “in conclusion” as well. Grammar Complexity In this study, we looked at grammar complexity by viewing relative clause use, used correctly, to help determine the level of grammar ability in a student’s unedited writing. Clauses were separated into two sections, the use of relative clauses using pronouns and those using adverbials. All of the relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, and that) as well as relative adverbs (where, when, and why) were counted only if they were used correctly, and there was no data collection for rate of error usage with relative clause use. The overwhelming majority of the data showed adverbial relative clauses to be sporadic, and while the G3 students used these at a slightly higher and more consistent level, when the data was considered in Shapiro-Wilk, it was found to be non-parametric. Therefore, while we have noticed some correct usage, the same size was not such that we could compare the data. When considering pronoun use in relative clauses, the results were considered parametric, and the findings showed a significant difference between the three levels, when considering the mean and range. We found that the accurate use of relative clauses increased significantly as the entry-level increased and the range in use decreased, pointing to a more controlled ability to use this grammatical structure. The average means ranged from 5.8, 8.9, and 13.2 in G1, G2, and G3, respectively. Additionally, the p value showed statistically significant differences between all groups. This would be a useful area to follow up in terms of what program values are lacking in terms of grammar usage and advanced structures. Results and discussion 1: Is there value in quantifying the quality of student compositions after they have graduated from the EFL preparatory program? At our institution, students are leaving the preparatory program and entering the university sometimes after only one semester. The more traditional students remain in the program for two or three semesters. There is a concern that students, when leaving the ELC, are not as capable as the students who directly enter the university. New curriculum was developed and implemented last year, and this is the first study to comparatively assess former ELC student’s compositional ability with that of their 252 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics peers. Concern remains, even after the new curriculum shift, among faculty members that students are not adequately prepared for university level composition, and this data may be useful in adjusting the curriculum planning for upcoming years. There is strong evidence to suggest that annual evaluation of students leaving the ELC program would be beneficial to determine the overall quality of student writing, as a quantification of various factors. Of particular use will be further assessment of the AWL list vocabulary as well as continuing evaluation of Flesch-Kincaid analysis. With annual assessment ,this program will have a baseline which can be measured against annually. This, when paired with qualitative assessment, can provide a more complete overview of exactly what our students leaving the ELC can do in relation to their direct-entry peers, and we can address curricular shortfalls and refocus specifically on skills which our students lack proficiency. 2: What does the data suggest about the preparedness in our students when they graduate (related to readability, lexical density, coherence, and grammar complexity) and what still needs to be improved? Readability Vocabulary: In terms of vocabulary usage,our preparatory students performed well in use of the K1 and the AWL (which is heavily integrated into the pre-intermediate program).As the program has been working specifically to increase both receptive and productive use of academic vocabulary during the last school year, as well as vocabulary diversity, this is relatively good news. The assumption has been that students with lower levels of English will have a more difficult time producing academic level vocabulary. One of the major concerns is that students have only receptively learned vocabulary throughout their 2-3 semester study in the preparatory program. However, although there is certainly the unknown of how accurately the students were using this vocabulary, they do, even at the lower levels, incorporate academic vocabulary into their draft writing. Sentence Length: Our research found a significant difference in the sentence length of the students relative to their starting level. This suggests perhaps additional research is warranted in order to determine the actual complexity and grammatical accuracy of these sentences. However, it does suggest more confidence or effort involved at the G3 level as they had a significantly higher wps use while drafting. Flesch Reading Ease and Flesch Kincaid Grade Level:Perhaps the most surprising data collected was the vast level difference reported by the Flesch Kincaid analysis for grade level and readability. While our pre-intermediate students were only writing at the ninth grade level during their first year of academic classes, the expectation that they are writing at a level equivalent to direct-entry students may be unreasonable. We recommend further study of this issue to look more closely at the samples to determine specific ways to improve both the readability and grade level at which our students produce academic writing. In order to focus on program evaluation, it may be useful to determine the reason why the FleschReading Ease as well as the Flesch-Kincaid Reading Level results point to such a difference in readability and what can be done to increase these levels. Lexical Density: As stated above, the data for this section showed no real difference in use. Although this is an encouraging sign when considering the level at which a student starts, further research is needed to determine if this is, in fact, a point of no difference. If this data is actuate, it would suggest that lower level entry students are able to compete, not necessarily at grade level, with higher-level students and would be encouraging. 253 �How to Build an English Clause Coherence: While the coherence data was found to be largely non-parametric, the fact that students are clearly over relying on the conjunctions “and,” “but,” and “because” may speak to an underlying issue in the way writing is taught. Although direct-entry students showed a slightly higher ability to diversity their transitional markers, it would not be unexpected for ELC students to enter at a lower level; however, it is concerning that part of the aim of the preparatory program is to help students learn academic writing, and a significant amount of time is spent on writing ability, including the use of transitional devices. This points to the need to further evaluate student writing in terms of markers in order to determine if the program is lacking in the area coherence. Grammar Complexity: Relative clause pronoun use was shown to be more than double in terms of usage between G3 and G1&2. This points to a need for improvement in the way this skill is taught, practiced, and reinforced in the program. Currently students spend time focusing on relative clause pronouns mostly in their grammar classes, and reading and writing teachers do not explicitly check for or expect students to accurately use such constructions. This data points to the consideration of the incorporation of relative clause pronoun use into the writing curriculum. Conclusions It is clear to us that students graduating from the ELC still need writing support and scaffolding to compete with direct-entry students. Not only are they writing at a dramatically lower level (according to the Flesch-Kinkaid analysis) than other students, but they also score lower on a number of indicators of quality writing such as sentence length and relative clause use. Both of these skills can be improved through direct instruction and practice, and we advise the ELC to incorporate more time and focus on those areas. We advise continued annual evaluation of students exiting the ELC both quantitatively and qualitatively, as well as a continued measurement against direct-entry students, providing the ELC with measurable yearly data which will inform curricular and assessment changes. References Alamargot, D. &Chanquoy, L. (2001). Through the models of writing.Studies in Writing, Vol. 9. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Bander, R. G. (1983). American English rhetoric: A two-track writing program for intermediate and advanced students of English as a second language. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Cobb,T. Web Vocabprofile [accessed xx Month 200x from http://www.lextutor.ca/vp/ ], an adaptation of Heatley, Nation &Coxhead's (2002) Range. Dagut, M. (1977).Incongruencies in Lexical Gridding.An Application of Contrastive Semantic Analysis to Language Teaching. IRAL.International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching Lund, 15(3), 221-229. Ellis, R. (2005). Principles of instructed language learning. System, 33(2), 209-224. Ferris, D., & Roberts, B. (2001). Error feedback in L2 writing classes: How explicit does it need to be?. Journal of second language writing, 10(3), 161-184. Ferris, D., &Hedgcock, J. S. (1998).Teaching ESL Composition: Purpose.Process, and Practice. 254 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Hayes, J. R. (1996). A new framework for understanding cognition and affect in writing. In C. M. Levy & S. Ransdell (Eds.), The science of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences, and applications (pp. 1–27). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Heatley, A., Nation, I.S.P. &Coxhead, A. (2002).RANGE and FREQUENCY programs. Laufer, B. (1990). Why are some words more difficult than others?—Someintralexical factors that affect the learning of words. IRAL-International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 28(4), 293-308. Lee, I. (2000). Exploring Reading-Writing Connections Through a Pedagogical Focus on'Coherence'. Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue canadienne des languesvivantes, 57(2), 352-356. Meara, P. (1996). The vocabulary knowledge framework. Vocabulary Acquisition Research Group Virtual Library. McCutchen, D. (1996). A capacity theory of writing: Working memory in composition. Educational Psychology Review, 8(3), 299-325. Raimes, A. (1985). What unskilled ESL students do as they write: A classroom study of composing. Tesol Quarterly, 19(2), 229-258. Raimes, A. (1987). Language Proficiency, Writing Ability, and Composing Strategies: A Study of ESL College Student Writers*. Language Learning,37(3), 439-468. Raimes, A. (1991). Out of the woods: Emerging traditions in the teaching of writing. Tesol Quarterly, 25(3), 407-430. Rezaei, A. R., &Lovorn, M. (2010).Reliability and validity of rubrics for assessment through writing. Assessing Writing, 15(1), 18-39. Scardamalia, M., &Bereiter, C. (1991).Literate expertise. Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits, 172-194. Spack, R. (1988). Initiating ESL students into the academic discourse community: How far should we go?. Tesol quarterly, 22(1), 29-51. Van Gelderen, A., &Oostdam, R. (2002).Improving linguistic fluency for writing: Effects of explicitness and focus of instruction. L1-Educational Studies in Language and Literature, 2(3), 239-270. Van Gelderen, A., &Oostdam, R. (2004).Revision of form and meaning in learning to write comprehensible text.In Revision Cognitive and Instructional Processes (pp. 103-123).Springer Netherlands. 255 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2798 Title A name given to the resource Academic Writing Proficiency: The Role Of Academic Writing Instruction In EFL Preparatory Programs Author Author Mcdonald, Ryan Murtagh, Hannah Abstract A summary of the resource. In studies of writing, linguistic proficiency has been assumed to play an important factor contributing to writing proficiency (Raimes, 1987; Bereiter&Scardamalia, 1987; Hayes 1996). Additional factors such as “cognitive” processes (i.e. planning and reviewing) (Ellis, 2005), memory (McCutchen, 1996, Alamargot&Chanquoi, 2001), and the matter of the quality of writing and lexical fluency (Van Gelderen&Oostdam; 2002, 2004) and error correction (Ferris & Roberts, 2001; Ferris;1999, 2002, 2004) have been among the focus areas. This study examines whether instruction in a university preparatory EFL program increases the quality of writing. A typical criticism from university academic writing classes often argues that short preparatory programs do not produce able, coherent, and proficient writers as preparatory reading and writing programs face the dual challenge of integrated skills instruction as well as covering many of the conventions of academic writing. In an effort to evaluate the effects of teaching academic writing within an EFL preparatory program, this research aims to compare the quality of writing within two groups of students, low level EFL students (pre-intermediate and intermediate levels) after a two-three semester program against students whose initial fluency was significantly higher at the time of university entry (direct-entry students with an IELTS 6.5 equivalency or higher). To this aim, four factors which are readability, lexical density, coherence and grammar complexity in 50 essays have been examined quantitatively. In this presentation, we aim to highlight implications of the findings for academic writing instruction at EFL university settings and for the broader context academic programs in EFL context. Our findings indicate that EFL students graduating from the ELC score well below their direct-entry peers in a number of categories. Keywords: linguistic proficiency, EFL program, instructions, integreted skills Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LT Textbooks,P Philology. Linguistics,PE English https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/216603d1a6e89934dab972ce9d8a70e8.pdf 7b1055b5877b16c9be24875812a10c7e PDF Text Text EFL ACADEMIC READING ISSUES: MANAGING READING RATE/SPEED FRUSTRATION AND COMPREHENDING TEXTS Igballe Miftari State University of Tetovo, Macedonia Article History: Submitted: 08.06.2015 Accepted: 10.08.2015 Abstract: An issue that until recently has been “irrelevant” for me personally and for many other English teachers, is the issue of reading rate/speed. I presumably believe that most teachers have never thought of this issue because of limited time for classroom instruction or simply because as teachers, the level of reading and preparation for classroom instruction is usually plenty. EFL academic reading however, involves reading different materials in different subjects and courses and being able to “interact” with them. The issue of interacting with books and texts depends a great deal on the level of comprehension. At university studies, students are overloaded with different materials and deadlines that are in fact frustrating. Students are obliged to read “thick books” in different academic subjects and courses and are over-flooded with known and unknown terminology, both scientific and professional in the specific field of study. They now must get the most out of books and must perfectly understand course books in order to pass exams and gain overall success. For such reasons, students either learn to read faster or don’t read at all. According to Anderson (1999) “knowing how to read more efficiently and adjusting reading speed to reading task are critical to this success. (1999:56). Therefore, “increasing students’ reading rates makes them able to devote greater cognitive capacity to comprehension skills” (1999:54). The study aims at testing students’ overall comprehension skills using timedreading activities and questionnaires over a period of 4 weeks (12 instruction hours). It will be conducted with 3 and 4 year students of the English department during their English reading instruction classes. Other matters of study will be students’ anxiety, frustration, previous experience with reading, motivation etc. Keywords: reading rate, frustration, cognitive capacity, comprehension etc. �An introduction to EFL academic reading Reading as a general term refers to the process of “decoding words and their meaning on paper, in written text.” Moreover, it is the interaction of one’s eyes, brain and many other accompanying factors such as previous experience with texts, imagination, creativity, vocabulary etc. As Richardson, Morgan and Fleener (2006) put it: “the physical process of reading requires the eyes to move in a jerky pattern, over the page, stopping to let the brain take in information, and then moving again. These eye fixations constitute the physical process of reading.” (2006, p. 263) What is important is how readers manipulate the information taken in with a fixation, or “what goes on between the eye and the brain” rather than from the page to the eye.” (Smith, 1988) According to Ruddell (2005), “reading is the act of constructing meaning while transacting with text. Just as we use information stored in schemata to understand and interact with the world around us, so do we use this knowledge to make sense of print.” (2005, p. 30) Rosenblatt (1994) further states that “every reading is an event, or a transaction, involving a particular reader and a particular pattern of signs, a text and occurring at a particular time in a particular context. Instead of two fixed entities acting on one another, the reader and the text are two aspects of a total dynamic situation. The “meaning” does not reside ready-made “in” the text or “in” the reader, but happens or comes into being during the transaction between reader and text. (1994, p. 1063). The major difference between reading and academic reading may be explained accordingly to why one reads. Grellet (1981) defines two main reasons for reading: reading for pleasure and reading for information (in order to find out something or in order to do something with the information you get). (1981, p. 4) Pleasure reading, skimming through a newspaper, a comic strip etc. may be defined as “ just reading” since the reader in this case is not asked to reproduce the information afterwards, whereas academic reading is usually reading done in academic subjects during studies, which requires retaining of information, comprehension etc. Academic reading requires a depth analysis of the written work i.e. full comprehension and is usually based upon certain deadlines, exam sessions etc. The extent of comprehension further “marks” students overall success in both oral and written exams. Therefore, practicing the skill of retrieving information, managing rate and speed and improving comprehension is the key to overall success in FL or L2 reading. However, as a separate skill that is usually practiced along with the other skills, reading is usually “neglected” by teachers. Grabe (2009, 2010) concludes that: “generally, in a second language (L2) or foreign language (FL) learning context, reading fluency has been ignored.” However, as Anderson (1999) states, “reading is one of the most important language skills for ensuring students’ success at all educational levels…” (1999, p.56), by which practicing reading in a foreign language is mandatory. Therefore, reading should be a skill taught and practiced throughout the whole learning process, and its’ implementation in language acquisition should be thought of as a primary source in effectively learning a foreign or second language. �Reading speed/rate Apart from neglecting reading in general, most teachers forget to consider reading rate/speed which are tied to comprehension and overall frustration. Reading rate refers to how much one has actually read i.e. ones’ experience with written texts, whereas reading speed refers to how fast one can skim, scan and retain information i.e. how many w.p.m. (words per minute), “knowing how to read more efficiently and adjusting reading speed to reading task are critical to this success (Anderson, 1999, p. 56). Therefore, “increasing students’ reading rates makes them able to devote greater cognitive capacity to comprehension skills” (1999, p.54) and also “as reading teachers reflect upon the vital role of increasing students’ reading rates, they will be in a better position to assist students improve their reading skills.” (1999, p. 64) Failure in improving this issue results in students’ failure to satisfy themselves and also in frustration when foreign students must succeed in academic subjects: “when they move into content area reading tasks , ESL/EFL students benefit from a fluent reading rate, because they will have increased reading demands”… and “increased reading fluency can also improve performance on standardized tests.”(1999, p. 56). Nuttall (1996) describes frustration that may be part of slower reading in her description of the “vicious cycle of the weak reader” (1996, p. 127) In such cases students lack of reading rate and comprehension skills make reading a very difficult task, due to which students’ motivation lacks because: “to many second language readers, reading is a suffocating, slow, process.” (Jensen, 1986) The optimal reading rate-the process of reading is different for every individual. According to my own personal philosophy and experience, I would divide students into 3 categories: those that enjoy reading, those that are neutral and those that dislike reading. For some (1st group), reading is an enjoyable daily activity, a preferable hobby that amuses them, neutral reading individuals (2nd group) are those which have nothing against reading , but which do not have a passion for reading either (this group of students when needed to complete a term paper will actually read the book), and in the last (3rd group) are those that simply dislike reading and might have never actually read a book (these students won’t read even when assignments are due and usually fail the course) All these personal feelings are deeply related to the whole reading process because rather we like or dislike reading, every subject in schools and universities is “tied” to reading: there’s no difference in between history and literature field of studies, since both have “readings”. What differs here is the “reading burden.” While those that read daily need less time to read through a page, those that never read need more time, and the reading goes slower: “readers who do not understand often slow down their reading rate and then do not enjoy reading because it takes so much time.” (1999, p. 59). Dubin & Bycina (1991) state that: “a rate of 200 wpm (words per minute) would appear to be the absolute minimum in order to read with full comprehension.” (1991, p. 198). On the other hand, Jensen (1986) suggests that “300 w.p.m. is the optimal rate and recommends that second language readers seek to “approximate” native speaker reading rates and comprehension levels in order to keep up with the classmates.” (1986, p. 106). Whether it is 200 or 300 w.p.m. normally depends on the text, upon familiarity with the vocabulary items and upon students’ interest. If students are to read a long passage which contains known vocabulary items, it would normally �take less time to go through, on the contrary, even if a passage was shorter in length, but contained long, unfamiliar words, it would normally take longer time to go through. If students lack interest in the reading, then presumably, both hypotheses fail. In short, reading comprehension in a foreign or second language requires much more then knowing how to read. It requires a certain interest, a certain speed and certain interaction with text. Insufficient/inefficient reading rate causes frustration The main aim of this article is to discuss issues that have a great impact on reading comprehension, one of which is frustration caused by insufficient reading rate and speed. I associate frustration caused during exams, during standardized tests etc. and suggest that reading speed/rate should be relevant factors in the overall reading process. There are cases when our students fail because we have not taught them how to extract information, how to focus on relevant information and how to actually deal with written texts. I personally experienced difficulty to an extent when passing TOEFL, not because I did not understand the texts, but because they were too many in number and my time limit was too short. This experience made me think of time-based tasks and activities that would help learners practice their reading skills and made me aware of the frustration my students had with readings with limited amount of time upon which the study was conducted. The study participants were 3rd year students of the English department, a total of 55 of both genders and between the ages of 20-21. The study lasted over a period of 4 weeks, during which participants were asked to read different passages and texts, (Appendix 1) with different terminology and length as fast as possible and to answer comprehension questions afterwards. The students were previously interviewed (Fig.1) as to whether they believed that time-based reading caused frustration and if the actual meaning of the text was lost. Students did not believe that timed-reading actually caused any frustration and were very self-confident at the beginning however, the results obtained were quite different. Study procedure Part 1 Q1. Are you a fast reader? Q2. How much do you read? Q3. How many w.p.m.do you think you can read? Yes 44 Often 23 Don’t know 23 Q4. Do you think that timedreading would cause frustration? Yes 10 Q5. Would it cause insufficient comprehension? Q6. Would Personal your focus be assumption on your speed, the time or on comprehending the text? Yes 12 Speed 6 �No 11 Rarely 15 Have No 29 never thought of this issue 12 Never Am Don’t 17 curious to know 16 know 20 Fig. 1 Whole Class Interview Questions No 43 Time 14 Comprehension 35 Study procedure part 2 The students were previously informed about the study, were interviewed and lastly tested, in duration of 4 weeks. Week 1 proved to be a bit difficult in terms of students’ habit-formation with the drills. The proceeding weeks were easier, enjoyable and proved to be more successful once students’ clearly understood their role, the task and once I had pointed out time-consuming factors that resulted in dissatisfaction (mouthing out words, stopping too long at unknown words, movement of pens, and other distractions). Students were seated individually and provided with texts. All students began at the same “start” time and were to read as fast as they could. (Texts were adopted from “Reading power: reading faster, thinking skills, reading for pleasure, comprehension skills” Mikulecky & Jeffries, 1986, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. Longman, pgs.201/203, 205/206 etc.). Instructions were clearly explained. Students had to write the start time and read the passage as quickly as possible. They had to write down the finish time when they were done reading. Start time minus finish time equaled students’ wpm time. Calculation of time served as a minor distraction from text. Students were afterwards required to answer comprehension questions without referring to the text for help. This served as an instrument to actually “measure” how much students had understood relevant information and how many correct answers they could provide. Study hypothesis concluded Study hypothesis were based upon previous experience while teaching reading comprehension skills. The following hypotheses were concluded: H.1. Practiced reading skills develop better comprehension. My personal assumptions tied to reading were that the more students read, the better they comprehended. This assumption stands not only for different texts, but even in content areas �(imagine how little students know about a subject matter during week 1 of lectures, or even during their whole first month). Even a whole semester can be frustrating. However, the more students read, analyze and deepen their personal theory regarding the subject matter, the more they comprehend and the better their results become. Similarly, practicing reading in e SL or FL would normally enhance better comprehension and develop vocabulary acquisition. Regarding my first hypothesis, even during timed-reading, practiced reading skills did develop better comprehension. Even though texts provided always differed in topic, terminology and length, students scored better results during week 3 and 4 than they did during week 1 or 2. H.2. Time-based reading results in higher level of frustration. During students’ interview, most students had self-confidence regarding their frustration level. They believed that the matter of time would not at all bother them or their level of comprehension and even denied focusing on their speed rather than on the text. Others believed that they could manage both factors. Results obtained afterwards were quite different. Students proved to be frustrated much more with timed-reading activities than during free reading. Their focus on their speed de-concentrated them from the actual text, resulting in incorrect answers. H3.Most students’ current optimal reading average is lower than 200 wpm. My personal assumption regarding students’ optimal reading average was that they were lower than 200 wpm was basically because students rarely read. Reading rate and speed depend on students’ experience with written works, either on paper or on screen. Results provided below in bold (Fig. 2) show that paper based comprehension scores were in their average, even though 20 out of the total were insufficient readers, 30 were average readers and only 5 were good readers (the term good reader defines those individuals that can read 400 wpm and can comprehend 80% of the text). Comprehending only 50% or 60% of the text is not efficient especially when students’ want higher marks. Screen Paper Comprehension Reader profile 100 wpm 110 wpm 50% (20/55) Insufficient 200 wpm 240 wpm 60% (30/55) Average reader 300 wpm 400 wpm 80% (5/55) Good reader 700 wpm 1000 wpm 85% (0/55) Excellent, accomplished reader Fig.2. A general idea of average reading scores H4. Reading speed depends on terminology, on text length, and upon the fixation of the eyes and their movement. In cases when students lack previous knowledge, when they lack vocabulary and do not understand terminology in texts, the reading normally becomes slower. Students’ stumble over �unknown words and trying to comprehend texts the reading becomes frustrating and immensely slow. When longer length texts are used, some things occur. For starters, students tend to focus on all the information and usually remember only some; longer length texts might contain more unknown words than shorter texts and normally have more information to remember. There are some habits that can also slow down the reading for instance, trying to pronounce words while reading, mouthing them out, and stopping for a longer period of time on the same word. Students agreed that results during their second, third and fourth time were better after they had practiced reading with their eyes and not involving other movements. Their reading speed had normally undergone improvement to some extent. Limitations of the study Throughout the years of reading, research and teaching, I have concluded that our ideology, point of view and personal theory change. We now think deeper and analyze issues that seemed unnecessary then. Our personal theory has changed accordingly to our students and to their expectations i.e. their overall success. I am aware of the fact that the instruments, number of participants and elaboration might not be enough, though I have tried to be brief and to not over exaggerate. The texts used, I agree could have been different and covered different topics, however this was only a first attempt and the study is at its initial phase. Since academic reading issues are part of my PhD dissertation, I aim at specifically designing other instruments and aim at including a whole chapter on reading speed and rate and other issues. In spite of everything, I believe that it will still inspire those that will read it and will provide a scope of information, experience and contribution. Conclusion and further recommendations The focus of this paper was to address the issues of reading rate/ speed and reading comprehension in a detailed description. It was addressed to learners’ needs and the improvement of reading comprehension skills, with enhancing the practice of speed. The main aim was to actually help learners develop the preciseness of reading habit and to make them aware of certain issues that might affect either positively or negatively their overall scores and marks. It was especially focused on time-based readings that might be found in national exams, placement tests, TOEFL etc. and also on overall readings in English in different academic subjects that were time consuming and frustrating for students. I advise further elaboration of the issue wherever the English language is taught as an SL or FL. �References Anderson, N. (1999). Exploring second language reading: Issues and strategies. Heinle & Heinle Publishers, An international Thomson Publishing Company. Dubin, F., and D. Bycina 1991. Academic reading and the ESL/EFL teacher. In M. Celce-Murcia (ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (2nd ed.). New York: Newbury House, 195-215. Grabe, W. (2009). Reading in a second language: Moving from theory to practice. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Grabe, W. (2010). Fluency in reading—Thirty-five years later. Reading in a Foreign Language, 22, 71–83. Grellet, F. 1981. Developing Reading Skills. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jensen, L. (1986). Advanced reading skills in a comprehensive course. In F. Dubin, D. E. Eskey, and Grabe (eds.). Teaching second language reading for academic purposes. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 103-124. Mikulecky, B. S., Jeffries, L. (1996). More reading power. Reading for pleasure, comprehension skills thinking skills, reading faster. Addison- Wesley Publishing Company. Longman. Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language (new edition). Oxford: Heinemann. Richardson, J. S., Morgan, Ch. R., Fleener, Ch., (2006). “ Reading to learn in the content areas”. Thomson Wadsworth, 6th edition. Ruddell, M. R., (2005). Teaching content reading and writing. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Rosenblatt, L. M. (1994). The transactional theory of reading and writing. In R.R. Rudell, M.R. Ruddell, & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (4th ed.) (pp.10571092). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Smith, F., (1988). Understanding reading: A psycholinguistic analysis of reading and learning to read. (4th edition), Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum. Appendix Note: The following text serves only as an example of similar texts that were used for the study. ��� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2951 Title A name given to the resource EFL ACADEMIC READING ISSUES: MANAGING READING RATE/SPEED FRUSTRATION AND COMPREHENDING TEXTS Author Author Miftari, Igballe Abstract A summary of the resource. An issue that until recently has been “irrelevant” for me personally and for many other English teachers, is the issue of reading rate/speed. I presumably believe that most teachers have never thought of this issue because of limited time for classroom instruction or simply because as teachers, the level of reading and preparation for classroom instruction is usually plenty. EFL academic reading however, involves reading different materials in different subjects and courses and being able to “interact” with them. The issue of interacting with books and texts depends a great deal on the level of comprehension. At university studies, students are overloaded with different materials and deadlines that are in fact frustrating. Students are obliged to read “thick books” in different academic subjects and courses and are over-flooded with known and unknown terminology, both scientific and professional in the specific field of study. They now must get the most out of books and must perfectly understand course books in order to pass exams and gain overall success. For such reasons, students either learn to read faster or don’t read at all. According to Anderson (1999) “knowing how to read more efficiently and adjusting reading speed to reading task are critical to this success. (1999:56). Therefore, “increasing students’ reading rates makes them able to devote greater cognitive capacity to comprehension skills” (1999:54). The study aims at testing students’ overall comprehension skills using timed-reading activities and questionnaires over a period of 4 weeks (12 instruction hours). It will be conducted with 3 and 4 year students of the English department during their English reading instruction classes. Other matters of study will be students’ anxiety, frustration, previous experience with reading, motivation etc. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/54c056bb4b171039b98d299b345bd9d1.pdf e3dc977fe9c76268c559bcfe479c58e9 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Semantic and cultural analysis of the terms for ink in the Slavic languages Keti Miteva-Markovic South East European University, Tetovo, Macedonia Submitted: 16.04.2014. Accepted: 20.11.2014. Abstract Semantic and cultural analysis of the terms for 'ink' in the Slavic languages This text will analyze the semantic and cultural motivation of the terms for ink in the Slavic languages and their dialects, followed by an etymological analysis of the corresponding terms in other European languages. The VIII Lexical volume of the General Slavic Linguistic Atlas (OLA) will be taken as a foundation; it contains the terms for ink in the Slavic dialects, i.e. approximately 850 settlements on the entire Slavic territory. Namely, various terms are used to refer to ink in the different linguistic areas of the Slavic territory, such as мастило, чернила, tinta, atrament, inkoust etc. This text will analyze their geographic distribution while presenting the semantic motivation of appropriate terms through etymological analysis. Taking the geographic distribution of the various terms for ink into consideration, the compatibility of areas is evident according to both the etymology of appropriate terms and the cultural influence that encompassed the appropriate semantic motivation. By analyzing various terms for ink, my tendency is to illustrate that lexical diversity does not depend only on lexical heritage, but on other factors as well, such as civilization and culture. Key words: language and culture, semantics, etymology, linguistic analysis Geographical distribution In terms of geographical distribution of the terms for ink in the Slavic languages and their dialects, an impressive compatibility of the areals is noted. Thus, on the entire Russian territory, the term чернила occurs (with several phonetic variants). On the Belarus linguistic territory, чернило and чернила are used, along with атрамант in 151 �Semantic and cultural analysis of the terms for ink in the Slavic languages several points of the western Belarus territory. On the Ukrainian language territory, more precisely in its eastern and central part, чернило and чернила appear, whereas in the west, in addition to the abovementioned terms, uses атрамент, антрамент, leaving the southwest with тинта dominating. On the Polish territory, the term atrament dominates, while northern Poland uses tinta, inkost and inkast. On the Sorbian territory, tinta occurs. On the Czech territory, inkoust dominates, while Slovakia is divided: the west uses atrament, while the east uses tinta. The same form (tinta) appears on the entire territory of Slovenia. However, in several points, different forms, such as ingjustri and črnilo are used. On the territory of Bosnia and Croatia, tinta dominates. Nevertheless, mastilo is used in some points of Bosnia and crnilo is used in some points of Croatia. The form mastilo is dominant on the territory of Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia. In several points of Macedonia, муреќе and муруќуп are used, whereas the southern dialects use каламар and мелан. To complete the picture, some of the terms for мастило will be illustrated in several European languages. Namely, English uses ink, German: Tinte, French: encre, Italian: inchiostro, Spanish and Portuguese: tinta, while Swedish, Danish and Norwegian: black, blæk and blekk. In Latin, the term for ink is atramentum, Greek: μελάνη and Turkish : mürekkep. It is important to state that in two of the neighboring languages of the Slavic territory, there are accepted forms, such as cerneală in Romanian and bojë (shkrimi) in Albanian. Etymological analysis Terms such as чернило, чернила, črnilo and crnilo, derive from Proto-Slavic and Balto-Slavic adjective*сьrnь, meaning ‘black color’ (Skok 1971:277), from which the term црнило is formed as a loan-translation from the Latin atramentum. The term мастило is of a Proto-Slavic origin. Namely, it originates from a ProtoSlavic form *mast, with reference to ‘color’ and , along with maslo (oil), derives from Proto-Slavic verbal root *maz- 'mazati' (Skok 1971:383; ЭССЯ 1993: в.18). With the exception of these two terms (чернило and мастило), all terms for ink on the Slavic territory are of a foreign origin. Thus, the following forms: атрамант and atrament, from the Belarus, Ukrainian, Polish and Slovakian territories, derive from the Latin term atramentum. Atramentum in Latin refers to ‘ink, black pigment’ which itself derives from ater ('black, dark; dark-colored'), (OLD, 1982). Certain types of terms, such as inkost, inkast, inkoust and ingjustri, which dominate on the Polish territory, appear in the Czech and several points of the Slovenian territory; they originate from the Latin encaustum, meaning ‘purple or red ink', which was used by Roman emperors to sign official documents. This term is related to the ancient Greek 152 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics ἔγκαυστος ('burned-in'), from ἐν 'in' + καίω ('to burn'). This term illustrates the common etymological thread with the terms ink in English, encre in French and inchiostro in Italian. Forms such as tinta, occurring in the Ukrainian, Slovakian, Polish, Sorbian, Slovenian, Bosnian and Croatian territories, result from infiltration by the German Tinte (ink) and Italian tinta ('dye, color, paint'). The etymology of this term leads to the Latin tinctus 'dyeing ' deriving from the verb tingō, tingere, meaning 'color, dye'. As stated above, on the Macedonian territory, муреќе and муруќуп occur in several points, whereas in the southern Macedonian dialects, the form мелан is used, originating from the Greek term μελάνι, meaning ‘ink’. The following forms: муреќе and муруќуп originate from the Turkish term for 'ink,' – mürekkep, and symbolize a Balkan Turkish word with Arabic origin - muräkkäb ('compound, mixed’) (Skok 1971: 485). They can be encountered in Bosnia, Kosovo, Bulgaria and Albania as well. Semantic motivation Considering the etymological analysis of the various terms for 'мастило' (ink), the compatibility of the areals can be noticed through the cultural impacts, which include a semantic motivation. Thus, the abovementioned terms for 'мастило' (ink) can be mentioned under several semantic threads. In all of the semantic threads, there is a semantic motivation ‘to dye, to color’, including ‘color’ and types of color. 1. 'to dye, to color ' The primary use of ‘ink’ was not related to writing, but to the possibility of ‘dyeing, coloring’ a material – hence the relation of ‘painting’ to a subsequent use of a certain liquid substances for writing. This semantic thread encompasses the terms, such as мастило (from * mazati, to paint ), and tinta. As stated above, the first term originates from the Proto-Slavic *mazati, meaning 'to paint, dye color,' and the latter from the Latin tingō, tingere, meaning 'color, dye'. The forms муреќе and муруќуп, from ‘muräkkäb, ('compound, mixed') can be included in this category. 2. 'black color' The use of black pigment, more precisely black color for writing, is one of the semantic motivations which, although through various terms, is encountered in a vast European territory. Thus, vastly used terms in the eastern Slavic territory and, partially on the rest of its territory, are чернило, чернила, črnilo and crnilo which, as mentioned above, originate from the Proto-Slavic and Balto-Slavic adjective *сьrnь 153 �Semantic and cultural analysis of the terms for ink in the Slavic languages (black). The identical semantic motivation is present in the following terms: атрамант and atrament, from the Latin term atramentum, deriving from ater ('black, dark-colored'). Similarly, the form мелан, originating from the Greek term μελάνι, has an identical semantic motivation, deriving from μέλας ('black'). As mentioned, the introduction of чернила and чернило as 'ink' in the Slavic languages has been motivated according to the Latin term atramentum. It is worth mentioning that this semantic thread dominates in the Nordic languages (Swedish, Danish and Norwegian), where forms, such as black, blæk and blekk occur. 1. 'red color, fire' Along with black color as a basic color for ink, the languages covered terms that derived from ‘dark red, burning red’ which was used as ink, as well. This semantic thread covers terms, such as inkost, inkast, inkoust and ingjustri, which occur in the Slavic territory, as well as terms in other languages: ink in English, encre in French and inchiostro in Italian. All of these terms originate from the Latin encaustum, meaning 'purple or red ink', which was used by the Roman Emperors to sign official documents. Although this type of ink was used primarily for official documents, its meaning developed through history. Conclusion From this histogram of geographical distribution and the analysis of semantic motivation of the terms for ‘ink’, several conclusions can be derived in the Slavic languages and dialects. Regarding the geographical distribution, the compact areals of the Slavic territory demonstrate both the linguistic and cultural history of proper ethnicities. It can be concluded that in certain Slavic languages, regarding lexicology, the linguistic heritage derives from material culture and written tradition. Thus, the following terms: чернило, чернила, crnilo and mastilo, originating from the ProtoSlavic linguistic stratum, cover a vast territory. In the remaining areals, where the terms атрамант, atrament, inkost, inkast, inkoust, ingjustri and tinta occur, it is concluded that cultural impact has had a primary role for the infiltration of these terms in proper languages. The analysis of the semantic motivation of the terms for ‘ink’ illustrates the expansibility and the richness of the semantic nucleuses, developed through the history of civilizations. Similarly, this analysis demonstrates that lexical variety does 154 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics not depend only on the linguistic heritage, but on other factors as well, such as civilization and culture. Thus, for instance, although on the Polish territory, there is a foreign term атрамент, whereas on the Russian, Belarus and Ukrainian – чернила is used, the semantic thread that connects them is identical – 'black color'. These analyses of lexicological and cultural spheres can lead to further interesting discoveries for the cultural and linguistic tradition of the Slavic ethnicities. References Общеславянский лингвистический атлас : Серия лексикословообразовательная : Выпуск 8 : Профессии и общественная жизнь, Warszawa 2003. Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika, P. Skok, Zagreb, 1971 Słownik etymologyczny języka polskiego, A. Bruckner, Warszawa, 1985 Български етимологичен речник, Българска Академия на науките, София, 1971 Lexicon Palaeoslovenico-Graeco-Latinum, Franz Von Miklosich, Wien, 1865 Зтимологический словарь славянских языков, Випуск 18, РАН, Москва, 1993 A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal Indo-European Languages, Carl Darling Buck, University of Chicago, 1949, reprinted 1988 Słownik etymologyczny języka polskiego, Wydawnyctwo Literacke, Kraków, 2005 Wiesław Boryś, Oxford Latin Dictionary, 1982 (http://www.latin-dictionary.net) A Latin Dictionary, Charlton T. Lewis, Ph.D. and. Charles Short, LL.D., Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1879. (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/) 155 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2791 Title A name given to the resource Semantic and cultural analysis of the terms for ink in the Slavic languages Author Author Miteva-Markovic, Keti Abstract A summary of the resource. Semantic and cultural analysis of the terms for 'ink' in the Slavic languages This text will analyze the semantic and cultural motivation of the terms for ink in the Slavic languages and their dialects, followed by an etymological analysis of the corresponding terms in other European languages. The VIII Lexical volume of the General Slavic Linguistic Atlas (OLA) will be taken as a foundation; it contains the terms for ink in the Slavic dialects, i.e. approximately 850 settlements on the entire Slavic territory. Namely, various terms are used to refer to ink in the different linguistic areas of the Slavic territory, such as мастило, чернила, tinta, atrament, inkoust etc. This text will analyze their geographic distribution while presenting the semantic motivation of appropriate terms through etymological analysis. Taking the geographic distribution of the various terms for ink into consideration, the compatibility of areas is evident according to both the etymology of appropriate terms and the cultural influence that encompassed the appropriate semantic motivation. By analyzing various terms for ink, my tendency is to illustrate that lexical diversity does not depend only on lexical heritage, but on other factors as well, such as civilization and culture. Key words: language and culture, semantics, etymology, linguistic analysis Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4884b2e1b1f5368ca1a71234c7054e0b.pdf 4b5d2e4ea1fe80a781706789a4ca7083 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Learning foreign and indigenous languages: The case of South African universities Paul Nkuna University of South Africa, South Africa Submitted: 16.04.2014. Accepted: 11.11.2014. Abstract Learning a language through another language is trivialto any type of language learning, whether it is the learning of a local or a foreign language. South Africa’s language policy for higher education recommends the study of foreign languages (FLs) and indigenous languages.A decade after its adoption, the learning of a foreign or indigenous language in that foreign or that indigenous language, respectively, at universities has been overlooked. In essence, the learning of foreign languages at the country’s universities dates back to the 19th century, when the first higher education institution,the South African College was established. At that College a Department of General Literature that offered Dutch, English, Latin and Ancient languages was established. English and Dutch teachers provided instruction in the English and Dutch language, respectively. The instructions involved theory, history and practice of English grammar and literature or Dutch grammar and literature. The learning of indigenous languages at the country’s universities began in the 20th century under the departments of Bantu Studies. They were learnt through English, and then later through English andAfrikaans. The instructions involved theory, history and practice of English grammar and literature. The aim of this study is to gain knowledge on the different approaches that may be used to learn a foreign language and an indigenous language. The study focuses on the complex challenges facing the country’s universities to adopt new, different and best models for the teaching of foreign and indigenous languages after many decades of using English and Afrikaans mediums. A case study method is used for this study. The emphasis is on the learning of foreign versus indigenous languages in South African universities (SAUs). The paper consists of an introduction, the theory of Grammar Translation Method (GTM), a case study on the learning of foreign versus South African indigenous languages (SAILs) at the SAUs, and a conclusion. Keywords: foreign language, indigenous language, learning, English, Afrikaans 223 �Learning foreign and indigenous languages: The case of South African universities Introduction The Ministry of Education (2002) recommends “the development, in the medium to long-term, of South African languages as mediums of instruction in higher education, alongside English and Afrikaans”(p.15). Section 6(1) of the Constitution of South Africa, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996) confirms that “the official languages of the Republic are Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa and isiZulu”(South Africa, 1996, p.14). The Ministry of Education (2002) also recommends “the study of foreign languages” (p.15).Section 6(2) of the Constitution of South Africa, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996) states, “recognising the historically diminished use and status of the indigenous languages of our people, the state must take practical and positive measures to elevate the status and advance the use of these languages”( South Africa, 1996, p. 14). By our indigenous languages, section 6(2) refers to nine of the 11 officialSouth African languages - isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga; including the Khoi, Nama and San languages; and South African sign language. Therefore, in this study I examined whether the learning of indigenous languages is different from the learning of foreign languages in the SAUs. TheGrammarTranslation Method (GTM) emerged as one of the tools used by SAU senates to relegate the learning of South African indigenous languages (SAILs) to the level of foreign language (FL) learning. The next section is the theory of GTM. This will be followed by the Case study and the conclusion. The theory of the Grammar Translation method Abdullah (2013) says the GTM is “one of the key methods applied for the teaching of foreign languages. It is a derivation of the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin” (p.124). Therefore, GTM was “based on the belief that different kinds of knowledge were located in separate sections of the brain” (Morales-Jones, 2011, p.64). Ducháčková (2006) says it is “considered to be one of the oldest methods and approaches in foreign language teaching” (p. 8). “Students learn grammatical rules and then apply those rules fortranslating sentences between the target language and their native language. Advanced students may be required totranslate whole texts word-for-word” (Abdullah, 2013, p.124). Therefore, Brown concludes that the focus on GTM is “on grammatical rules, memorisation of vocabulary and of various declensions and conjugations, translation of texts, doing written exercises” (Chang, 2011, p.15).Morales-Jones (2011) says “the main goal for learning was notfor speaking and/or communication. The driving force was to exercise the mind and at the same time to be able to read in that language” (p.64). Therefore, GTM was mainly designed to teach Latin and Ancient Greek, also known as ‘dead’ languages, “based on the fact that people no longer speak Latin and Ancient Greek for the purpose of interactive communication”(The Grammar Translation Method, 2010, p. 1). In addition, Morales-Jones (2011) says another reason for studying those foreign languages, such as Latin or Greek was to appreciate the classics in their original language, and education was the privilege of an elite class, thus it was amarkof an educated person to be able to read the classics. Abdullah (2013) confirms that GTM “by definition has a very limited scope. Because speaking or any kind of spontaneous creative output was missing from the curriculum, students would often fail at speaking or even letter writing in the target language”(p.125). It is surprising that GTMis “still used for the study of languages that are very much alive and require competence not only in terms of reading, writing and structure, but also speaking, listening and interactive communication” (The Grammar Translation Method, 2010, p.1). Therefore, sources such as Morales-Jones (2011) and The Grammar Translation Method (2010) provide important points to be noted about GTM, such as its emphasis on teaching grammar and 224 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics employing translation to ascertain comprehension; classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language; GTM does not produce speakers of the languages studied; much use of the native language is employed because the goal was not oral proficiency; teachers did not necessarily have to be fluent speakers of the target language because the focus was not on communication; it dominated public-school and university language teaching in the United States until World War II; much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words; grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words; long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given; often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue; and little or no attention is given to pronunciation. 225 �Learning foreign and indigenous languages: The case of South African universities The Case study: learning of foreign versus indigenous languages in the SAUs This case study comprises of five subsections: the problem, steps taken to review the problem, results, challenges and lesson learned. The problem The SAUs are failing to distinguish between the learning of the country’s indigenous languages and the learning of foreign languages. There is less research on what are the elements or ‘factors’ of the failure, and how they relate to one another. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the problem. I will attempt to do so in relation to language and race.Ashcroft (2001) says “to understand the link between language and race, we must go back long before the emergence of race as a category of physiological discrimination, to the uses of language in ‘othering’ the subjects of Europe’s colonial expansion” (p.311). Section 9(3) of the South African Constitution, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996)explains that the state may not unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on race and language; and section 29(2) of this Constitution provides everyone the right to “receive education in the official language or languages of their choice in public educational institutions where that education is reasonably practicable” (South Africa, 1996, p. 14).A year later, the White Paper 3 disclosed the existence in the country’s higher education of an inequitable distribution of access and opportunity for students and staff along lines of race, and proposed that all institutions of higher education develop mechanisms to create a secure and safe campus environment that discourages harassment or any other hostile behaviour directed towards persons or groups on any grounds whatsoever, but particularly on grounds that include race and language(Ministry of Education, 1997a). Section 27 (2) of the Higher Education Act 101 of 1997states that “the council, with the concurrence of the senate, must determine the language policy of a public higher education institution” (Ministry of Education, 1997b, p.24). The White Paper 3 also identifies a three-fold mandate of higher education: Human resource development; high-level skills training; and production, acquisition and application of new knowledge (Ministry of Education, 1997a). The Ministry of Education (2001) cites important fields of study that could play an important role in contributing to the development of the African Renaissance that continues to be marginalised in SAUs. In this case it identifies, in particular, fields of study such as African–South African indigenous–languages and culture and African literature (not only in its English form). There are also promises to encourage the development of programmes in marginalised fields of study such as African (South African indigenous) languages as well as the more general restructuring of their curriculums to reflect an orientation towards Africa, in particular, South Africa. In addition, the Ministry of Education reveals the extension of the problem by the historically white Afrikaans-medium institutions that “are gradually moving towards the adoption of a combination of dual and parallelmedium language strategies, language continues to act as a barrier to access at some of these institutions”(Ministry of Education, 2001, p.37). Therefore, the language policy for higher education was published in 2002 with its promising recommendations for indigenous languages and foreign languages. This was followed by the Ministerial Committee (2005) report that singlesout conditions significantly conducive to the successful use of South Africa’s neglected indigenous languages, not only as mediums of instruction but also for their more enhanced use in the public domain, including the extent of literacy in the South African indigenous languages, official recognition of South African languages and use of South African languages in education. Although the status of indigenous languages is raisedby the Constitution (supported by the Ministry of Education with White papers, National plans, Acts, policies and reports), fields of study such as South African indigenous languages are still marginalised in higher education. . Steps undertaken to review the problem 226 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Providing comprehensive advice on the importance of SAUs rethinking new approaches to improve the teaching of South African indigenous languages is an important part of the promotion and development ofSouth African indigenous languages. Three steps are outlinedto help the SAUs raise the status of SAIL learning. Sensitising SAUs councils and their senates to the relationship of power and GTM This is the first step undertaken. Activities include a review of the use of power and GTM on SAIL learning in the history of South African higher education system. The emphasis is on supplying information on the impact of power and GTM on SAIL teaching to the SAU councilsand their senatesto build evidenced-based arguments that will convince them. Power plays a role on the relegation of SAIL learning to the level of FL learning in SAUs. Observation and analysis of the present state Thisis the second step undertaken. Activities involvetheobservation and analysis of the present state of the South African indigenous-language teaching at SAUs. The emphasis is on supplying data on the teaching of South African indigenous languages versus foreign languages to SAU councils and their senates to build evidence-based arguments that will convince them.Power is still controlling the SAUs on the teaching of South African indigenous languages as if the target language were a foreign language. Integration This is the last step undertaken. Activities involve the integrating of the results from the first three steps. It involves supplying information on the link of the colonial, apartheid and present teaching of South African indigenous languages versus foreign languages to SAUcouncils and their senates. Results Results on power Power relegates the teaching and learning of SAILs to the level of teaching FLs through GTM. Power is one of the more contestable concepts in political theory, but it is conventional and convenient.Nye defined it as “the ability to effect the outcomes you want and, if necessary, to change the behavior of others to make this happen” (Gray, 2011, p.v).In power relations, “man has, through the ages, come to recognize the importance of being able to coerce the weak into following the strong” (Meyer, 2007, p.8).Nye (2006) identifies three basic ways to accomplish this – you can coerce them with threats, induce them with payments or attract and co-opt them.There are two types of power: hard power and soft power.Hard power is defined by Nye as the power that uses military or economic coercion to get others to change their position; he definessoft power as the national resources that allow a country to affect others through the co-optive means of framing the agenda, persuading, and eliciting positive attraction in order to obtain preferred outcomes (Trunkos, 2013). Thus, Nye (1990) confirms thatAfrica experienced hard power because the nineteenth-century great powers in Africa “carved out and ruled colonial empires with a handful of troops” (p. 162). TheAfrican Union (2006, p.3) confirms that the nineteenth-century great powers “led to the depersonalisation of part of the African peoples, falsified their history, systematically disparaged and combated African values, and tried to replace progressively and officially, their languages by that of the colonisers”.The British were part of the nineteenth-century great powers. Nkuna (2010a) says the policy of the British colonies was “initially known as ‘guardianship’. It was renamed ‘partnership leading to independence within Commonwealth. It gave 227 �Learning foreign and indigenous languages: The case of South African universities power to the English educated African elites” (Nkuna, 2010a, p.49).Louw and Kendal (1986) confirm that the British colonised South Africa in 1806. They say, “in 1813, the Governor, Cradock, announced that all future appointments would depend on the knowledge of English. From 1814 onwards, and especially after the arrival of the English settlers in 1820, English-speaking officials were appointed in increasing numbers and favoured in many ways. In 1822, English became the sole official language of the Cape” (Louw and Kendal, 1986, p.23).In the context of this study, Christie (1991) discloses that British authorities used education as “a way of spreading their language and traditions in the colony – and also as a means of social control” (p.34). “English became the primary language or language of tuition for the South African College (the first higher education institution) which was opened in 1829. Colonisation influenced the choice of languages for the College programmes” (Nkuna, 2010b, p.30). McKerron (1934) says that the College had a Department of General Literature (DGL) in which Dutch literature andEnglish, Latin and Ancient languages were taught.The teaching of indigenous languages was excluded at the College. A classical method was used to teach Latin and Ancient languages at the DGL. Therefore, GTM was used to teach Latin and Ancient languages, and English and Dutch were the mediums of instruction in the Latin- and Ancient-language classes. It took about 92 years from 1829 to introduce the study of SAILs in SAUs. Maseko (2011) assumes that “teaching, learning and research in these languages started in the early 1900s” (p.9). For instance, according to Mandela (1994),Professor DDT Jabavu, the member of staff first appointed when Fort Hare University opened in 1916, “was awarded a degree in English from the University of London… taught Xhosa, as well as Latin, history and anthropology”(p.52). Therefore, Maseko (2011) also reveals that the teaching of SAILs have “been through other languages, even when taught to mother-tongue speakers” (p.9). Thus, GTM was used for teaching and learning SAILs. All these are rejuvenated by Lalu (2011),who observes that The Milner Commission of Inquiry (1903 to 1905) is the first to “call for scientific studies of natives of South Africa … The connection of knowledge with the exercise of power may be gleaned in the formation in 1921 of the school of African life and languages at the University of Cape Town” (p. 8). The languages referred to in the quotation were the SAILs. Results on observation and analysis of the present state There are 23 SAUs observed. Not all 23 SAUs have FL fields of study (seeFigure1). Figure 1. Percentage of SAUs with and without FL Fields of Study 57% 43% SAUs that have FLs SAUs that have no Fields of Study FLs Fields of Study From Figure 1, 13 (57%) of the 23 SAUs choose their offerings from languages representing hard power (Arabic, Dutch, French, Italian, Portuguese, German and Spanish); Latin and Ancient languages (Greek and Hebrew); and an emerging soft power in the global arena (Mandarin).The courses are taughtat the beginner levelusing English as themedium of instruction and GTM.SAUs that do not have FL Fields of Study are predominantly universities of technology (see Figure 2).“Universities of technology focus on skills and professions” (Nkuna, 2010b, p.159). It means the learning of FLs is not 228 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics necessary for skills and professions, but it is necessary for theory and scientific research. However, the GTM was adopted for teaching and learningSAILs in all three types of SAUs. Figure 2. Percentage ofSAUs that do not have FL Fields of Study 60% 20% Universities of technology Traditional universities 20% Comprehensive universities Figure 3. outlines the percentage of SAUs with and without SAIL fields of study. 229 �Learning foreign and indigenous languages: The case of South African universities Figure 3. Percentage of SAUs with and without SAIL Fields of Study 91% 9% SAUs that have SAILs’ Fields of Study SAUs that have no SAILs Fields of Study Only two (9%) of the SAUs do not offer SAILs. These are universities of technology that are expected to produce skills and professions. However, the 21 (91%) of the 23 SAUs that have SAIL Fields of Study include universities of technology, traditional universities and comprehensive universities. Figure 4 outlines the percentage of SAUswithSAILfields of study. 230 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Figure 4. Percentage of SAUs that have SAIL Fields of Study 57% 24% 19% Universities of technology Traditional universities Comprehensive universities From Figure 4, only the four(19%) of the 21 SAUs provide learning to students with skills for professions. The remaining 17 (89%)provide theory and scientific research. The comprehensive SAUs are dominated by traditional ones, even in their own space, and focus on theory and scientific research. Most SAUs are now beginning to offer parallel courses for SAILs (see Figure 5). Figure 5. Percentage of SAUs with or without SAIL parallel courses and others 62% 24% 14% SAUs with parallel SAUs without courses parallel courses Others From Figure 5, 13 (65%) of the 21 SAUs provide SAIL learning as non-mother tongue and mothertongue courses.The non-mother tongue modules are mainly referred to as beginner’s courses. The medium of instruction remains English. Results on integration I assessed the results on 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 to help thecouncils and their senates from the 23 SAUs to understand the competition between FL learning and SAIL learning in the country’s universities. The assessment indicates that FL and SAIL learning have equal status at SAUs. They are all learned as L2 or below L2 status. The hegemony of English is increasing and the Mandarin language of China is already offered at three of the 23 SAUs.The Mandarin offerings arebacked by theChinese Confucius Institute for Language and Arts, already established at three SAUs. 231 �Learning foreign and indigenous languages: The case of South African universities Challenges Power is the major challenge facing the SAUs on SAIL teaching. The hard power of the colonial powers wassustained through English hegemony. The emergence of globalisation andthe information age add to the sustainability of colonial power and create soft power.SAILs continue to diminish to the level of Latin and the Ancient languages. In addition, there is no progress on the learning of SAILs and students from SAIL classes do not know how to communicate using SAILs. Furthermore, the SAUs prefer to offer an FL rather than offering SAILs.For instance, you may find an SAU offering all 12 FLs and only one SAIL. In addition, FLs can have their own Departments,withpriority mostly given to theEnglish language, but SAILs are grouped together to form African Languages Departments. Beyond the results An integrated approach to SAIL learning in SAUs should be established.This should be done in consideration of their official status. All stakeholders should support such a project. Lesson learned The intervention showed that there is still a long way to go for SAIL learning at SAUs. Important factors on the development and promotion of SAILs in SAUs are still overlooked. Inclusion of SAILs for the sake of satisfying the call for their inclusion without commitment by the councils and their senates in the country’s universities is common. Conclusion FL learning at SAUs surpasses the learning of SAILs. Hard power created in 19th century still prevails and soft power is emerging. The hard power seems to have created African elites whoprefer English rather than indigenous languages. References Abdullah, S.S. (2013). A Contrastive Study of the Grammar Translation and the Direct Methods of Teaching. ICBEMBS, 26-27 January: 124-128. Retrieved from http://psrcentre.org/images. African Union. (2006). Charter for African Cultural Renaissance.http://au.int/en/sites/default Ashcroft, B. (2001). Language and Race. Social Identities, Vol.7, No. 2: 311-328. 10.1080/1350463012008790. Doi: Chang, S.C.(2011). A Contrastive Study of Grammar Translation Method and Communicative Approach in Teaching English Grammar. English Language Teaching, Vol. 4, No. 2: 1324.Doi:10.5539/elt.v4n2p13. Christie, P. (1991). The Right to Learn: The Struggle for Education in South BN: Ravan Press. Ducháčková, S. (2006).Methods and Approaches in Foreign Language Teaching. fromhttp://is.muni.cz/th/68503/pedf_m/Diploma_Thesis.pdf. 232 Africa.Braamfontein, Retrieved �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Gray, C.S. (2011). Hard Power and Soft Power: The Utility of Military Force as an ofPolicy in the 21st Century.Carlisle, US: Strategic Studies Institute. Instrument Lalu, P. (2011). Restless natives, native questions,Mail & Guardian. 26 August: 1. Louw, L. & Kendall, F. (1996). South Africa: The Solution.Norwood: Amagi Publications. Lund, T. (2014). Power Education ‘is Behind Joblessness’: No Dividend From Rate. Business Day. 10 April:1-2. Drop in SA Poverty Mandela, N.R. (1994).Long Walk to Freedom. London, LN: Abacus. Maseko, P. (2011). Looking in all the wrong places for real learning. Mail & August: 8. Guardian. 26 McKerron, M.E. (1934). A History of Education in South Africa. Pretoria, PTA: J.L. Van Schaik. Meyer, M. (2007). An Exploration of the Role of Soft Power in Hegemony: the Retrieved from www.scholar.sun.ac.za/bitstream. Ministerial Committee.(2005).The Development of Indigenous African Instruction in Higher Education. Pretoria: N. S. Ndebele. USA and China. Languages asMediums of Ministry of Education. (1997a).Education White Paper 3: A Programme for the Transformation Higher Education. Pretoria:S. M .E .Bengu. Ministry of Education. (1997b). Higher Education Act 101 of 1997. Pretoria: Juta Limited Ministry of Education. (2001). Draft National Plan for Higher Education in Retrieved from http://www.unisa.ac.za. Of & Company South Africa. Ministry of Education .(2002). Language Policy for Higher Education.Pretoria: T. Mbeki. Morales-Jones, C.A. (2013).Methods/Approaches of Teaching ESOL: A Historical Overview. In H. Zainuddin, N.Yahya, C.A. Morales-Jones, &E.N.W. Ariza (Eds.), Fundamentals of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages in K–12 Mainstream Classrooms (pp. 63-74). Dubuque, Kendall Hunt Publishing Company. Nkuna, P.H. (2010a). The 11 Official Languages: An Advantage for South Africa. MD: Hlovasi Productions. Midrand, Nkuna, P.H. (2010b). The Fit between Government Language Policies and Institutional Language Policies: The Case of Indigenous Languages in the South African Higher Education System. Retrieved from http://uir.unisa.ac.za. Nye, J.S. (1990).Soft Power. Foreign Policy, No. 80, Twentieth Anniversary URL: htt://links.jstor.org/sici?sici= 005. Nye, J.S. (2006). Soft Power, http://www.hks.harvard.edu. Hard Power and (Autumn):153-171. Leadership. Retrieved from 233 �Learning foreign and indigenous languages: The case of South African universities South Africa. (1996). Constitution of the Republic of South Africa No. 108 of GovernmentPrinters. TheGrammar Translation Method (January). (2010). Retrieved 1996. fromwww.englishraven.com. Trunkos, J. (2014).What Is Soft Power Capability and How Does It Impact Foreign Retrieved from http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/academy/content/pdf. 234 Pretoria: Policy? � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2796 Title A name given to the resource Learning foreign and indigenous languages: The case of South African universities Author Author Nkuna, Paul Abstract A summary of the resource. Learning a language through another language is trivialto any type of language learning, whether it is the learning of a local or a foreign language. South Africa’s language policy for higher education recommends the study of foreign languages (FLs) and indigenous languages.A decade after its adoption, the learning of a foreign or indigenous language in that foreign or that indigenous language, respectively, at universities has been overlooked. In essence, the learning of foreign languages at the country’s universities dates back to the 19th century, when the first higher education institution,the South African College was established. At that College a Department of General Literature that offered Dutch, English, Latin and Ancient languages was established. English and Dutch teachers provided instruction in the English and Dutch language, respectively. The instructions involved theory, history and practice of English grammar and literature or Dutch grammar and literature. The learning of indigenous languages at the country’s universities began in the 20th century under the departments of Bantu Studies. They were learnt through English, and then later through English andAfrikaans. The instructions involved theory, history and practice of English grammar and literature. The aim of this study is to gain knowledge on the different approaches that may be used to learn a foreign language and an indigenous language. The study focuses on the complex challenges facing the country’s universities to adopt new, different and best models for the teaching of foreign and indigenous languages after many decades of using English and Afrikaans mediums. A case study method is used for this study. The emphasis is on the learning of foreign versus indigenous languages in South African universities (SAUs). The paper consists of an introduction, the theory of Grammar Translation Method (GTM), a case study on the learning of foreign versus South African indigenous languages (SAILs) at the SAUs, and a conclusion. Keywords: foreign language, indigenous language, learning, English, Afrikaans Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PL Languages and literatures of Eastern Asia, Africa, Oceania,PR English literature https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/93a75548e5e2bc5dce8962e9487a7f95.pdf 5d566ef5d73aa240f4a4729a47616cd7 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level Melisa Okičić & Merima Osmankadić University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Submitted: 15.04.2014. Accepted: 07.11.2014. Abstract Teaching English as a foreign language at university level is quite a different challenge compared to teaching high school or young non-native learners. This is due to the fact that university students are expected to acquire specific grammar terminology in order to master the grammar system of the target language. At the English Department of the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo, during the first three (undergraduate) years of study the students are introduced to several grammar courses, focusing on the analysis of English grammar through descriptive explanations given in English. The courses serve as a basis that is expected to improve both the grammar and translation competence of the students. This paper examines to what extent the acquired descriptive knowledge of morphosyntactic properties of English is helpful in terms of translation of those Bosnian sentences whose proper translation into English requires the knowledge of contrastive rules. The research has been designed as a combination of action research and a quasi-experimental pre-test (delayed) post-test control-treatment group. As the research findings have revealed, teaching grammar to non-native learners of English without input as to the contrastive differences between the source and the target language results in erroneous translation, which is a consequence of negative transfer from the source into the target language. On the other hand, grammar teaching supported by the presentation of relevant contrastive rules has proved to be an efficient learning technique in terms of reducing errors and improving both grammar and translation competence of non-native learners. Key words: verb phrase, erroneous translation, transfer, contrastive analysis, pre-testing, post-testing, treatment Introduction An Introduction to Morphosyntax is a course delivered during the second year of study at the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo, English Department. It is one of the six mandatory grammar courses introduced during a three-year undergraduate programme of study, listed as follows: 1st year: Morphology and A Survey of English Grammar; 2nd year: An Introduction to Morphosyntax and Nonfinite Constructions; 3rd year: Syntax of the Simple Sentence and Syntax of the Complex Sentence. Each course consists of lectures and practical classes, and is designed in the form of a structural syllabus.1 All the courses are aimed at the description of the target language grammar, which is done through form-focused instructions in English.2 In addition, none of the course syllabi anticipate a contrastive analysis unit. However, all the courses share the same goal: to increase students’ grammar competence “A structural (or formal) syllabus is one in which the content of language teaching is a collection of the forms and structures, usually grammatical, of the language being taught. Examples of structures include: nouns, verbs, adjectives, statements, questions, complex sentences, subordinate clauses, past tense, and so on, although formal syllabi may include other aspects of language form such as pronounciation or morphology.”(Krahnke, 1987, p. 10) 2 The focus is on standard British English, but the students are made aware that there are other standard varieties of English. 1 179 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level in the target language, thus also enhancing both their communicative and translation competence. Furthermore, it is worth mentioning that translation exercises are not done within grammar courses. The translation exercises are done within a skill-based course titled Contemporary English Language.3 The syllabus for this course does not anticipate any contrastive lectures/exercises since the grammar courses are expected to provide a solid basis for the purpose of translation. An Introduction to Morphosyntax is focused on the description of morphosyntactic properties of the English phrase structure (noun phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, verb phrase and prepositional phrase). Upon the completion of the course, the students are expected to master the English phrase structure, to recognize different kinds of phrases at both the phrasal and the clausal levels and to use the accurate structure of a certain phrase for the purpose of translation. However, taking into account that the course does not anticipate any contrastive lectures, the lecturer and the teaching assistant decided to conduct research in order to assess to what extent the acquired knowledge of the English phrase is useful in terms of translation. This research aimed at assessing the quality of translation of those Bosnian sentences whose proper translation into English requires the use of contrastive rules. The research was restricted to the translation of verb phrases appearing in Bosnian conditional/passive/Perfect Tense/Present Tense sentences. For the purpose of the research, the following hypothesis has been defined: teaching English grammar to non-native learners of English without input as to the contrastive differences between the source and the target language results in erroneous translations, being a consequence of negative transfer from the source into the target language. The paper is organized as follows: after the Introduction, which is given in the first section, the second section gives a theoretical background and a short overview of the recent literature that is relevant to the main objective of the paper. The third section presents details as to the methodology of the research. The paper proceeds in the next section with the analysis of the results and the discussion thereof. In the end we give some final remarks. Theoretical Background Contrastive Analysis (CA) is a foreign-language teaching theory that was born in the early 1960s, which was the period when structural linguistics and behaviourist psychology enjoyed great popularity. Proponents of this theory came to advocate that foreign language learning is actually a process of acquiring different structures from the source into the target language. Such an approach gave birth to the basic concept of CA known as the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH): “... in the comparison between native and foreign language lies the key to ease or difficulty in foreign language learning (...) Those elements that are similar to (the learner’s) native language will be simple for him and those elements that are different will be difficult.” (Lado, 1957, pp. 1-2). In other words, contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to identify potential errors for the purpose of determining what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a situation of foreign or second language learning (Gass & Selinker, 2008, p. 96). Numerous contrastive analyses that were undertaken at that time resulted in different pedagogical materials. One such set of materials was the outcome of the Yugoslav Serbo-Croatian – English Contrastive Project (YSCECP) that was carried out under the leadership of Professor Rudolf Filipović, then Director of the Linguistic Institute of Zagreb University and professor in the English Department of that University. There are several volumes of studies and separate reports that were published under the auspices of the Project, and although contrastive analysis has long been abandoned (unjustly, in our opinion), and these studies and reports neglected, we can see 3 During the undergraduate study, there are six courses of this kind (two per academic year) during which the students translate selected texts from Bosnian into English and vice versa. 180 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics today how invaluable their contribution is both from the perspective of theoretical linguistics and from that of teaching English as a foreign or second language to learners whose first languages are Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian. After the initial CAH had been defined, many CA proponents focused on a further development of the CA theory in terms of describing the hierarchy of difficulties and the CA methodological framework. Stockwell, Bowen, and Martin (1965) analysed the difficulties of an English speaker learning Spanish and defined eight different degrees of difficulty for phonological and 16 degrees of difficulty for grammatical structures of the two languages in contrast. The hierarchy was based upon the impact of positive, negative, and zero transfer from the source into the target language.4 A few years later, Whitman (1970) proposed the CA methodological framework comprising the following steps: description, selection, contrast and prediction. In short, during the first phase (description), the teacher describes the two language systems using standard grammar rules. In the second phase (selection), the teacher selects a set of structures to be contrasted. This phase actually “reflects the conscious and unconscious assumptions of the investigator” (Whitman, 1970, p. 193). In the third phase (contrasting) the selected structures are contrasted and accordingly described. In the end, in the fourth phase (prediction) the learning difficulties have been defined following a three-step procedure as previously explained. Although CA seemed to be a revolutionary theory, it soon became the subject of much discussion. With reference to it, Wardhaugh (1970) severely criticized Lado’s CAH, defining it as the strong CAH version, and additionally describing it as quite demanding and completely unrealistic: “at the very last, this version demands of linguists that they have available a set of linguistic universals formulated within a comprehensive linguistic theory which deals adequately with syntax, semantics, and phonology. ... Does the linguist have available to him an overall contrastive system within which he can relate the two languages in terms of mergers, splits, zeroes, over-differentiations, underdifferentiations, reinterpretations, and so on?” (Wardhaugh, 1970, pp. 125-126). Wardhaugh proposed a new version of the CAH defined as the weak version. In Wardhaugh’s words, CA should not be used a priori but during the process of foreign language learning where it should be primarily used for the purpose of explaining errors that have been identified during the learning process. On the other hand, some other authors claimed that both strong and weak versions should be viewed as a unique version of the CAH. Therefore, Oller and Ziahosseiny proposed the so-called moderate version of CAH, defined as follows: “The categorization of abstract and concrete patterns according to their perceived similarities and differences is the basis for learning; therefore wherever patterns are minimally distinct in form or meaning in one or more systems confusion may result.” (Oller & Ziahosseiny, 1970, p. 186) The moderate version of the CAH was proposed on the basis of the study of spelling errors in which the authors concluded the following: English spelling proved to be more difficult for people whose native language used a Roman script (French, Spanish), than for those who used a non-Roman script (Arabic, Japanese). This conclusion was actually quite surprising, and in opposition to the CAH strong version, which predicts more difficult acquisition of those features that are different in the two languages in contrast. On the other hand, this conclusion has also revealed some important observations as to the complexity of human learning, thus outlining that interference should not necessarily be caused by different, but also by similar features of the two languages (interlingual and intralangual errors). Such conclusions actually announced the development of the so-called Error Analysis approach, being quite popular mainstream in recent years. As for the current status of CA, it can be said that this theory has not achieved a huge success as initially expected. Over the period of the last fifty years, CA has been criticized for the lack of reliability of CA predictions. As a consequence of such a situation, the CA approach has been largely disregarded from a standard practice of foreign language teaching. Nevertheless, there are some recent studies that rely heavily on what was at the core Ellis argues that negative transfer occurs when the learner’s first language is one of the sources of error in learner language, whereas positive transfer occurs when the learner’s L1 facilitates L2 acquisition (Ellis, 1997, p. 51). 4 181 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level of contrastive analysis. Callies, for example, in his study of the tough-movement in German and English, combines contrastive analysis with the Markedness Differential Hypothesis (MDH) postulated by Eckman (1977), which claims that L1 structures that are different from L2 structures and typologically more marked will not be transferred, whereas those L1 structures that are different from L2 structures and typologically less marked are more likely to be transferred (Callies, 2008, p. 37).5 We can predict, on the basis of typological features, the order and difficulty of linguistic features in the acquisition process: less marked structures will be acquired first and without difficulty, while more marked structures will be acquired later or with greater difficulty. In other words, the MDH identifies potential difficulties in the L2 learning process not merely on the basis of similarities and differences derived from a contrastive analysis (CA) of two languages (as in traditional CA), but through a combination of the concepts of typological markedness and cross-linguistic influence (Callies, 2008, p. 37). This is in accordance with the claim that there are cognitive constraints that govern the transfer of L1 knowledge. Two of these constraints are learners’ perceptions of what is transferable and learners’ stage of development. Learners themselves are able to perceive some structures in their L1 as more basic (less marked or more universal) and others as more unique to their own language (more marked). They are more willing to transfer those structures that they perceive as basic than those that they perceive as unique to their L1 (Ellis, 1997, p. 53). From Callies’ study we can see that contrastive analysis has been recycled after a long period of hibernation, albeit combined with the new scientific insights into the nature of foreign or second language acquisition. There is no doubt that CA has revealed some important facts as to the complexity of language learning, therefore remaining an available technique which can be used (in whichever form appropriate) for the purpose of explaining interference, whenever such explanations might be required. We are of the opinion that it is university level students of English that can greatly benefit from such contrastive explanations. Methods Research Design This study is defined as a combination of action research and a quasi-experimental pre-test – (delayed) post-test control – treatment group (Mackey & Gass, 2011). A mixed methodological approach has been chosen due to the following reasons. According to Mertens, action research is the research ‘that is done by teachers for themselves. It is truly a systematic inquiry into one’s own practice.’ (Mertens, 2012, p. 4) Since the research of this paper was primarily initiated by the lecturer and the teaching assistant with the express purpose of reviewing our own teaching practice, our research has the characteristics of action research. However, we wanted to create an experimental and a control group in order to strengthen the methodological framework, and since action research does not usually imply the creation of such groups, nor does it imply the questioning of a hypothesis statement, the action research was additionally designed as a quasi-experimental pre-test - (delayed) post-test control-treatment group.6 The quasi-experimental design has been selected due to inability to employ randomly selected 5 Eckman, F. (1977). Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis. Language Learning, 27, 315-330, as cited in Callies. Tough-movement is a uniform cross-linguistic phenomenon because it explicitly indicates topicalisation of the raised NP. In spite of the fact that this phenomenon is universal, the formal linguistic means with which their function is expressed vary from language to language (Callies, 2008). 6 “In an action research project you are not trying to prove anything. You are not comparing one thing to another to determine the best possible thing. Also, there are no experimental or control groups, independent or dependent variables, or hypotheses to be supported. The goal is simply to understand. As an action researcher you are creating a series of snapshots in various forms and in various places to help us understand exactly what is going on.” (Johnson, 2005, p. 25) 182 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics sampling, which is one of the key features of a pure experiment.7 Randomly selected sampling could not be employed, since the research took place during the regular teaching process, and therefore a non-random method of sampling was used. The research was done with two intact classes, one being defined as a control, another as a treatment group.8 Moreover, for the purpose of research, independent and dependent variables were also defined. A common teaching practice (teaching English grammar without contrastive input) was considered the independent variable, whereas a newly introduced teaching method (presentation of contrastive analysis input) was considered the dependent variable. Furthermore, for the purpose of strengthening the validity of the research, a special focus was also given to the analysis of extraneous variables, as will be explained in the following section.9 Participants The participants in the research were all the full-time second-year students (50), a lecturer (1) and a teaching assistant (1). The students were the subject of the research while the lecturer and the teaching assistant were the facilitators of the research. In order to identify general characteristics of the students relevant for the validity of the study, prior to the pre-testing phase the following extraneous variables were analysed: age, high-school profile, enrolment status, attending school in English-speaking countries, spending more than six months in English-speaking countries, additional English language learning activities (commercial English courses/private classes) and the most common practice of studying grammar. The data were collected by means of a questionnaire, jointly created by the lecturer and the teaching assistant. The results have been summarized in the following figures: “Randomization is usually viewed as one of the hallmarks of experimental research. Design types can range from truly experimental (with random assignment) to what is known as quasi-experimental (without random assignment).” (Mackey & Gass, 2005, p. 146) 8 “However, there are situations when randomization of individuals may not be feasible. For example, in second language research we often need to use intact classes for our studies, and in these cases the participants cannot be randomly assigned to one of the experimental or control groups. Intact classes are commonly and often by necessity used in research for the sake of convenience.” (Mackey & Gass, 2011, p. 142) 9 Strengthening the validity of the research is “an indication of accuracy in terms of the extent to which a research conclusion corresponds with reality.” (White & McBurney, 2012, p. 143) “Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed extraneous variables. (...) Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an ‘experimental error’. A study must always be so designated that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or variables.” (Kothari, 2004, p. 34) 7 183 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level 4% 2% 1986 4% 2% 8% 1989 16% 16% Grammar School 1990 1991 56% 1992 Vocation al School 92% 1993 Figure 1. Age of students Figure 2. High School Profile 1st time 2nd time 3rd time 4% 0% 96% Figure 3. Enrolment Status Figure 4. Additional English Language Activities (Commercial Courses) 0% 20% No Yes 80% Yes No 100% Figure 5. Additional English Language Activities (Private Classes) Figure 6. Consulting Senior Fellow Students in Studying Grammar 17% 12% Yes No 50% 33% Internet Sources - online grammar exercises Cambridge Grammar of English 88% Figure 7. Use of Additional Grammar Literature commonly used grammar sources (additional literature) 2% 184 No 98% Yes Figure 8. The most �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics 2% No 98% Yes Figure 9. Spending more than 6 months in school in English-speaking English-speaking countries Figure 10. Attending countries Therefore, the general characteristics of the second year students can be summarized as follows: 56% of the students are at the age of 20. 92% graduated from Grammar High School. 96% enrolled in the second year of study for the first time. None of the students takes any additional learning activity in parallel with studying (commercial English courses/private classes). 20% consult senior fellow students in studying grammar. 12% use additional grammar literature, with Cambridge Grammar of English being the most frequently used (50%). Only 2% of the students spent more than six months in Englishspeaking countries (one academic year). Materials During the research five kinds of materials were used: a questionnaire (1) (already explained in Participants Section), two tests (pre-testing and post-testing phases), supporting teaching material (treatment phase) comprising the handouts summarizing contrastive rules (3) and the translation exercise handout (1). All the materials were jointly produced by the lecturer and the teaching assistant. During the pre-testing and post-testing phases the testing method was employed with the test being a key instrument of the research. The first test (henceforth Test 1) was designed to test the background knowledge of the students in terms of assessing their translation competence (from Bosnian into English). Test 1 consisted of three sets of sentences written in Bosnian (12 sentences/total), focusing on the translation of the main verbs (verb phrases). Each set of sentences was selected following the wellknown contrastive differences between Bosnian and English (Dubravčić, 1985; Mihailović, 1985; Riđanović, 2007; Riđanović, 2012). These sets of sentences were limited to the translation of verb phrases in Bosnian conditional sentences (potential and hypothetical condition) (2), the translation of verb phrases in Bosnian passive sentences (2), and the translation of verb phrases in Bosnian Perfect Tense (6)/Present Tense (2) sentences.10 After the pre-testing data had been collected, additional teaching material (henceforth treatment material) as well as the second test (henceforth Test 2) were produced. Test 2 was distributed during the (delayed) post-testing phase. Procedure 10 The figures in brackets indicate the exact number of examples in particular sets of sentences. 185 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level The overall research took place during the regular teaching process (practical grammar classes). The second year students attend practical grammar classes divided into two groups. During the first week of the 2013/2014 academic year (winter semester), the data as to the general characteristics of the students (extraneous variable analysis) were collected and analysed. The pre-testing phase took place in the third week, before any lectures relevant for the purpose of translation were delivered. The students were not previously informed about the task, nor were they given any additional instructions during the completion of the task. The time for the pre-testing task was 45 minutes. Following the pre-testing results, the two groups of students were classified as a control and a treatment group. The group that demonstrated weaker results was considered the treatment group, whereas the group that achieved better results was defined as the control group. After the groups had been established and the pre-testing data had been analysed, the supporting teaching material (treatment phase) and Test 2 (post-testing phase) were produced. Taking into account that the treatment material consists of two kinds of handouts, it is important to outline the following: the treatment material was not presented during the lectures, but only during the practical classes. In addition, the handouts summarizing contrastive rules were delivered only to the treatment group of students, while the translation exercise handout was distributed to both groups (treatment/control). Moreover, the handouts presented to the treatment group were not handed in to the students for the purpose of avoiding their potential distribution (copying) among the students of the treatment and the control group. The presentation of the contrastive rules was done as follows: using the pre-testing examples, the teaching assistant would first write an example on the blackboard, at the same time explaining the contrastive differences in terms of the structure of the verb phrase in Bosnian and English. After all the examples had been presented, the students were given a translation exercise handout and were asked to translate the sentences into English. During the translation, the students were required to identify the main verb in the Bosnian sentence, briefly describe the verb phrase (structure, tense, aspect, voice) and justify their translation choice recalling the rules previously presented. On the other hand, the control group was not exposed to the presentation of the contrastive rules. The students were given the translation exercise handout and were asked to translate the sentences immediately. In a case where the student provided a correct answer, no further discussion was initiated. If a student faced a problem in translation, the elicitation of a correct answer was done through explanations as to the use of English tenses. A delayed post-testing was done in the first week of summer semester. Just like the pre-testing, the post-testing was not previously announced to the students, nor were additional instructions given during the task completion. The time for the post-testing task was 45 minutes. After the post-testing phase, the findings were compared to the pre-testing results and final conclusion remarks were made. For the purpose of the pre-testing and post-testing analysis, the three categories of answers were defined: target translation (TT), descriptive translation (DT) and erroneous translation (ET). The target translation was considered a correct translation realized by the use of a target verb phrase structure (tense). The descriptive translation was considered a translation realized by the use of those verbal tenses that do not significantly affect the meaning of a sentence. The erroneous translation was considered an incorrect translation caused by an inappropriate use of the verbal tense that significantly affects the meaning of a sentence. Results and discussion 186 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Pre-testing Since the research was divided into four phases (extraneous variable analysis, pre-testing, treatment and (delayed) post-testing), and since the extraneous variable analysis has already been presented in this paper (see Participants Section), in the following paragraphs we will discuss the results obtained during the remaining phases of the research, focusing first on the pre-testing phase. The pre-testing findings are summarized in Table (1): Table 1. An overview of pre-testing findings No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sentence s (includin g target translatio n (TT)) Da imam novca, kupio bih novi kompjuter . (If I had money, I would buy a new computer. ) Da sam znala da dolaziš, ostala bih kod kuće. (If I had known you were coming, I would have stayed at home.) Ovaj muzej je izgrađen prije tri godine. (The museum was built three years ago.) Ovaj muzej se gradio tri godine. (This museum was being built for three years.) Upravo je stigla u London. (She has just arrived in London.) Vozio sam motor samo jednom. Bosnian GROUP 1 (25 students) TT DT ET n % n % n % GROUP 2 (25 students) TT DT ET n % n % n % BOTH GROUPS DT ET n % n % n Total n % Conditiona l (potential) 16 64 0 0 9 3 6 18 7 2 0 0 7 2 8 34 68 0 0 16 32 50 10 0 Conditiona l (hypotheti cal) 6 24 0 0 1 9 7 6 3 1 2 0 0 22 8 8 9 18 0 0 41 82 50 10 0 Bosnian biti passive 13 52 0 0 1 2 4 8 11 4 4 0 0 14 5 6 24 48 0 0 26 52 50 10 0 Bosnian se-passive 11 44 0 0 1 4 5 6 4 1 6 0 0 21 8 4 15 30 0 0 35 70 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 TT % 187 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. (I have driven a motorbike only once.) Već sam pročitala tu knjigu. (I have already read that book.) Živim u Sarajevu od 2010. (I have lived/hav e been living in Sarajevo since 2010) Radim na fakultetu već 5 godina. (I have worked/h ave been working at the faculty for 5 years.) Bio sam u Americi tri puta. (I have been to America three times.) Nisam ga vidio ove sedmice. (I have not seen him this week.) Jesi li vidio mog asistenta jutros? (Have you seen my assistant this morning? ) Total Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 Present Tense 16 64 0 0 9 3 6 9 3 6 0 0 16 6 4 25 50 0 0 25 50 50 10 0 Present Tense 15 60 0 0 1 0 4 0 12 4 8 0 0 13 5 2 27 54 0 0 23 46 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 21 84 0 0 4 1 6 18 7 2 0 0 7 2 8 39 78 0 0 11 22 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 22 3 74 0 0 7 7 2 6 20 0 6 7 0 0 10 0 3 3 42 3 70,5 0 0 0 17 7 29,5 0 60 0 10 0 The analysis of the pre-testing findings has revealed the following: As shown in Table (1), the same examples appeared to be more or less equally problematic for both groups of students. In addition, the translation difficulty can be defined as strictly an erroneous translation since no cases of descriptive translations were confirmed. An additional in-depth analysis of the pre-testing findings has shown that, compared to Group 1, Group 2 demonstrated weaker results and was therefore defined as the treatment group. An overview of pre-testing findings per groups is given below: 188 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics 26% TT 0% 33% TT DT DT 74% ET Figure 11. Pre-testing Results (TT, DT and ET Control Group) 0% 67% ET Figure 12. Pre-testing Results (TT, DT and ET Treatment Group) The Translation of Bosnian Conditional Sentences The translation of Bosnian conditional sentences into English turned out to be quite problematic. The errors were made in terms of an inappropriate choice of the tense form of the main verb appearing in the English subordinate if-clause (Bosnian ako/da - clauses). Therefore, 32% of students translated the example Da imam novca, kupio bih novi kompjuter (potential condition) by using the Present Simple form of the main verb in the subordinate clause, cf. *If I have money I would buy a new computer (instead of If I had money, ...). The same error (but having a much higher percentage) was identified in the case of Da sam znala da dolaziš, ostala bih kod kuće (hypothetical condition). 82% of students translated the sentence by choosing the Past Tense form of the main verb in the subordinate clause, cf. *If I knew you were coming I would have stayed at home (instead of If I had known ...). Taking into account that the main verbs in Bosnian subordinate clauses appear in the Present (potential condition) and the Perfect tense (hypothetical condition), it becomes clear that the errors were made due to the negative transfer from the source into the target language, cf. imam/1.sg.present > have/1.sg.present, sam znala/1.sg.past > knew/1.sg. past. The Translation of Bosnian Passive Sentences Before we proceed with the analysis of the translation of Bosnian passive sentences, it is important to outline the following: Compared to English, Bosnian has two different structures of passive verb phrases. The first one is known as biti-passive or jesam-passive11. This type of Bosnian passive is formed by the proper enclitic form of the present/future of the auxiliary biti (Eng. be) and the passive verbal adjective. A distinctive feature of the Bosnian biti-passive verb phrase is that “the present form of the auxiliary jesam is used to form the passive past tense”, which means that this auxiliary cannot be used to form the Bosnian present tense passive verb phrase (Riđanović, 2012, p. 356). The example of biti-passive verb phrase in the past tense would be Ovaj muzej je izgrađen prije tri godine/This museum was built three years ago, in which the passive verb phrase is formed by the present enclitic form of the auxiliary biti > jesam > je + passive verbal adjective izgrađen (Eng. built). On the other hand, the Bosnian se-passive can take the present, past and future tense forms. The example of the se-passive verb phrase in the past tense would be as follows: Ovaj muzej se izgradio za tri godine/This museum was built over a period of three years, in which the passive verb phrase is formed by the passive se and the imperfective past form of the main verb izgraditi > izgradio (Eng. built). As Riđanović points out, the key difference between biti and se passive verb phrases is as follows: “In sentences with imperfective predicate verbs, the se passive is generally preferred, in all tenses and moods, over the form with passive verbal adjective. (...) On the other hand, if the predicate is realized with a perfective verb, we usually employ the jesam passive.” (Riđanović, 2012, p. 280) As it is called by some linguists, cf. Riđanović (2012). For the purpose of a brief illustration of Bosnian passive verb phrases we will use the term biti-passive. 11 189 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level The analysis of the translation of Bosnian passive sentences has revealed a high level of errors with both structures of passive verb phrases. Here it is important to outline that the students were restricted to the translation of the two Bosnian sentences containing the passive past tense verb phrase, one being realized as the biti-passive, another as the se-passive sentence. In addition, for the purpose of a precise illustration of the past time reference the adverbials prije tri godine/three years ago and tri godine/for three years were also included. The biti-passive sentence Ovaj muzej je izgrađen prije tri godine was incorrectly translated by 52% of students as *This museum is built three years ago, while the remaining 48% offered a proper translation This museum was built three years ago. The error made is a consequence of the negative transfer from the source language, i.e. the direct translation of the present enclitic form je by the same (but inappropriate) Present Simple Tense form of the verb be > is in English. On the other hand, the se-passive sentence Ovaj muzej se gradio tri godine was correctly translated by 30% of students as This museum was being built for three years, whereas the incorrect translation was offered by 70% of students. 42 % (out of 70%) used the Present Perfect form of the passive verb phrase as in *This museum has been built for three years, whereas the remaining 58% used the Present Simple Tense form of the passive verb phrase, as in *This museum is built for three years. The offered translation solutions were considered an error, since the choice of the tenses does not reflect the proper time reference (past), thereby significantly affecting the original meaning of the sentence (cf. the museum is still being built). The Translation of Bosnian Perfect Tense/Present Tense sentences Before we take a look at the pre-testing findings, we will first mention a few important facts as to the selection of Bosnian sentences offered for testing the use of the English Present Perfect. First of all, it is important to outline that the English Present Perfect does not have its corresponding tense in Bosnian. Therefore it is not surprising that understanding the basic concept of this tense, as well as mastering its use for the sake of translation (in particular from Bosnian into English) is usually quite a problematic issue for Bosnian learners of English. In other words, Bosnian sentences containing the main verb in the Perfect Tense are usually translated into English by the Past Simple Tense. Such a situation is completely justified in cases where the translation by the Past Simple Tense is the only available choice, as in Sreo sam je juče > I met her yesterday. However, Bosnian Perfect Tense sentences sometimes may need to be translated by the Present Perfect Tense, e.g. Upravo je stigla u London/ She has just arrived in London. Moreover, there are some cases in which Bosnian Present Tense sentences require the English Present Perfect, e.g. Živim u Sarajevu od 2010/I have lived in Sarajevo since 2010. In addition, the use of the Present Perfect Tense differs in BrE and AmE. As is widely documented in the linguistic literature, the main verbs appearing in sentences containing adverbs such as just, ever, never, already, yet (signalling the use of the Present Perfect Tense in BrE) are frequently realized in AmE by the Past Simple Tense (Hundt & Smith, 2009; Žetko, 2004; Žetko, 2010). This difference is explained by different cognitive processing of native (AmE and BrE) speakers, i.e. a different perception of the time of an action expressed by the main verb. As pointed out by Žetko “the difference between the two variants occurs because different conceptualizations are possible. The BrE speaker conceptualizes just as almost reaching to, and therefore locates the situation in a period that leads up to it and employs the present perfect. The AmE speaker, on the other hand, conceptualizes just as lying completely before to, and therefore locates a situation in a period that lies wholly before to and thus uses the preterit.” (Žetko, 2004, p. 520) 190 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics On the other hand, in the case of some other adverbials such as since + time expression and for + time expression, the grammar books prescribe the use of the Present Perfect in AmE and BrE, cf. I have not seen him since last week or I have lived in Sarajevo for 10 years. In order to test the use of the English Present Perfect in translation, we employed the following criteria: First of all, the examples of Bosnian Perfect/Present Tense sentences without adverbials such as Donio sam konačnu odluku/I have made a final decision were disregarded, since we believe that at this stage the students should first be introduced to the basic explanations as to the contrastive differences between Bosnian and English through the systematization of typical Bosnian adverbials signalling the use of the Present Perfect Tense.12 The students were offered the sentences containing the main verbs in the Bosnian Perfect/Present Tense including adverbials, as follows: a) upravo > just, već > already , signalling the perfect of recent past use of the Present Perfect Tense; b) samo jednom > only once, signalling the experiential use of the Present Perfect Tense; c) već (for) + time expression and od (since) + time expression , signalling the continuative use of the Present Perfect Tense (Huddleston and Pullum 2002: 141-146).13 The analysis of the pre-testing findings has revealed the following observations: First of all, the most common errors were identified in the case of the Bosnian sentences containing the main verb in the Present Tense (such as živim/live, radim/work, non-perfective, progressive aspect) and adverbials realized by preposition od/since + time expression (2010) and preposition već/for + time expression (5 godina/5 years). The sentence Živim u Sarajevu od 2010/I have lived in Sarajevo since 2010 was incorrectly translated by 50% of students, whereas the sentence Radim na fakultetu već 5 godina /I have worked at the faculty for 5 years was incorrectly translated by 46% of students. The error is a consequence of the negative transfer from the source into the target language by which the Present Tense forms of the Bosnian verbs živim/radim (Eng. live/work) were translated by the same (but not appropriate) tense in English as *I live in Sarajevo since 2010/*I work at the faculty for five years. Bearing in mind that the presence of the adverbials since/for + time expression explicitly highlights the duration of an action rather than the general characteristics, the translation in which the Present Simple Tense was used was considered incorrect.14 In addition, it is worth mentioning that the correct translation was mostly done by the Present Perfect Progressive Tense (instead of the Present Perfect Tense). Therefore, the sentence Živim u Sarajevu od 2010 was correctly translated by 50% of students. 16% (out of 50%) used the Present Perfect Tense, cf. I have lived in Sarajevo since 2010, while the remaining 34% used the Present Perfect Progressive, cf. I have been living in Sarajevo since 2010. The sentence Radim na fakultetu već pet godina was correctly translated by 54% of students. 13% used the 12 By selecting Bosnian sentences containing adverbials, our aim was not to focus exclusively on teaching the Present Perfect through “adverbial-tense matching”, which is the most commonly used approach in many grammar books. Taking into account that adverbials can rarely be linked to only one tense use (cf. I have lived in Sarajevo for three years (I still live in Sarajevo) vs. I lived in Sarajevo for two years (but now I live in London)), as well as the fact that Bosnian learners experience a lot of problems in terms of mastering this tense caused by the absence of a corresponding tense in Bosnian, the selection of Bosnian sentences with adverbials should be viewed as an initial phase in teaching this tense for the purpose of clarification the key concept of “merging” the past and the present time, being a typical feature of the English Present Perfect. 13 Huddleston and Pullum give the following classification of the Present Perfect in English: The continuative perfect/universal (=states) (1) She has lived in Berlin ever since she married. The experiential perfect/existential (= occurrences within the time span up to now) (2) His sister has been up Mont Blanc twice. The resultative perfect (=change of state) (3) She has broken her leg. The perfect of recent past (=news announcements) (8) She has recently/just been to Paris. (Huddleston & Pullum, 2002, p. 141f). The resultative use of the Present Perfect has been disregarded in this research strictly for pedagogical reasons (this use has already been illustrated by Donio sam konačnu odluku > I have made a final decision). 14 Expressing general characteristics is a typical feature of the English Present Simple Tense. 191 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level Present Perfect Tense, cf. I have worked at the faculty for five years, whereas 41% used the Present Perfect Progressive, cf. I have been working at the faculty for five years. Another error (although having a much lower percentage) was identified in the case of the following example Nisam ga vidio ove sedmice/I have not seen him this week. 22% of students used the Past Simple form of the main verb, cf. * I did not see him this week. Taking into account that the phrase this week clearly indicates that the duration of the period is still ongoing, the use of the Past Simple Tense was ruled out. As for the nature of the error made, it seems that the students were more focused on the translation of the verb phrase, thus almost completely disregarding the meaning of the adverbial this week and its impact on the action expressed by the main verb/translation. In the end, it is worth mentioning that the Bosnian sentences containing the adverbials upravo/just, već/already and samo jednom/only once were correctly translated by 100% of students. However, an in-depth analysis has also revealed the following: although the target tense was the Present Perfect, in some examples the students used the English Past Simple more frequently. Such translations were considered correct due to the already mentioned frequent use of the Past Simple Tense in AmE. The use of the Past Simple vs. the Present Perfect is summarized as follows. The example Upravo je stigla u London was translated by 66% of students as She just arrived in London, while 34% used the Present Perfect She has just arrived in London. The example Vozio sam motor samo jednom was translated by 78% of students as I drove a motorbike only once, while the remaining 22% used the Present Perfect as in I have driven a motorbike only once. The example Bio sam u Americi tri puta was translated by 44% of students as I was in America three times, while 46% used the Present Perfect I have been to America three times. Finally Već sam pročitala tu knjigu was translated by 32% of students as I already read that book, while the remaining 68% used the Present Perfect Tense, cf. I have already read that book. However, since the students were not asked to explain their translation choices, it remained unclear whether or not they were aware of a different use of the Present Perfect in AmE and BrE. This observation was taken into consideration and was accordingly presented and explained during the treatment phase. Treatment Phase During the treatment phase the handouts summarizing the contrastive rules were orally presented only to the treatment group of students. Since the research procedure has already been explained earlier (see Procedure Section), in this part we will briefly illustrate the content of the handouts presented to the treatment group. The handout material was produced in accordance with the results of the pre-testing findings. Handout 1 – Translation of Bosnian Conditional Sentences (summary of contrastive rules) Conditional dependent clause (Bosnian) 1) Da –clause containing the Present Simple Tense form of the main verb (Da imam dovoljno novca ...) 2) Kad-clause + present conditional (Kad bih imao dovoljno novca) 192 Main clause (Bosnian) 1) Present conditional of the main verb (kupio bih novo auto) 2) Present conditional of the main verb (kupio bih nova kola) Conditional dependent clause (English) Main Clause (English) Condition Time Reference If - clause containing the Past Simple tense form of the main verb (If I had enough money...) Present conditional of the main verb (would buy a new car) Open potential Present Translation into English BOS: Da imam dovoljno novca, kupio bih novo auto. ENG: If I had enough money I would buy a new car. �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Da-clause containing the Perfect Tense form of the main verb Da sam imala dovoljno novca... Present conditional of the main verb (kupila bih novo auto) If - clause containing the Past Perfect Tense form of the main verb (If I had had enough money...) Past conditional of the main verb (would have bought a new car) Unreal Past BOS: Da sam imala dovoljno novca, kupila bih novo auto. ENG: If I had had enough money I would have bought a new car. Handout 2 – Translation of Bosnian Passive sentences (summary of contrastive rules) Bosnian Passive Time reference Formation Example Bitipassive Past Ovaj muzej je izgrađen prije tri godine. Sepassive Past The Present form of the auxiliary biti > jesam (enclitic forms) > je.sg/su/smo.pl + passive verbal adjective (e.g. graditi > građen) Se-passive + past form of the main verb Ovaj muzej se gradio tri godine. Corresponding English translation This museum was built three years ago. This museum was being built for three years. Formation Time reference Past form of the auxiliary verb be > was/were + passive participle of the main verb (build > built) Past continuous form of the verb be > was/were being + passive participle of the main verb (build > built) Past Past 193 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level Handout 3 – Translation of Bosnian Perfect/Present Tense sentences (summary of contrastive rules) BOSNIAN Example Adverbial English Corresponding Tense AmE: Past Simple Tense (more frequently) and Present Perfect Tense (less frequently) BrE: Present Perfect (most frequently) resultative use) English Corresponding Adverbials Translation Perfect Tense > auxiliary verb jesam (enclitic form) + active verbal adjective Sam stigla, sam vozio Upravo, samo jednom, već, nedavno, Upravo > just, samo jednom > only once, već > already Jutros, ove sedmice, danas Present Perfect Tense Jutros > this morning, ove sedmice > this week, danas today Da li si vidio Jutros, ove sedmice, danas Present Perfect Tense Jutros > this morning, ove sedmice > this week, danas today Živim, radim Od + time expression (eg. od 1992.), već + time expression (e.g. već deset godina), do sada Present Perfect (continuous use) Od + time expression > since + time expression; već + time expression > for + time expression, do sada > so far, up to now BOS: Upravo sam stigla u London. BrE: I have just arrived in London. AmE: I just arrived in London. BOS: Nisam ga vidio ove sedmice. BrE/AmE: I have not seen him this week. (NOTE: this week is still ongoing) BOS: Da li si vidio mog asistenta jutros? BrE/AmE: Have you seen my assistant this morning? (it is still morning) NOTE: I did not see him this morning (it is already afternoon or evening) BOS: Živim ovdje od 1992. godine. AmE and BrE: I have lived here from 1992. Perfect Tense Vidio sam (ga), Nisam ga vidio Perfect Tense (Questions) Present Tense > verb infinitive base + present tense suffixes (m, -š, -i/-a/-e, mo, -te, -ju/-u) Delayed Post-testing The delayed post-testing phase took place in the first week of summer semester (one month after the completion of winter semester). During the practical grammar classes, the students were asked to do the translation test (Test 2). The test comprised the same number of sentences (12), but offered different examples. An overview of delayed post-testing findings is given in Table (3): 194 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Table 2. An overview of delayed post-testing findings N o 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Sentences (including target translatio n (TT)) Da imam problem, razgovaral a bih sa svojom majkom. (If I had a problem, I would talk to my mother.) Da nisi bio tako lijen, položio bi taj ispit. (If you hadn’t been so lazy, you would have passed the exam.) Taj projekat je završen prije pet godina. (That project was completed five years ago.) Ta cesta se popravljala pet godina. (That road was being repaired for five years.) Upravo sam završila zadaću. I have just finished my homework. (BrE)/I just finished my homework. (AmE) Samo jednom sam bila u Engleskoj. I have been to England only once. (BrE) /I was in England only once. (AmE) Već sam čula tu priču. I have already heard that story. CONTROL GROUP (25 students) TT DT ET Bosnian TREATMENT GROUP (25 students) TT DT ET BOTH GROUPS TT DT ET Total n % n % n % n % n % n % n % n % n % n % Conditiona l (potential) 14 56 0 0 1 1 4 4 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 39 78 0 0 1 1 22 50 10 0 Conditiona l (hypothetic al) 7 28 0 0 1 8 7 2 22 88 0 0 3 1 2 29 58 0 0 2 1 42 50 10 0 Bosnian biti passive 11 44 0 0 1 4 5 6 21 84 0 0 4 1 6 32 64 0 0 1 8 36 50 10 0 Bosnian se-passive 12 48 0 0 1 3 5 2 23 92 0 0 2 8 35 70 0 0 1 5 30 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 195 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level 8. 9. 10 . 11 . 12 . (BrE) /I already heard that story. (AmE) Damir uči njemački od 2012. Damir has studied/has been studying German since 2012. Ona spava već tri sata. She has slept/has been sleeping for three hours. On je pobijedio sedam puta. He has won seven times. (BrE) /He won seven times (AmE) Nisam dobio nikakav mail od njega ove sedmice. I have not got any email from him this week. Jesi li jutros razgovaral a sa profesorom ? Have you talked to the professor this morning?/ Did you talk to the professor this morning?15 Total Present Tense 12 48 0 0 1 3 5 2 20 80 0 0 5 2 9 32 64 0 0 1 8 36 50 10 0 Present Tense 16 64 0 0 9 3 6 21 84 0 0 4 1 6 37 74 0 0 1 3 26 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 22 88 0 0 3 1 2 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 47 94 0 0 3 6 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 21 9 73 0 0 8 1 28 2 94 0 0 1 8 6 50 1 83,5 0 0 0 9 9 16,5 0 60 0 10 0 2 7 An overview of post-testing findings per groups would be as illustrated in the following figures: 15 In the case of different time orientation. 27% 196 0% TT 73% DT ET �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Figure 13. Post-testing results (TT, ET and DT - Control Group) 0%6% TT DT ET 94% Figure 14. Post-testing results (TT, ET and DT - Treatment Group) The findings have revealed the following: while the treatment group has demonstrated a significant improvement, the control group has shown even slightly weaker results compared to the pre-testing findings. In other words, the total of ET for the control group during the pre-testing was 26%, which has been increased by 1% in the post-testing phase. In addition, a detailed analysis of post-testing findings (control group) has revealed the following: the pre-testing example (potential condition) Da imam novca kupio bih novi kompjuter was incorrectly translated by 36% of students.16 On the other hand, the post-testing example expressing the same kind of condition Da imam problem, razgovarala bih sa svojom majkom was incorrectly translated by 44% of students *If I have a problem, I would talk to my mother. The pre-testing example (hypothetical condition) Da sam znala da dolaziš kupila bih novi kompjuter was incorrectly translated by 76% of the students, whereas the post-testing example Da nisi bio tako lijen, položio bi taj ispit was incorrectly translated by 72% of students, *If you were not so lazy, you would have passed the exam. The example of the Bosnian biti-passive sentence (pre-testing example) Ovaj muzej je izgrađen prije tri godine was incorrectly translated by 48% of students. The post-testing example Taj projekat je završen prije pet godina was incorrectly translated by 56% of students, *That project is finished five years ago. The pre-testing example of the Bosnian se-passive Ovaj muzej se gradio tri godine was incorrectly translated by 56% of students, whereas the post-testing example Ta cesta se popravljala pet godina was incorrectly translated by 52% of the students, *That road is being built for five years. When it comes to the translation of Bosnian sentences containing the main verb in the present tense, the results for the control group are the following: during the pre-testing phase, the example Živim u Sarajevu od 2010 was incorrectly translated by 36% of students, while Radim na fakultetu već pet godina was incorrectly translated by 40%. The post-testing example Damir uči njemački od 2012 was incorrectly translated by 52% of students as *Damir studies German since 2012, whereas Ona spava već tri sata was incorrectly translated by 36%, cf. *She sleeps for three hours. The only slight improvement has been confirmed in the translation of the Bosnian sentences containing the time expression ove sedmice/this week. Compared to the pre-testing phase in which the example Nisam ga vidio ove sedmice was incorrectly translated by 16% of students, the post-testing example Nisam dobio nikakav mail od njega ove sedmice was incorrectly translated by 12 %, cf. *I did not get any email from him this week. As for the translation of the Bosnian sentences containing adverbials već/already, upravo/just, samo jednom/only once, tri puta/three times, sedam puta/seven 16 Out of 25/100 % students - control group. See Table (1): An overview of pre-testing findings. 197 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level times, 100% of students of the control group translated the sentences correctly, but with an increased use of the Past Simple Tense. A parallel in terms of an overview of the use of the Past Simple tense in pre-testing and post-testing phase is given in the following table: Table 3. An overview of pre-testing and post-testing findings in translation of Bosnian sentences containing adverbs signalling the use of Past Tense in AmE – control group. Example Testing Example Past Tense Upravo je stigla u London Upravo sam završila zadaću Pre-testing Vozio sam motor samo jednom Samo jednom sam bila u Engleskoj. Već sam pročitala tu knjigu. Već sam čula tu priču. Bio sam u Americi tri puta. Pre-testing She just arrived in London I have just finished my homework. I drove a motorbike only once. I was in England only once. . On je pobijedio sedam puta. Posttesting Posttesting Simple Percentage (out of 25 students (100%) 80% 82% 72% 80% Pre-testing I already read that book. 40% Posttesting Pre-testing I already heard that story. I was in America three times. 45% Posttesting He won seven times. 50% 48% Present Tense Perfect She has just arrived in London She has just arrived in London. Percentage (out of 25 students (100%) 20% 18% I have driven a motorbike only once. I have been to England only once. I have already read that book. 28% I have already heard that story. I have been to America three times. He has won seven times. 55% 20% 60% 52% 50% On the other hand, the post-testing findings of the treatment group have revealed a significant improvement in translation compared to the pre-testing, summarized as follows: during the pre-testing phase the example of the Bosnian conditional sentence expressing a potential condition Da imam novca kupio bih novi kompjuter was incorrectly translated by 28% of students, while the post-testing example Da imam problem, razgovarala bih sa svojom majkom was translated correctly by 100% of students, If I had a problem, I would talk to my mother. The pre-testing example of the Bosnian conditional sentence expressing a hypothetical condition Da sam znala da dolaziš, sačekala bih te kod kuće was incorrectly translated by 88% of students, whereas the post-testing example Da nisi bio tako lijen, položio bi taj ispit was incorrectly translated only by 12% of students (*If you were not so lazy, you would have passed the exam). The pre-testing example of the Bosnian biti-passive Ovaj muzej je izgrađen prije tri godine was incorrectly translated by 56% of students, whereas only 16% of students incorrectly translated the post-testing example Taj projekat je završen prije pet godina (*That project is finished five years ago). The pre-testing example of the Bosnian se-passive Ovaj muzej se gradio tri godine was incorrectly translated by 84% of students. The post-testing example Ta cesta se popravljala tri godine was incorrectly translated only by 8% of students (*That road is being built for three years). The translation findings of the Bosnian sentences containing the main verb in the present tense and adverbials od/since + time expression and već/for + time expressions have also revealed an immense improvement. While the pre-testing example Živim u Sarajevu od 2010 was incorrectly translated by 64% of students, the post-testing example Damir uči njemački od 2012 was incorrectly translated only by 20% (*Damir studies German since 2012). In addition, the pre-testing example Radim na fakultetu već pet godina was incorrectly translated by 52% of students, whereas the post-testing example Ona spava već tri sata was incorrectly translated by 16% of students (*She sleeps for three hours). The pre198 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics testing example containing adverbial ove sedmice/this week Nisam ga vidio ove sedmice was incorrectly translated by 28% of students, whereas no incorrect translation was confirmed with the post-testing example. As for the examples containing adverbials već/just, samo jednom/once, upravo/already and sedam puta/seven times, all the examples were translated correctly by 100 % of students. In addition, compared to the control group, the treatment group of students more frequently used the Present Perfect Tense in translation, which was usually accompanied by a short comment on a potential (correct) use of the Past Tense as an American variant. A summary of the translation per percentage is given in Table (4): Table 4. An Overview of pre-testing and post-testing findings in translation of Bosnian sentences containing adverbs signalling the use of Past Tense in AmE – treatment group Example Testing Example Past Tense Upravo je stigla u London Upravo sam završila zadaću Vozio sam motor samo jednom Samo jednom sam bila u Engleskoj. Već sam pročitala tu knjigu. Već sam čula tu priču. Bio sam u Americi tri puta. On je pobijedio sedam puta. Pretesting She just arrived in London Posttesting I just finished my homework. 2% Pretesting 84% Posttesting I drove a motorbike only once. I was in England only once. Pretesting I already read that book. 24% Posttesting Pretesting I already heard that story. I was in America three times. He won seven times. 10% Posttesting Simple Percentage (out of 25 students (100%) 52% 20% 40% 10% Present Perfect Tense She has just arrived in London I have just finished my homework. I have driven a motorbike only once. I have been to England only once. I have already read that book. I have already heard that story. I have been to America three times. He has won seven times. Percentage (out of 25 students (100%) 48 % 88% 6% 80% 76% 90% 60% 90% Conclusion In conclusion, the research has revealed that the use of contrastive analysis in teaching English as a foreign language at university level can be viewed as a valuable technique in assisting students to significantly reduce interfering effects, thus improving their grammar and translation competence. Taking into account that the current grammar syllabi are focused on the description of the target language, the results of the research have also highlighted the importance of the revision of the existing syllabi in terms of an inclusion of a contrastive module within each undergraduate grammar course, thereby creating a solid basis for more successful transfer of structural knowledge into the actual language use. References 199 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level Callies, M. (2008). Argument Realisation and Information Packaging in Tough- Movement Constructions: A Learner-Corpus-Based Investigation. In Danuta Gabrys-Barker (Ed.), Morphosyntactic Issues in Second Language Acquisition (pp. 29-46). Clevedon, Buffalo, Toronto: Multilingual Matters. Filipović, Rudolf (Ed.). (1985). Chapters in Serbo-Croatian –English Contrastive Zagreb: Institute of Linguistics. Gass, Susan M., & Selinker, Larry (2008). Second Language Acquisition – An Course. 3rd edition. New York and London: Routledge. Grammar. Introductory Dubravčić, Maja (1985). A Contrastive Analysis of the English Present Perfect and Its SerboCroatian Correspondents. In Rudolf Filipović (Ed.), Chapters in Serbo-Croatian English Contrastive Grammar (pp. 247- 283). Zagreb: Institute of Linguistics. Ellis, Rod (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Huddleston, Rodney, & Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2002). The Cambridge Grammar of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. the English Hundt, Marianne, & Smith, Nicholas (2009). The Present Perfect in American and English: Has there been any change recently? ICAME Journal, 33, 45-63. British Johnson, A.P. (2005). A Short Guide to Action Research. 2nd edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. Delhi: International. New Age Krahnke, Karl (1987). Approaches to Syllabus Design for Foreign Language Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Teaching. New Lado, Robert (1957). Linguistics across culture. Ann Arbor: Michigan University Press. Mackey, Alison, & Gass, Susan M. (2005). Second Language Research Methodology London: Lawrence Erlbaum. and Design. Mertens, Craig A. (2012). Action Research: Improving Schools and Empowering Educators. SAGE Publications. London: Mihailović, Ljiljana (1985). Passive Sentences in English and Serbo-Croatian. In Rudolf Filipović (Ed.), Chapters in Serbo-Croatian – English Contrastive Grammar (pp. 329 -423). Zagreb: Institute of Linguistics. Oller, J., & Ziahosseiny, S. (1970). The contrastive analysis hypothesis and Language Learning, 20, 183-189. spelling errors. Riđanović, Midhat (2007). Praktična engleska gramatika. Sarajevo: Šahinpašić. Riđanović, Midhat (2012). Bosnian for Foreigners with a Comprehensive RABIC Publishing Company. 200 Grammar. Sarajevo: �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Stockwell, Robert, Bowen, Donald J., & Martin, John W. (1965). The English and Spanish. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Grammatical Structures of Wardhaugh, R. (1970). The contrastive analysis hypothesis. TESOL Quarterly, 4, 123-30. White, Theresa and McBurney, Donald (2012). Research Methods. Belmont: Wadsworth. Whitman, Randal (1970). Contrastive analysis: Problems and procedures. 20, 29-41. Language Learning, Žetko, Katarina Dea (2004). Adverbials with the Present Perfect Tense in BrE and AmE. In Diana Stolac, Nada Ivanetić, & Boris Pritchard (Eds.), Suvremena kretanja u nastavi stranih jezika, Vol. 16 (pp. 513-527). Zagreb-Rijeka: Hrvatsko društvo za primijenjenu lingvistiku. Žetko, Katarina Dea (2010). The Present Perfect and Preterite in British and American English. in Smiljana Komar & Uroš Mozetič (Eds.), English Language Overseas Perspectives and Enquiries, Vol VI, (pp. 27- 46) 201 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2794 Title A name given to the resource The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level Author Author Okičić, Melisa Osmankadić, Merima Abstract A summary of the resource. Teaching English as a foreign language at university level is quite a different challenge compared to teaching high school or young non-native learners. This is due to the fact that university students are expected to acquire specific grammar terminology in order to master the grammar system of the target language. At the English Department of the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo, during the first three (undergraduate) years of study the students are introduced to several grammar courses, focusing on the analysis of English grammar through descriptive explanations given in English. The courses serve as a basis that is expected to improve both the grammar and translation competence of the students. This paper examines to what extent the acquired descriptive knowledge of morphosyntactic properties of English is helpful in terms of translation of those Bosnian sentences whose proper translation into English requires the knowledge of contrastive rules. The research has been designed as a combination of action research and a quasi-experimental pre-test (delayed) post-test control-treatment group. As the research findings have revealed, teaching grammar to non-native learners of English without input as to the contrastive differences between the source and the target language results in erroneous translation, which is a consequence of negative transfer from the source into the target language. On the other hand, grammar teaching supported by the presentation of relevant contrastive rules has proved to be an efficient learning technique in terms of reducing errors and improving both grammar and translation competence of non-native learners. Key words: verb phrase, erroneous translation, transfer, contrastive analysis, pre-testing, post-testing, treatment Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LT Textbooks,P Philology. Linguistics,PE English https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/81b73d4385bea952325c932244eb52b1.docx e43f3d69242c59fbc2fe2fdfda93650c https://eprints.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2879bf4e38863411d889197a25ffb875.pdf 9e79c3d4e99c593d0ee4a4537c434283 PDF Text Text Izvorni naučni rad Dr Dušica Palačković, redovni profesor, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Kragujevcu PROCESNI INSTRUMENTI U FUNKCIJI ZAŠTITE PRAVA NA ZAKONSKO IZDRŽAVANJE DETETA Autorka u radu, polazeći od značaja procesnih rešenja za ostvarenje svakog supstancijalnog prava, pa i prava dece na zakonsko izdržavanje, analizira zakonodavna rešenje jednog broja država regiona i iznosi teorijske stavove o specifičnim načelima koja se u parnicama za zakonsko izdržavanje prihvataju i primenjuju. Prati način regulisanja i primenu, putem konkretnih procesnih instituta, pre svega istražnog i načela oficijelnog postupanja sudova, kao i prava na pristup pravosuĎu, posebno principa suĎenja u razumnom roku. Pri tome, pokušava da odgovori na pitanja koliko su, i da li su, adekvatni usvojeni procesni instrumenti koji se primenjuju u postupcima za izdržavanje, a pre svega da omoguće brzu, efikasnu, a onda i potpunu zaštitu dece kojima je izdržavanje neophodan, a često i jedini, izvor sredstava za egzistenciju i razvoj. TakoĎe, nastoji da prepozna nedostatke regulative i predlaže izvesne smernice za izmenu propisa koji regulišu ovu oblast. Ključne reči: parnični postupci za izdržavanje, istražno načelo, oficijelnost, suĎenje u razumnom roku, hitnost postupanja 1. Uvodna razmatranja Pravo na izdržavanje svakako je jedno iz korpusa dečijih prava mada se na meĎunarodnom nivou, ne formuliše kao samostalno. Ipak, posredno, kroz "pravo svakog deteta na životni standard koji odgovara fizičkom, mentalnom, duhovnom, moralnom i socijalnom razvoju" (pravo na primereni standard, čl. 27 st. 1 Konvencije o pravima deteta),1 ono se može prepoznati, a izričito se pominje u kontekstu konkretizacije obaveza, odnosno odgovornosti država članica na preduzimanju svih neophodnih mera kako bi dete "dobilo izdržavanje od roditelja..."(čl. 27 st. 4). Uz to, u realnim životnim okolnostima su brojne, a kriza braka i porodice upućuje na zaključak da su i sve brojnije, situacije u kojima su doprinosi za izdržavanje (zakonsko), nažalost, jedina sredstva kojima se obezbeĎuje i opstanak i razvoj dece. Sve veće lično siromaštvo, koje je posledica dugotrajne ekonomske krize na nacionalnim i globalnom, svetskom 1 Konvencija o pravima deteta, usvojena od strane Generalne skupštine UN 20. novembra 1989. godine, ratifikovana 1990. godine, Službeni list SFRJ - MeĎunarodni ugovori, br. 15/1990 (u daljem tekstu "Konvencija"); Videti Implementation Handbook for Convention oh the Rights the Child, Article 27:Child´s Right to an Adequate Standard of Living, General Measures of Implementation, dostupno na: http://www.crin.org/docs/resources/publicationa/hrbap/IHCRC/art27Checklist.doc, 10.02. 2015. 133 �nivou, uzrokuje da se, najčešće, kroz doprinose za zakonsko izdržavanje ne mogu obezbediti sredstva u obimu neophodnom za postizanje oba pomenuta cilja - opstanka ili životne egzistencije deteta i njegovog svestranog razvoja u skladu sa potencijalima.2 Narušeni sklad bračnih i porodičnih odnosa onemogućava spontanost u staranju o zajedničkoj deci, finansijske neprilike onemogućavaju da izdržavanje dece bude na potrebnom nivou, a, uz to, država, takoĎe siromašna, nije u poziciji da kroz različite vidove socijalnih davanja ili privilegija zameni ili nadomesti obavezu izdržavanja primarnih kategorija.3 Krećemo se u začaranom krugu!?! Ipak, odnos izmeĎu dve pomenute kategorije dužnika je ključni. Kada roditelji i druga lica nemaju, ili nemaju dovoljno sredstava, država mora da ih obezbedi. Pravo na zakonsko izdržavanje prati se prvenstveno u kontekstu sadržine "roditeljskog prava", čiji su smisao, zapravo, mnogo pre i mnogo više, roditeljske dužnosti,4 one koje slede iz veoma široko postavljene obaveze staranja o deci. Možda je najbliže istini da je reč o skupu odgovornosti, dužnosti i prava koja imaju za cilj zaštitu ličnih i imovinskih prava i interesa (maloletne) dece,5 stoga što staranje, kao pojam ili već po sebi, upućuje na odgovornosti, obaveze. Ne treba zaboraviti da se, po pravilu, obaveza izdržavanje dece produžava i nakon punoletstva, u različitim modalitetima, ali najčešće uslovljeno 2 Up. st. 2 čl. 27. Konvencije; Videti Harju, A, Thorǿd, A.B, Child Poverty in a Scandinacian Welfare Context - From Children´s Point of View, Child Ind Res, 2010, DOI 10.1007/s12187-0109092-0, dostupno na: www.nfbo.org/getfile.ashx?cid=323121&cc=3&refid=1, odnosno stav da čl. 27 promoviše obavezu države, da, ukoliko roditelji, kao prvenstveno odgovorni nisu u situaicji da obezbede adekvatne uslove života za dete, država mora preuzeti tu obavezu; Videti i Let´s Talk About Rights, National Human Rights Consultation Toolkit, 2009, Australian Human Rights Commission, str. 3, dostupno na: http://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/files/content/letstalkaboutrights/downloads/HRA_young.doc, 10.02.2015, gde se, nrp., kao jedan od nedostataka na nacionalnom nivou navodi nepostojanje posebnog komesara za decu i mlade koji bi promovisao i štitio sva prava dece (postoje u smislu promovisanja najboljeg interesa deteta, dakle, partikularno) , kao i da se dečija zaštita primarno ostvaruje kroz regulativu na nižem nivou a ne na federalnom. 3 Ipak, videti, u ovom kontekstu, čl. 69 st. 2 Prednacrta GraĎanskog zakonika RS, Knj. III, dostupno na: http://arhiva.mpravde.gov.rs/lt/articles/zakonodavstvo-aktivnost/gradjanski-zakonik, 10.02.2015, str. 32, gde se "država i roditelji", i to upravo tim redom, utvrĎuju kao odgovorni za obezbeĎenje maksimalnih uslova za ostvarivanje prava deteta. 4 Čl. 67. Porodičnog zakona Republike Srbije (u daljem tekstu "PZ RS"), Službeni glasnik RS, br. 18/2005, 72/2011 - dr. zakon i 6/2015, kao i Draškić, M, Porodično pravo i prava deteta, Beograd, 2009, str. 276-277. Prema Ponjavić, Z, Porodično pravo, Beograd, 2014, str. 272, reč je, pre svega , o pravu roditelja prema deci koje proističe iz roditeljskih dužnosti, slično, kao o "pravu i dužnosti", uz opravdanje da se na ovaj način ističe način vršenja ovog prava, odnosno "aktivno vršenje sadržaja prava", te da ono, zapravo i ne podrazumeva izbor da se nešto ne uradi, što bi sledilo iz apsolutnog karaktera ovog prava, Komar-Janjić, M, Porodica sa stanovišta prava, Pravni život, br. 7-8, 1995, str. 71. 5 Čl. 129 Porodičnog zakona Federacije Bosna i Hercegovina (u daljem tekstu "PZ F BiH"), prečišćeni tekst, Službene novine Federacije BiH, br. 35/05, Zakon o izmenama i dopunama Porodičnog zakona Federacije BiH, Službene novine Federacije BiH, br. 31/14, dostupno na https://advokat-prnjavorac.com/zakoni/porodicni_zakon_Federacije_BiH.pdf, 22.01.2015. 134 �redovnim školovanjem, koje bi se moralo tumačiti kao "uredno", a ne kroz svojstvo "redovnog" školovanja, npr. "redovnog studenta" 6 Činjenica da se pravo na primeren životni standard Konvencijom direktno povezuje uz pravo deteta na razvoj, koje se, opet, formuliše i u kontekstu prava na život (čl. 6 st 2), takoĎe upućuje na zaključak o izuzetnoj važnosti ovog prava. On je, u praksi, najmanje nivo standarda dužnika kada su dužnici roditelji, ali i više od toga.7 Nacionalna zakonodavstva ga načelno promovišu, ali su problem i njegova konkretizacija u svakom pojedinačnom slučaju i nepovoljne društvene i porodične okolnosti. Praksa pokazuje da sudovi, u parničnim postupcima o zakonskom izdržavanju, često, ali i osnovano, vodeći računa o (nepovoljnim) okolnostima na strani dužnika izdržavanja, dosuĎuju iznose kojima se teško može obezbediti i sam opstanak, pa svojim odlukama idu kontra potrebi obezbeĎenja "primerenog standarda" dece. Ostvarivanje ovog pravu u sudskim postupcima, adhezionim ili samostalnim,8 naročito kada su u pitanju deca, ima niz posebnosti. Čini se, pri tome, da odluka o njegovom egzistiranju nije poseban problem, s obzirom da je zakonom regulisano u pogledu poverioca i dužnika kao i redosleda lica koja, osim roditelja, imaju ovu obavezu. No, već pri utvrĎivanju obima sud mora iskoristiti sve dopuštene, specifične procesne instrumente kako bi odlučio u najboljem interesu deteta, naročito u uslovima regulative koja obiluje pravnim standardima. Specifičan procesni instrumentarij posledica je primene niza posebnih načela koja su u postupcima za zakonsko izdržavanje, a najčešće i u svim postupcima iz porodičnih odnosa, relevantna. Adekvatnost jednog broja procesnih instituta cilju, a to je, generalno, pomenuti najbolji interes deteta, u 6 Više, Winkler, S., O uzdržavanju punoljetne djece, Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta Sveučilišta Rijeka (1991) v. 35, br. 2, 2014, str. 610, kao i sudske odluke iz napomena br. 41-46, dostupno na: http://hrcak.srec.hr/index.php?show=toc&id_broj=10631, 10. 03. 2015., 7 Videti, npr, Odluku 8 Broj: P-675/2012-23, Općinskog suda u Vukovaru, od 10. veljače 2015, dostupno na: http://e-oglasna.pravosudje.hr/sites/default/files/os-vu/1446493.pdf, 10. 03. 2015, u kojoj se poziva na odluku Ustavnog suda Republike Hrvatske, U-III-2688/05, od 29. XI 2007, kojom se utvrĎuje obaveza roditelja da izdržavaju svoju maloletnu decu pri čemu ta obaveza nije ograničena materijalnim mogućnostima roditelja, što znači da su roditelji dužni izdržavati svoju maloletnu decu makar to bilo i nauštrb ličnog materijalnog standarda. Videti i odredbu čl. 215 PZ F BiH, odnosno da su roditelji dužni angažovati sve svoje mogućnosti i sposobnosti u izdržavanju dece. 8 Inače, postojanje parnice za razvod braka nije, prema stavu teorije, smetnja za to da zajedničko dete (ili deca) pokrene protiv jednog od roditelja samostalan postupak radi plaćanja izdržavanja, videti, Triva, S; Dika, M.,Gradjansko parnično procesno pravo, Zagreb, , 2004, str. 784, koji prihvataju stav sudske prakse izražen u odluci Vrhovnog suda RH, Rev 1383/82 - NZp 22-97. Ili, ne primenjuju se pravila o zabrani dvostruke litispendencije. Ipak, mogao bi se otvoriti problem kod izričitih zahteva istaknutih u bračnom sporu ili sporu za utvrĎivanje očinstva ili materinstva. On se, pak, u teoriji shvata samo kao "predlog o sadržini odluke" i nije obavezujući, stoga što o ovakvim pitanja koja se tiču dece sud odlučuje po službenoj dužnosti, tako Poznić, B, RakićVodinelić, V., GraĎansko procesno pravo, Beograd, 2010, str. 460. Dakle, reč je o odstupanju od načela dispozicije. Ovo utoliko pre vodi zaključku da nema zabrane paralelnog voĎenja bračnog spora, npr, i spora o izdržavanju, kao samostalnog. 135 �kojoj su meri i takva, ekskluzivna rešenja, primerena i dovoljna, da li je i u kom vidu moguće dalje prilagoĎavanje ili uvoĎenje novih, pitanja je koje se moraju stalno, iznova postavljati 2. Pravna priroda prava na zakonsko izdržavanje Obaveza (obligacija), odnosno pravo na (zakonsko) izdržavanje proističe iz za pravo relevantnih činjenica - brak, srodstvo i vanbračna zajednica, dakle iz porodičnih odnosa, a posledica je porodične solidarnosti, odnosno obaveze uzajamnog pomaganja u okvirima uže ili šire grupe lica povezanih porodičnim vezama.9 Obaveza je ureĎena zakonima koji regulišu porodične odnose, otuda i predznak "zakonska." 10 Tako, PZ RS, odredbom čl. 8 st. 1, izdržavanje odreĎuje kao "pravo i dužnost članova porodice odreĎenih ovim zakonom".11 Cilj zakonskog regulisanja ove obaveze (odnosno prava) svakako je, minimalistički gledano, obezbeĎenje osnovnih životnih potreba12 kada lice ne može samostalno da ih obezbede ili to ne može da učine u neophodnom obimu. 13 Čini nam se, 9 Ponjavić, Z, op cit, str. 353, 354. Draškić, M, op. cit, str. 355. 11 Prema odredbi čl. 281 Obiteljskog zakona Republike Hrvatske (u daljem tekstu "OZ RH"), iz 2014, dostupno na: http://www.narodne-novine.nn.hr/clanci/sluzbeni/2014_06_75_1404.html, 10. 03. 2015: "Uzdržavanje je dužnost i pravo roditelja i djece, bračnih i izvanbračnih drugova i srodnika u ravnoj lozi, kad je to predviĎeno ovim zakonom", odnosno u prvom je planu obaveza, dužnosti, što je u skladu sa konstatacijama teorije da je reč o izrazu porodične solidarnosti, odnosno dužnosti uzajamnog pomaganja u okvirima porodice (PZ RS, npr, samo u slučaju obaveze izdržavanja majke deteta, čl. 153, izlazi iz okvira porodičnih odnosa). Slično i odredba čl. 213 PZ F BiH, kao i čl. 231 PZ R Srpske. 12 Definicije izdržavanja su unekoliko različite u pravnoj literaturi. Vujović, R, Pravo na zakonsko izdržavanje po novom Porodičnom zakonu, Zbornik radova "Novine u porodičnom zakonodavstvu", Niš, 2006, str. 178, zakonsko izdržavanje objašnjava kao pravnu vezu (juris vinculum) koja je utemeljena na realnim porodičnim vezama koje nastaju iz braka, odnosno vanbračne zajednice i iz odnosa srodstva"; Ponjavić, Z, op. cit, str. 356, smatra da je reč o obavezi jednog lica da obezbedi sredstva za život drugom licu kome je to potrebno, dodajući konstataciju da u pravnom smislu izdržavanje predstavlja samo onu obavezu koja je snabdevena sankcijom, odnosno mogućnošću intervencije države koja joj mora obezbediti poštovanje, ali i da, pored podmirivanja osnovnih životnih potreba obuhvata i elemente koji zavise od načina života pojedinca i nivoa razvoja društva; Draškić, M, op. cit, str. 355, izdržavanje shvata kao pravni odnos izmeĎu dve odreĎene strane u kome jedna strana (poverilac izdržavanja) ima pravo da zahteva od druge strane (dužnika izdržavanja) odreĎeno davanje, koje se sastoji u obezbeĎenju sredstava za zadovoljenje osnovnih životnih potreba. Nalazimo i stav da je osnovni cilj ovog instituta "održanje života i zdravlja putem zadovoljavanja nužnih potreba člana porodice", dakle minimum minimuma, videti Jović, O., (Ne)mogućnost raspolaganja pravom na zakonsko izdržavanje, str. 280, Zbornik radova "Harmonizacija graĎanskog prava u regionu", Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Prištini sa privremenim sedištem u Kosovskoj Mitrovici, 2003, dostupno na: http://pravnifis.rs/Download/Zbornik-Harmonizacija/HGPIII4.pdf, 02.03.2015 13 Indikativno je da se u starijoj literaturi govori o "potrebama", a ne osnovnim, egzistencijalnim ili nužnim. Tako, "Izdržavanje znači redovno snabdevanje jednog lica materijalnim dobrima u cilju podmirivanja njegovih potreba", Gams, A, Bračno i porodično imovinsko pravo, Beograd, 1966, str. 110; Mladenović, M, Porodično pravo, Knj. II, Beograd, 1981, str. 561-562, pod zakonskim izdržavanjem razume "dužnost i pravo članova porodice, kojim se obezbeĎuje redovno davanje u novcu ili u drugim materijalnim dobrima licu koje ne može samo obezbediti svoju egzistenciju, u 10 136 �ipak, da ovakav pristup, posebno kada su deca poverioci, mora ustupiti mesto širem ili onom koji promoviše standard "primerenih uslova". Pravo zakonskog izdržavanja je lično imovinsko pravi regulisano imperativnim normama. Posledica lične prirode ovog prava je, u okviru materijalnopravnih dejstava, nemogućnost prenošenja prava bilo kojoj vrstom pravnog posla, zatim da smrt primaoca ili davaoca izdržavanja vodi gašenju prava,14 a potraživanje na osnovu zakonskog izdržavanja ne mogu biti predmet kompenzacije sa drugim obavezama izraženim u novcu.15 Dalja konsekvenca je da se strane u ovom obligacionom odnosu koji je zakonom ureĎen u pogledu prava i obaveza, ne mogu o samom pravu na izdržavanje sporazumevati, konkretnije ne postoji mogućnost odricanja od prava na izdržavanje.16 Pravo na zakonsko izdržavanje ne zastareva,17 a isplaćeni iznosi se ne vraćaju, što se u slučaju izdržavanja dece opravdava izvršavanjem zakonske obaveze u okviru staranja o deci.18 Nadalje, ovo pravo se ostvaruje za buduće vreme, ali se, s obzirom na situacije kada se u adhezionim postupcima odlučuje o izdržavanju dece, može pojaviti problem od kog momenta se izdržavanje dosuĎuje (npr, od momenta podnošenja tužbe za razvod braka ili od momenta isticanja zahteva za izdržavanje, ako je izričito istaknut).19 Pomenimo u tom smislu čl. 306 OZ RH, upravo kada je izdržavanje dece u pitanju, kojim je dopušteno da maloletno dete zahteva izdržavanje za prošlo vreme (up. čl. 289. OZ RH). Visina dosuĎenog izdržavanja je promenljiva, odnosno može se povisiti ili umanjiti usled promene okolnosti na osnovu kojih je doneta odluka o visini sume izdržavanja.20 cilju podmirivanja svih njegovih potreba (potpuno izdržavanje), ili samo jednog dela njegovih potreba (delimično izdržavanje)"; 14 Videti odredbu čl. 167 st. 1 t. 2 PZ RS Tako i sudska praksa, npr., Gž br. 6803/99 - P. br. 8993/89, kao i Gž. 7405/00, presuda Okružnog suda u Valjevu, od 14. 03. 2000, da je pravo na izdržavanje lično imovinsko pravo, ne ulazi u zaostavštinu i ne prelazi na naslednike, dostupno na: http://www.advikatsimic.rs/html/sudska_praksa.html, 23.01.2015. 15 Videti odredbu čl. 341 t. 5 Zakona o obligacionim odnosima (u daljem tekstu "ZOO"), Službeni list SFRJ, br. 29/78, 39/85, 57/89, Službeni list SRJ br. 31/93, Službeni list SCG, br. 1/2003 Ustavna povelja SCG 16 Videti, npr, čl. 8 st. 2 PZ RS; čl. 286 st. 1 OZ RH, kao i st. 2, da se: "Ovlašćenici prava na uzdržavanje mogu odreći već stečenih prava po osnovi uzdržavanja, odnosno mogu s njima raspolagati na neki drugi način", pri čemu se odricanje ili raspolaganje na drugi način ne primenjuje na izdržavanje maloletne dece i čl. 23 st. 3 Porodičnog zakona Republike Srpske (u daljem tekstu"PZ R Srpske"), Službeni glasnik Republike Srpske, br. 54/02, dostupno na: http://advokat-prnjavorac.com/zakoni/porodicni_zakon_RS.pdf, 10. 03. 2015, kao i čl. 213 st. 3 PZ F BiH. 17 Videti čl. 373 st. 3 ZOO, ali mogu zastareti pojedinačna davanja koja su dospela u roku od tri godine za svaki pojedinačno, zatim i čl. 372 st 1 i čl. 381 st. 1 i čl. 372 st. 1 ZOO i specifična pravila za dete kao poverioce prema roditelju koji ne živi sa njim iz čl. 289. OZ RH, 18 No, pravo regresa postoji za lice koje je faktički davalo izdržavanje, a nije imalo takvu obavezu, i to od lica koje je bilo dužno da daje izdržavanje, npr., čl. 165 st. 1 PZ RS 19 Draškić, M, op. cit., str. 357 i Ponjavić, Z, op. cit., str. 360, kao i sudske odluke koje autori citiraju. 20 Čl. 164 PZ RS, čl. 285 OZ RH, čl. 263 st 1 PZ R Srpske, čl. 245 PZ F BiH 137 �3. Posebnosti primene procesnih načela, istražno načelo Delotvorna sudska zaštita svih prava iz okvira porodičnih odnosa, koja podrazumeva efikasnost postupka u kome se odlučuje o samom supstancijalnom pravu, ali i postupka prinudnog izvršenja, svakako je imperativ i obaveza prema čl. 6. Evropske konvencije o zaštiti ljudskih prava i osnovnih sloboda.21 Odnosi se na sve postupke, nezavisno od toga koja se prava štite, ali značaj pojedinih prava uslovljava i potenciranu zaštitu na nacionalnom i meĎunarodnom nivou. To se, primarno, postiže specifičnostima u odnosu na primenu niza načela graĎanskih sudskih postupaka, a kako je, pri tome, parnični postupak osnovni vid zaštiti porodičnih prava, pa i prava na uzdržavanje, to će pažnja biti usmerena na njegove posebnosti. Uobičajeno se, u ovom kontekstu, prati primena istražnog načela, načela poverljivosti, hitnosti i oficijelnosti, odnosno izuzeci od primene opštih načela parnične procedure, što korespondira okolnosti da su svi sudski postupci o pravima iz korpusa porodičnih prava i normirani kao posebne procedure. U okviru teme ovog rada zapravo je i najvažnije pomenuti prevagu 22 istražnog načela u odnosu na raspravno. Posebno se ovo tiče ovlašćenja suda pri utvrĎivanju iznosa zakonskog izdržavanja, odnosno potreba poverioca i mogućnosti dužnika od koji direktno zavisi. Kako su i u ovim postupcima stranke svakako ovlašćene da iznose činjenice i predlažu dokazna sredstva, uloga suda suštinski je dvojaka - on je dužan da, u skladu sa raspravnim načelom, podstiče, odnosno inicira da stranke prikupljaju i iznose procesni materijal, ali i da ga samostalno prikuplja. O tome da li je u oba slučaja reč o primeni inkvizitorskog metoda nema, meĎutim, u teoriji, saglasnosti. 23 Načini formulisanja ovog načela u zakonodavstvima država našeg regiona unekoliko se razlikuju, i mogu biti predmet tumačenja, ali i njegovo situiranje u sporovima iz oblasti porodičnih odnosa, ali je pravilo u postupcima za izdržavanje.24 Tako, PZ RS (čl. 205), ovlašćenje sud da utvrĎuje činjenice koje nisu sporne meĎu strankama, a može i samostalno istraživati činjenice koje 21 Konvencija je, uz dodatne Protokole, ratifikovana Zakonom objavljenim u Službenom listu SCG, MeĎunarodni ugovori, br. 9/2003 i 5/2005 22 Izraz koristi Poznić,B; Rakić-Vodinelić, V, Građansko procesno pravo, Beograd, 2010, str. 456, a na sličan način, kao o "pojačanim" inkvizitorskim ovlašćenjima suda" govore i Triva, S; Dika, M, Građansko parnično procesno pravo, Zagreb, 2004, str. 760. 23 Stanković, G, Osnovna načela parničnog postupka Republike Srbije, Zbirka radova "UnapreĎenje u sprovoĎenju ZPP: praksa u Srbiji i regionu", Beograd, 2006, str. 5; Čalija, B; Omanović, S, Građansko procesno pravo, Sarajevo, 2000, str. 55, koji konstatuju da se aktivna uloga suda u prikupljanju procesne graĎe odvija u dva stepena, ili u okviru raspravnog načela, tzv. nepotpuna inkvizitorska ovlašćenja, ili kroz tzv. potpuna inkvizitorska načela; Triva, S; Dika, M, op. cit, str. 178, 179, pak, vide ulogu suda u prvom slučaju kao "aktivnu poticateljsku" u okvirima raspravnog načela. 24 Tako, PZ RS, čl. 205, npr, prihvata za sve postupke "u vezi sa porodičnim odnosima", isto i PZ F BiH, (čl. 278 st. 4), za sve posebne parnične postupke (up. odredbu čl. 272) kao i Porodični zakon Republike Crne Gore (u daljem tekstu "PZ RCG"), dostupno na: http://media.cgocce.org/2013/06/10-Porodicni_zakon.pdf, 23.01.2015, (čl. 318), dok OZ RH (čl. 350, up. čl. 349 st. 1) ograničava primenu na statusne stvari, stvari roditeljskog staranja, ličnih odnosa i mera zaštite prava i "dobrobiti" deteta. 138 �ni jedna stranka nije iznela,25 dok, npr. OZ RH (čl. 350), ovlašćuje sud da utvrĎuje činjenice koje stranke nisu iznele u postupku i da dokazuju i činjenice koje su stranke priznale u postupku.26 Primetimo da je primena "ovlašćenje" suda, normativno gledano, ali obaveza zaštite najboljeg interesa deteta, njegove "dobrobiti", uslovljava, zapravo, obavezu suda da primeni istražni metod kada god proceni, posumnja, da stranke izbegavaju iznošenje procesne graĎe relevantne za spor, kada posumnja da je priznanje, ili prosto neosporavanje činjeničnih tvrdnji protivne stranke suprotno najboljem interesu dece. TakoĎe, utvrĎivanje najboljeg interesa deteta, kao načelo najvišeg ranga, uslovljava primenu istražne maksime u njenom najširem značenju, bez obzira na okolnost da stranke u sporu, po pravilu iznose svoje, različite verzije dogaĎaja, i predloge dokaznih sredstava. Praktična konsekvenca je da sud mora sve relevantne činjenice koje nisu iznesene u sporu da "istražuje", otkriva, a onda i "utvrĎuje", prikupljajući dokazna sredstva.27 Ili, istražno načelo ostvaruje cilj pojačane zaštite dece samo ukoliko se tiče i prikupljanja činjenične graĎe i dokazivanja spornih, nespornih, odnosno priznatih činjenica. 28 MeĎu nespornim svakako su u fokusu priznate činjenica, ali je, takoĎe, moguće pretpostaviti, da stranke koje samostalno učestvuju u postupku, iz najrazličitijih razloga - neznanja, neprepoznavanja, nesnalaženja, ne osporavaju navode protivnika. Ovo je, najčešće, posledica nemogućnosti plaćanja stručnog punomoćnika, a posebno je izraženo u uslovima nepostojanja funkcionalne besplatne pravne pomoći. Istražna uloga suda posebno je značajna u primeni standarda "mogućnosti dužnika" i "potrebe poverioca", 29bez obzira na to da nacionalna zakonodavstva daju izvesne kriterijume sudu za njihovu ocenu, utvrĎivanje konkretne sadržine u praksi.30 Za dužnika izdržavanja ovi se odnose na imovinsko stanje, primanja, mogućnosti sticanja uvećane zarade, mogućnosti zaposlenja, lične potrebe i dr., a za poverioca, posebno kada je to dete, najčešće na starosnu dob, lične prihode, imovinsko stanje, sposobnost za rad, mogućnosti za zapošljavanje, zdravstveno stanje, obrazovanje i dr.31 Parametar za 25 Identičnu formulaciju daje i PZ RCG (up. čl. 318) Identično reguliše i PZ F BiH, odredbom čl. 278 st. 4, uz ograničenje koje se tiče situacija u kojima se zahteva sporazumni razvod braka 27 Up. čl. 205 PZ RS i čl. 350. OZ RH 28 PZ RS prihvata ovakav, ekstenzivan pristup, dok, npr., OZ RH obavezuje sud samo da dokazuje priznate, kao nesporne, činjenice. Interesantan je, u ovom kontekstu stav koji iznose Triva, S; Dika, M, op. cit., str. 760, koji, govoreći o primeni istražne maksime u postupcima iz porodičnih odnosa, pominju da je to u cilju "sprečavanja nedopuštenih dispozicija stranaka", mada kasnije generalizuju primenu na prikupljanje svih pravno relevantnih činjenica koje stranke nisu iznele i dokaza koje nisu predložile. 29 U teoriji se, sasvim ispravno, o visini alimentacije u konkretnom slučaju govori kao o jednačini sa dve nepoznate, videti Panov, S., Određivanje i promena visine izdržavanja - nekoliko dilema, Zbornik "Ostvarivanje i zaštita prava na zakonsko izdržavanje", Kragujevac, 2002, str. 77. 30 Ibidem, str. 77-80 31 Nivo obaveza dužnika izdržavanja nije, prema stavu sudske prakse, razlog umanjenju njegove obaveze koja je već utvrĎena, tako za "tekuća ulaganja" videti Gž 2639/11, od 19. 10. 2011, Bilten sudske prakse Apelacionog suda u Novom Sadu, br. 3/2011, a za "svojevoljno promenjene okolnosti", Gž 2 394/13, od 17- 07. 2013, Bilten sudske prakse Apelacionog suda u Novom Sadu, 26 139 �odreĎivanje sume izdržavanja je "najmanje" životni standard roditelja.32 Različita je i uloga suda, dok PZ RS govori o utvrĎivanju "visine izdržavanja", OZ RH, npr., obavezuje sud da utvrdi "ukupne materijalne potrebe deteta" koje se "odnose na: troškove stanovanja, prehrane, odijevanja, higijene, odgoja, obrazovanja i skrbi o djetetovom zdravlju" (čl. 311). Zaštitnu ulogu ima i regulisanje tzv. minimuma ukupnih materijalnih potreba za mesečno izdržavanje deteta, kao i minimalni iznos izdržavanja u Srbiji o kome, meĎutim, sud samo "vodi računa".33 34 Obaveza suda da utvrdi ukupne materijalne potrebe deteta ima smisla samo uz dodatni mehanizam proširenja njenih dejstava na druge obveznike izdržavanja, pa i državu, u slučaju da roditelj kao dužnik nema dovoljno sredstava ili ne ispunjava obaveze uredno.35 Jedan od procesnih mehanizama u ovom smislu je i proširenje tužbe na druga lica (tužene) od strane tužioca ili organa starateljstva, kako bi se obezbedilo dejstvo presude i na njih, ali ova vrsta suparničarstva uslovljena je pristankom novih tuženih.36 Obaveza dostavljanja odluke o ukupnim sredstvima za izdržavanje organu starateljstva ili centru za socijalni rad, po sebi je, meĎutim, nedovoljna.37 Tek ukoliko bi, kada se utvrdi ukupna suma neophodna za izdržavanje i da dužnik (dužnici) nisu u mogućnosti da je i podmire, sud morao da obavesti o tome ex offo, npr., organ starateljstva, kao što to predviĎa PZ F BiH,38 odnosno da se tada sredstva moraju osigurati iz budžetskih (utvrĎuje ovo kao dužnost države), postigao bi se viši nivo zaštite dece. U svakoj drugoj soluciji dostavljanje odluke pa makar i o ukupnim sredstvima potrebnim za izdržavanje vodi postupku za ostvarenje zakonom predviĎenih socijalnih davanja koji je dug i neizvestan. Pojačavajući uticaj istražne maksime u ovom kontekstu, dakle u utvrĎivanju ukupnih mogućnosti roditelja kao dužnika izdržavanja, OZ RH je, uz obavezu da sam prikaže ukupne neto prihode, odnosno sva stalna i br. 6/2014, dostupno na: http://www. sudskapraksa.com/bilten-sudske-prakse-apelacionog-suda-unovom-sadu.html, 15.03 2015. 32 Videti, npr., čl. 162 st. 3 PZ RS i čl. 311 st. 2 OZ RH, kao i čl. 160 PZ RS, čl. 307, odnosno i čl. 311 OZ RH, na osnovu koga se ukupne materijalne potrebe deteta odnose na "troškove stanovanja, prehrane, odijevanja, higijene, odgoja, obrazovanja i skrbi o zdravlju". 33 Videti čl. 160 st. 4 PZ RS, da se minimalna suma izdržavanja odreĎuje kao naknada za hranjenika odnosno lice na porodičnom smeštaju, a periodično je utvrĎuje resorno ministarstvo, ali Zakon ne koristi, kako je rečeno, pojam "ukupna suma potrebna za izdržavanje. Pomenuti minimalni iznos trenutno je 23 267, 00 dinara, na osnovu odluke Ministarstva za rad, zapošljavanje, boračka i socijalna pitanja, br. 339-00-00002/2015, dostupno na: demo.paragraf.rs/documents/editorial/statistika/27_stat.htm, 12. 03. 2015. 34 Način izigravanja pravila o "zaradi"odnosno plati od koje se procentualno odreĎuje iznos za izdržavanje pokazuje primer Ministarstva spoljnih poslova RS kada je u slučaju jednog ambasadora osnovica bila plata od 600 evra, ali ne i naknade koje je primao po osnovu uvećanih troškova života i uslova rada i naknade za izdržavanje članova porodice koje su iznosile ukupno 3 412,2 evra, dostupno na:http://www.teleprinter.rs/ razotkriveni-kako-ambasadori-plaćaju-manju-alimentaciju-tvrdeći-da-im-je-plata-600-evra.htnl, 10.01.2015 35 Videti Prednacrt GraĎanskog zakonika Srbije, Knj. III, op. cit., str. 79,80, čl. 193-197 36 Panov, S., op. cit., str. 81. 37 Prema čl. 427. OZ RH, čl. 308. st. 3 PZ F BiH, čl. 282 PZ RS 38 Čl. 237 PZ FBiH 140 �privremena novčana primanja, kao i popis imovine po zahtevu suda, dao ovlašćenje sudu da od relevantnih državnih organa i drugih nadležnih institucija, fizičkih i pravnih lica, traži sve podatke, ali i da uzme u obzir sve druge mogućnosti sticanja zarade u skladu sa godinama, obrazovanjem i radnom sposobnošću.39 Pri tome, njegove novčane obaveze mogu biti uzete u obzir samo ako traju duže vreme i nužne su za zadovoljenje osnovnih životnih potreba. Za pretpostaviti je da i onde gde nema ovakvih izričito utvrĎenih ovlašćenja suda on može, u okviru generalne primene istražnog načela, da traži podatke od nadležnih organa ili službi, ali zakonsko regulisanje potencira i daje na značaju. U ovom kontekstu može se pratiti i uloga Centra za socijalno staranje, odnosno organa starateljstva.40 Tako, OZ RH, reguliše i njegovu ulogu kao pomoćnog organa suda,41 odnosno obavezuje ga da po nalogu suda "utvrĎuje i dostavlja" podatke o porodičnim, imovinskim i socijalnim prilikama stranaka što upućuje na ulogu pomoćnog istražnog organa.42 Da je značaj Centra za socijalno staranje u Hrvatskoj u stvarima izdržavanja dece posebno potenciran govori i odredba čl. 319, o obavezi upozoravanja roditelja koji je pravnosnažno osuĎen da daje izdržavanje, posebno da ima i pravo na podnošenje krivične prijave za neispunjavanje obaveze.43 I PZ F BiH utvrĎuje dužnost organa starateljstva da na zahtev suda "pribavi sve podatke od značaja za donošenje odluke o izdržavanju.44 Nasuprot tome, PZ RS ne odreĎuje precizno ulogu organa starateljstva.45 U delu o postupcima za izdržavanje obavezuje se sud da mu dostavi odluku, a sam organ vodi evidenciju i dokumentaciju o izdržavanim licima (čl. 282). Da je njegova uloga prilično fluidna pokazuje i regulisanje postupka posredovanja, koji može biti poveren organu starateljstva,46 u kome je jedan od ciljeva, čak najvažniji, postizanje sporazuma o vršenju roditeljskog 39 Čl. 313 st 2,3 i4. OZ RH Čl. 12 PZ RS 41 Čl. 356 t. 2 OZ RH 42 Triva, S, Dika, M, op. cit., str. 182. Prethodni OZ RH, (NN, br. 116/03, 17/04, 136/04, 107/07, 57/11, 25/11, 25/13, 05/15, čl. 278, dostupno na: http://www.zakon.hr/z/88/Obiteljski-zakon, 20. 03. 2015, da brižljivo ispituje imovinske prilike stranaka, a posebno odgovaraju li iskazani prihodi stvarnom stanju. 43 Iz ove odredbe sledi i da dete ima pravo na privremeno izdržavanje u skladu sa posebnim propisom. 44 Vidi odredbu čl. 241 PZ F BiH 45 Teorija u Srbiji ga vidi kao "učesnika sui generis“, videti Poznić, B; Rakić-Vodinelić, V, op. cit, str. 105, a u sudskoj praksi, npr., u uslovima primene čl. 355 starog ZBPO RS, zauzet je stav da je dužan dati mišljenje o tome u kakvim se uslovima za život i razvoj nalaze zajednička deca i šta je potrebno preduzeti da se obezbedi njihovo vaspitanje, zbrinjavanje i izdržavanje, u situaciji kada jedan od bračnih drugova odbije da učestvuje u postupku mirenja, pa i samo na osnovu ostvarenih kontakata da drugim bračnim drugom koji saraĎuje, Gž. br. 5286/98 - P. br. 2713/98, kao i Gž. br. 146/2000 - P. br. 5162/99, da mišljenje Centra za socijalni rad o poveravanju deteta posle razvoda braka nije mišljenje veštaka, presuda Okružnog suda u Beogradu, dostupno na: www.advokatsimic.rs/html/sudska_praksa.html, 23. 01. 2015. 46 Čl. 232 st. 3 PZ RS 40 141 �prava.47Ovaj organ pominje se samo u kontekstu "psiho-socijalnog savetovanja" po pristanku supružnika, dakle, uloga je savetodavna. Pokazuje se nužnim da se preciziraju istražna ovlašćenja suda u utvrĎivanju stvarnih, realnih materijalnih prilika dužnika izdržavanja, preko specifičnih zadataka, ali i organa starateljstva, kada je reč o zakonodavstvu u Srbiji.48 Treba, svakako, podsetiti da se istražna ovlašćenja suda odnose na situacije u kojima nije postignut sporazum roditelja o vršenju roditeljskog prava, a kada je do sporazuma došlo, na ispitivanje da li je on u najboljem interesu deteta, kao i pri utvrĎivanju mišljenja deteta odreĎenog uzrasta u saradnji sa referentnim institucijama.49 4. Ograničenja načela dispozicije (oficijelnost) U osnovi se ograničenje primene načela dispozicije različito reguliše u porodičnim zakonima država u regionu. Uglavnom, jedinstveno se reguliše princip da sud nije vezan granicama tužbenog zahteva za izdržavanje, ali su u odnosu na dispozitivne radnje kojima se okončava parnični postupak priznanje i odricanje od tužbenog zahteva, sudsko poravnanje, presuda zbog propuštanja ili izostanka rešenja i dijametralno suprotna. Tako, PZ RS, pre svega, ne pominje ovakve vidove disponiranja u okvirima samostalnog postupka za izdržavanje. Sistematika zakona, odnosno isključenje ovih (svih ili samo nekih) načina okončanja za pojedine postupke iz porodičnih odnosa upućivala bi na zaključak da su svi oni dopušteni u postupku za izdržavanje, stoga što nisu izričito zabranjeni.50 Ovakvo zaključivanje problematizuje, meĎutim, način normiranje postupka za vršenje roditeljskog prava, u kome su pomenute dispozicije isključene odredbom čl. 271, a sud, ako nema sporazuma roditelja, odlučuje ovde, uz ostalo, i o izdržavanju (čl. 272. st. 2 PZ RS). Istovremeno, u teoriji je izrečen stav da se u svim sporovima za izdržavanje primenjuju pravila samostalnih parnica, što odgovara pravnoj sigurnosti, odnosno jednakim pravilima postupanja u istim pravnim stvarima.51 Pristup PZ F BiH (čl. 278 st. 1,2) je potpuno isključenje mogućnosti donošenja ovih presuda kao i zaključenja sudskog poravnanja. Izričita zabrana, u srpskom pravu,52 sledi jedino za presudu zbog propuštanja, stoga što se u sporovima iz porodičnih odnosa tužba ne dostavlja na odgovor tuženom (čl. 204 47 Videti čl. 241 st. 1,2 PZ RS, o svrsi nagodbe, odnosno čl. 245 st. 1 PZ RS, kojim se kao obavezni element nagodbe odreĎuju sporazum o vršenju roditeljskog prava, uz sporazum o deobi zajedničke imovine 48 Inače, odredba čl. 270, o davanju "nalaza i mišljenja" od strane organa starateljstva na zahtev suda tiče se samo postupka za zaštitu dečijih prava i postupka o vršenju roditeljskog prava, a ne i samostalnih postupaka za izdržavanje, npr. što sledi iz metoda regulisanja u PZ RS 49 Čl. 65 st. 6 PZ RS 50 Suprotno Poznić, B, Rakić-Vodinelić, V., op. cit, str. 472, odnosno formulacija "kao i u drugim bračnim i porodičnim sporovima". 51 Triva, S, Dika, M., op. cit, str. 784. 52 Videti i čl. 317 st. 2 PZ RCG 142 �st. 2 PZ RS).53 Čini nam se da i ovo rešenje za jedan broj posebnih parničnih postupaka, pa i za izdržavanje, treba analizirati sa aspekta povoljnosti i mana, imajući u vidu da u nizu zakona država u regionu nema ovog ograničenja u postupcima u vezi porodičnih odnosa uopšte. Jedno od prihvatljivih rešenja u odnosu na pomenute načine okončanja parničnih postupaka svakako daje OZ RH, koji, pre svega, prepoznaje razliku odricanja od prava ili dužnosti izdržavanja u odnosu na odricanje od tužbenog zahteva, dakle po pravnoj prirodi samih radnji.54 Dopušteno je donošenje presuda zbog propuštanja i izostanka ukoliko je dete tužilac, što ima smisao zaštite deteta, ali i sankcionisanja tuženog koji izbegava uključivanje u postupak. Generalno, u sporovima o izdržavanju deteta dopuštene su i presudu na osnovu priznanja i odricanja. U svim ovim situacijama opšti uslov je da je to u skladu sa "dobrobiti" deteta.55 Ili, disponiranje predmetom spora dopušteno je "uz nadzor suda". 56 Isti princip važi i u odnosu na izričito predviĎenu mogućnost zaključenje sudskog poravnanja u svim ovakvim postupcima.57 Pri tome, čini nam se, sudsko poravnanje je i najmanje sporna radnja disponiranja58 stoga što se svaki sporazum o poveravanju dece ili vršenju roditeljskog prava, a onda i o izdržavanju, proverava sa aspekta najboljeg interesa deteta, a predmet je način i(ili) visina izdržavanja.59 Uz to, treba uzeti u 53 Čl. 350 ZPP RS, odnosno uslove za donošenje presude zbog propuštanja Čl. 349, st. 1,3 OZ RH. U teoriji procesnog prava se odricanje i priznanje tužbenog zahteva, prema većinskom stavu, shvataju kao materijalne dispozitivne parnične radnje koje su odlučujući osnov za donošenje presuda, Poznić, B; Rakić-Vodinelić, V., op. cit, str. 366, 365., odnosno kao materijalne procesne dispozicije ili raspolaganja stranaka koje se odnosi na sam predmet spora, Triva, S; Dika, M., op. cit, str. 601, a šire videti kod Dika, M., Građansko parnično pravo, Knj. V, Parnične radnje, Zagreb, 2008, str. 307-311, kao i Dika, M., Presuda na osnovu priznanja, Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta u Zagrebu, br. 5-6, 2012, ste. 1885-1911, dostupno na:http://hrcak.srec.hr/index.php?show=toc%id_broj=8118, 15. 03. 2015. 55 Videti odredbe čl. 425 OZ RH, kao i Aras, S., Dispozitivne presude u sporovima o uzdržavanju djece, Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta Sveučilišta Rijeka (1991) v. 30, br. 2, 2009, dostupno na http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=toc&id_broj=4210, 10. 03. 2015, posebno str. 914-916, o mogućnostima za donošenje delimičnih presuda na osnovu priznanja i na osnovu odricanja, kao i Aras, S., Donošenje kontumacijskih presuda u sporovima o izdržavanju djece, Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta u Zagrebu, br. 1, 2010, str. 255-314, dostupno na: http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=toc&id_broj=3953, 15.03.2015. U Srbiji se stavovi kreću u rasponu od potpunog negiranja mogućnosti da se u ovim sporovima donosi presuda zbog izostanka i zaključi sudsko poravnanje, npr, Poznić, B., Presuda zbog izostanka, Anali Pravnog fakulteta u Beogradu, 4, br. 3, 1956, str. 289, do dopuštanja takve mogućnosti, uz odreĎene uslove, npr, Vasić, Presuda zbog izostanka kao novi institut u našem pozitivnom zakonodavstvu, Naša zakonitost, 10-12/1955, str. 15-21; 56 Opšta kontrolna ovlašćenja suda u pogledu najboljeg interesa i eventualnu saglasnost centra za socijalni rad, kada je ona potrebna, prepoznaju se kao ograničavajući faktori, videti Aras, S., op. cit, str. 917. 57 Videti čl. 349 st. 5, kao i čl. 426. OZ RH 58 Petrušić, N, Konstantinović-Vilić, S., Ostvarivanje prava na zakonsko izdržavanje pred pravosudnim organima u Vranju, Bujanovcu i Bosilegradu, Vranje 2012, dostupno na: http://hrcvr.org/attachment/13/Istrazivanje%20%PRAVO%20NA%20ZAKONSKO%IZDRZAVANJE. pdf, 12.03.2015, str. 32. 59 Sudsko poravnanje je dopušteno o graĎanskim pravima kojima stranke mogu slobodno raspolagati, što pravo na izdržavanje nije, ali je ovde i reč samo o dogovoru o načinu i visini 54 143 �obzir i prednosti koje ovakav vid okončanja spora ima u odnosu na presudu, pa i u pogledu izvršnosti. Obaveza suda da po službenoj dužnosti štiti najbolji interes deteta najopštijeg je karaktera i stoga barijera svim nedopuštenim stranačkim dispozicijama koje su mu suprotstavljene, a sud je izvršava primenom istražne maksime. To je i osnovni razlog uvoĎenju mogućnosti disponiranja predmetom spora u postupcima za izdržavanje, uopšte, pa i dece, u varijanti koja obezbeĎuje najpotpuniju zaštitu interesa dece. Kojoj, to bi moglo biti predmetom šire analize, s obzirom na prednosti i nedostataka dispozitivnih presuda. Izrada GraĎanskog zakonika Srbije u kome, u trenutnoj verziji, kao i u važećem PZ RS, nema o ovome izričitih rešenja, pravo je vreme za to. Napomenimo da su i u opštoj parnici radnje disponiranja tužbenim zahtevom predmet ocene suda u smislu protivnosti prinudno pravnim propisima, javnom poretku, pravilima morala i dobrim običajima (čl. 3 st. 3). Ne ulazeći u raspravu na temu javnog poretka, pa i javnog poretka u porodičnim odnosima, nameće se zaključak da je načelo najboljeg interesa deteta ovim pojmom zapravo obuhvaćeno, što potvrĎuje da sud po službenoj dužnosti o tome mora voditi računa.60 U kontekstu primene oficijelne maksime nužno je prokomentarisati i problem odreĎivanja privremenih mera u postupcima o izdržavanju (ali i šire, u postupcima u koje su, načelno, involvirana deca, odnosno njihova prava). PZ RS, naime ne reguliše izricanje privremenih mera, osim u postupku u sporu za zaštitu od nasilja u porodici.61 Stoga se moraju primeniti odredbe Zakon o izvršenju i obezbeĎenju.62 Nasuprot tome PZ F BiH odredbom čl. 249 st. 1 iznosa izdržavanja (up. odredbu čl. 161 sr. 2 PZ RS, npr.). Prednacrtom GraĎanskog zakonika RS (čl. 184) precizira se da se poverilac i dužnik mogu sporazumeti o visini doprinosa i načinu davanja, u pisanoj formi pred organom starateljstva, a overu vrši sud ili javni beležnik i da ima snagu izvršne isprave, Prednacrt GraĎanskog zakonika RS, dostupno na: http://arhiva.mpravde.gov. rs/lt/articles/zakonodavna-aktivnost/gradjankski-zakonik, 10. 02. 2015. Sporazumi, odnosno ugovori dobijaju sve više na značaju u regulisanju ličnih odnosa, o tome, npr., Ponjavić, Z., Ugovori kojima se uređuju lični odnosi u porodičnom pravu, Pravni život, br. 9/1998; Ponjavić, Z., Novo porodično zakonodavstvo - Proces privatizacije porodičnog prava, Novo porodično zakonodavstvo, 2006; Abramowisz, S., Contractualizing custody, dostupno na: http://www.google.rs/search?q=contactualization+in+family+law&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-i, 20.02.2015; Weinrib, L, Reconstructing Family: Constructive Trust at Relational Dissolution, 2002, dostupno na http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/journal_articles, 20 .02.2015; Hamilton, V., Principles of U.S. Family Law, 2006, str. 64, o štetnosti previše strogih imperativnih normi u odnosu na slobodu supružnika da regulišu svoje odnose ugovorom, a time i ograničenje njihovih prava, dostupno na: http://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article=1183&context=facpubs, 15.02. 2015. 60 Tako, npr., Hauser, J., Javni poredak u porodičnim odnosima, Pravni život, br. 9, 2000, str. 482., koji u okvire javnog poretka u porodičnim odnosima, shvatajući ga kao centar konvergencije individualnih interesa, svrstava vrednosti kao što su: monogamija, jednakost, sloboda volje, poštovanje ličnosti, interes deteta. 61 Čl. 198 st. 2 PZ RS 62 Zakon o izvršenju i obezbeĎenju, Službeni glasnik RS, br. 31/2011, 99/2011- dr. zakon. 109/2013 - odluka US, 55/2014 i 139/2014, čl. 293-297, privremene mere radi obezbeĎenja novčanog potraživanja, a o tome i npr., Rešenje Višeg suda u Novom Sadu, posl. br. Gž261/2013, od 30.12.2013., kojim je potvrĎeno Rešenje Osnovnog suda u Novom Sadu, posl. br. P2- 144 �ovlašćuje ne samo na izricanje ovih mera, nego i na izricanje po službenoj dužnosti u postupcima za izdržavanje maloletnog deteta ili deteta nad kojim je produženo roditeljsko pravo. I OZ RH predviĎa odreĎivanje privremenih mera u postupku za izdržavanje63 ali i druge specifičnosti, pa i izricanje ex offo u sporu u kome se rešava o izdržavanju deteta. Uslovi su uobičajeni, kako ih vide zakoni o izvršnim procedurama, ali je jedno od prihvatljivih rešenja da se smatra da postoji opasnost za lične ili druge važne interese predlagača ako se mere obezbeĎenja izdržavanja odreĎuju u korist dece, osim u slučaju povećanja iznosa izdržavanja u skladu sa povećanim mogućnostima roditelja.64 Kao podnosilac predloga može se pojaviti i Centar za socijalni rad, ako je ovlašćen na podnošenje predloga za izvršenje, a obim privremenog doprinosa je, načelno, koliko je neophodno za zadovoljavanje osnovnih životnih potreba poverioca. Pomenimo da je sasvim prihvatljivo i rezonovanje PZ FBiH (čl. 249. st. 3), u odnosu na uslove izricanja privremene mera, odnosno da je jedini uslov da se učini verovatnim postojanje činjenica od kojih zavisi pravo na izdržavanje, osim u postupku za utvrĎivanje očinstva ili materinstva. Porodični zakon Crne Gore, takodje, predviĎa izricanje privremenih mera ex offo, u postupku za izdržavanje dece i drugim postupcima u kojim se po službenoj dužnosti odlučuje o njihovom izdržavanju i ako u izdržavanju ne učestvuju oba roditelja sa odgovarajućim doprinosom.65 Čini se neophodnim da se i u porodičnom pravu Srbije reguliše izričito izricanje privremenih mera u postupcima za izdržavanje, a kada je tužilac dete i ex offo, bez obzira na to da osnov ovakvom postupanju suda može biti i Ustav RS, odnosno načelo posebne zaštite, 66kao i čl. 6 PZ RS, odnosno dužnost "svakoga" da se rukovodi najboljim interesom deteta "u svim aktivnostima koje se tiču deteta". Razlog više je sadašnja primena opštih pravila izvršne procedure o privremenim merama, o čijoj se adekvatnosti može diskutovati.67 Morale bi se precizirati i posebne vrste privremenih mera, ili, barem odrediti da li su to one za novčane ili nenovčane tražbine.68 2721/13, od 26.11.2013, Elektronski bilten Osnovnog suda u Novom Sadu, 2015, dostupno na: http://www.bilten.osns.rs/presuda/sentenca?url=privremena-mera-3, 17.02.2015 63 Čl. 537-359 OZ RH, kao i čl. 536 o ostalim situacijama 64 Videti i čl. 538 st. 1 OZ RH, a u slučaju postupka za osporavanje očinstva ili materinstva, kada se mora učiniti verovatnim da je lice protiv koga se mera odreĎuje roditelj deteta (st. 2) 65 Čl. 369 st. 1 PZ RCG 66 Čl. 66 Ustava RS, Službeni glasnik RS, br. 98, 2006 - posebna zaštita odreĎenih kategorija lica, ali i dece. 67 Istraživanja pokazuju da se privremene mere retko traže, a kao razlog prepoznaje se hitnost alimentacionih parnica (navodno brzo ostvarenje trajne zaštite) i nedovoljna informisanost i neznanje stranaka, Petrušić, N., Privremene mere radi izdržavanja u parnicama iz porodičnopravnih odnosa, u: Ostvarivanje i zaštita prava na zakonsko izdržavanje, Pravni fakultet u Kragujevcu, 2002, str. 157-172. Organ starateljstva bi, takoĎe, imao pravo kao učesnik sui generis i da ih zahteva i da zahteva sprovoĎenje, ali je pitanje koliko to i čini u praksi, pa bi i ulogu organa starateljstva trebalo precizirati u ovom smislu. 68 Ibidem, str. 164-167. 145 �5. Hitnost postupanja, pravo na pravično suđenje i suđenje u razumnom roku Hitnost postupanja svakako je jedna od garantija efikasnom ostvarenju sudske zaštite. U postupcima o zakonskom izdržavanju načelo hitnosti,69 odnosno naročite hitnosti70 je stoga ne samo prihvaćeno već se nizom posebnih procesnih rešenja nastoji na njegovoj primeni. Tako, PZ RS, predviĎa da se prvo ročište u postupku za izdržavanje zakazuje u roku od osam dana od dana prijema tužbe u sudu, a da sud drugog stepena mora odlučiti u roku od 15 dana od dana dostavljanja žalbe. I iz zajedničkih odredaba PZ RS o sudskim postupcima u vezi sa porodičnim odnosima sledi hitnost postupanja kroz odredbe o nedostavljanju tužbe tuženom na odgovor, sprovoĎenju postupaka koji se odnose na dete ili roditelja koji vrši roditeljsko pravo na najviše dva ročišta, od kojih se prvo zakazuje tako da se održi u roku od 15 dana od prijema tužbe ili predloga u sudu i o dužnosti suda drugog stepena da o žalbi odluči u roku od 30 dana od dana dostavljanja žalbe.71 Ipak, evidentno je da u praksi postoje problemi pridržavanja rokova od strane suda pa se zaštita ostvaruje u postupku zbog povrede prava na suĎenje u razumnom roku, ali je to dug i put sa neizvesnim ishodom. Jedno od mogućih rešenja za ubrzanje postupka u stvarima izdržavanja dece svakako je poseban "pojednostavljeni" vanparnični postupak u stvarima izdržavanja deteta predviĎa OZ RH (čl. 474-477) u kome je dete tužilac, a roditelj sa kojim dete ne živi tuženi. Pored posebnih pravila nadležnosti, u cilju zaštite prava deteta, zakon naznačuje i da u predlogu mora biti odreĎen iznos u skladu sa čl. 314, skraćeni su rokovi dostavljanja predloga protivniku i podnošenja prigovora na predlog na osam dana, a ako se ne prigovori, sud bez održavanja ročišta i neobrazloženim rešenjem prihvata predlog. Ako protivnik prigovori postupak se nastavlja po pravilima posebnog parničnog postupka za izdržavanje. Rešenje se može pobijati samo zbog apsolutno bitnih povreda odredaba parničnog postupka ili pogrešne primene materijalnog prava. I neki dugi posebni vanparnični postupci iz OZ RHG imaju isti cilj. Tako, postupak za odobravanje sporazuma o izdržavanju (čl. 470-473)72 i postupak za odobravanje plana o zajedničkom roditeljskom staranju (čl. 461-469). I niz opštih odredaba za vanparnične postupke iz OZ RH ima značaja u kontekstu efikasne zaštite dečijih prava, npr., o mogućnosti da se rešenjem odredi neodložno izvršenje činidbe (čl. 443 st. 2), ovlašćenje suda da odluči da žalba ne zadržava izvršenje 69 Videti čl. 268 st. 3 PZ FBiH i čl. 263 st. 2 OZ RH Čl. 280. PZ RS, dok se za sve postupke u vezi porodičnih odnosa predviĎa hitnost postupanja ako se odnose na dete ili roditelja koji vrši roditeljsko pravo, videti odredbu čl. 204 st 1 PZ RS, kao i odredbu čl. 21 st. 2 Prednacrta Zakona o pravima deteta PS, dostupno na: http://www.ombudsman.rs/attachments/nacrt%2009.11-11-doc, 10. 03. 2015. 71 Videti i čl. 347 OZ RH 72 PZ RS u delu o samostalnom postupku za izdržavanje ne pominje sporazum o izdržavanju deteta, ali se iz konteksta odredaba o sporazumima roditelja o vršenju roditeljskog prava, posebno o samostalnom vršenju u kome se mora naći, uz ostalo, i sporazum o visini doprinosa za izdržavanje deteta od roditelja koji ne vrši roditeljsko pravo, mora zaključiti da je sporazum moguć. 70 146 �ako se izriču mere kojima se štite prava i dobrobit dece (čl. 445 st. 4), odredbe o sredstvima prisile u postupcima, kakvo je prisilno dovoĎenje, oduzimanje isprava, zatvorske kazne i sl. za lica koja protivno nalogu suda ne preduzimaju neophodne procesne radnje (čl. 441), pravila dokazivanja (čl. 440) i niz drugih. 73 Efikasnosti parničnih postupaka uopšte, pa i onih za izdržavanje doprinose rešenja o tzv. vremenskom okviru za sprovoĎenje postupka,74 uz pomenuto ograničenje da će se postupak sprovesti "po pravilu" na najviše dva ročišta, pri čemu odrednica "po pravilu" svakako ne doprinosi hitnosti i omogućava sudijama odstupanja na koja je već upozoreno. No, postojanje vremenskog okvira ne znači da se ročišta ne mogu odlagati.75 Svako odlaganje, pak, uslovljava novi vremenski okvir. I drugi mehanizmi koji služe ubrzanju postupaka, npr., o tome da sud, opet "po pravilu", zakazuje jedno ročište za glavnu raspravu radi izvoĎenja svih dokaza ili da, ukoliko je potrebno održati više ovakvih ročišta, sud ih zakazuje "u najkraćem vremenskom razmaku" (čl. 309 st. 2,3 ZPP), svakako su od koristi, ali ne i dovoljna. No, bez obzira na to da su ustanovljeni izvesni procesni mehanizmi koji treba da doprinesu efikasnosti postupaka u vezi dečijih prava, pa i za izdržavanje, čini se da, barem u Srbiji, još uvek nisu u primeni najadekvatniji procesni instrumenti, a posebno se ovakav zaključak odnosi na adhezione parnice za izdržavanje. Odluke Suda za ljudska prava donesene protiv Srbije ukazuju na to da je u postupcima o poveravanju dece, a onda i izdržavanju, česta povreda čl. 6 Evropske konvencije o zaštiti ljudskih prava, odnosno prava na suĎenje u razumnom roku, nedopuštenom dužinom trajanja parničnih, ali i izvršnih postupaka, kao i izvršavanja privremenih mera. 76 Posebna tema, kojom se zbog ograničenog obima ne možemo baviti je neizvršavanje sudskih odluka o izdržavanju, odnosno uskraćivanje izdržavanja.77 73 Prethodni OZ RH imao je takoĎe posebno pravilo i tome da će se podaci o adresi tuženog kada je tužilac dete tražiti po službenoj dužnosti od policijske uprave, a ako dostava ni tada nije moguća, postaviće se tuženom privremeni zastupnik (čl. 305b, 305c i 305d OZ RH), a ovakvo rešenje ima smisla s obzirom da je i dostavljanje tuženom u ovim postupcima otežano zbog različitih načina izbegavanja prijema. 74 Čl. 308 ZPP RS, inače svi zakoni država regiona predviĎaju primenu zakona o parničnom postupku za sva pitanja koja nisu posebno regulisana 75 Čl. 329 ZPP RS 76 Npr., odluke u slučajevima: Veljkov protiv Srbije, predstavka br. 23087/07, presuda od 19. 04. 2011, dostupno na: http://pescanik.net/up-content/PDF/Presude/Veljkov.pdf, 12. 03. 2015; Dimitrijević i Jakovljević protiv Srbije, predstavka br. 34922/07; Ristić protiv Srbije, predstavka br. 32181/08, presuda od 18. 01. 2011; M.V. protiv Srbije, predstavka br. 45251/07, presuda od 22. 09. 2009, dostupno na: http://www.zstupnik.mpravde.gov.rs. Uglavnom, odluke se odnose na postupke poveravanja, odnosno staranja o deci i njihovo izvršavanja, ali ne i na samostalne postupke o izdržavanju. 77 Petrušić, N., Konstantinović-Vilić, S, Ostvarivanje prava na izdržavanje - (ne)moć države, Zbornik radova "Vladavina prava i pravna država regionu", Istočno Sarajevo, 2014, o tzv. ekonomskom nasilju koje, u slučaju uskraćivanja izdržavanja posebno pogaĎa decu. Interesantne podatke daje istraživanje o (ne)efikasnosti parničnih i izvršnih postupaka za izdržavanje (obj. u radu iz napomene br. 57 ovog rada). 147 �TakoĎe, u kontekstu prava na pristup pravosuĎu (pravdi), koje ima rang osnovnog pravnog principa, obaveza je država da obezbede da niko ne bude "sprečen ekonomskim preprekama u svom nastojanju da ostvari ili odbrani svoje pravo pred sudom",78 izdvajaju se dva značajna pitanja. Prvo je pitanje besplatne pravne pomoći, drugo, osloboĎenje od prethodnog plaćanja troškova parničnog postupka. Zakoni o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći su već doneseni u nekim državama u regionu, 79 negde su, već nedopušteno dugo, u fazi izrade.80 O njihovom značaju ne treba posebno govoriti u odnosu na postupke koji se tiču prava dece, pa i one o izdržavanju, u okolnostima sve većeg siromaštva kao posledice globalne ekonomske krize, a posebno u tranzicionim, pa i državama našeg regiona. VoĎenje sudskih postupak je, opšte je mesto, veoma skupo, a to značajno negativno utiče na realizaciju prava na pristup sudu. OsloboĎenje od prethodnog plaćanja troškova parničnog postupka je, u pravnom sistemu Srbije, pre svega, povezano uz mogućnost da se stranci prizna i pravo na besplatnu pravnu pomoć (besplatnog punomoćnika), odnosno ukoliko je stranka potpuno osloboĎena od plaćanja troškova postupka (takse i predujam za izvoĎenje dokaza i objavljivanje sudskih oglasa), ali se i ovo nerado koristi u praksi.81 Samo osloboĎenje, pak, uslovljeno je okolnošću da stranka nije, prema svom opštem imovnom stanju, u mogućnosti da ovakve troškove snosi.82 No, sud odluku o osloboĎenju donosi isključivo po predlogu stranke, ali može prikupljati podatke i obaveštenja o imovnom stanju stranke i po službenoj dužnosti.83 Uz konstataciju da su ovakva zakonska rešenja značajna garantija olakšanju procesnog položaja lica koja nemaju, ili nemaju dovoljno finansijskih sredstava za život, a onda i za voĎenje sudskih postupaka, treba reči da istraživanja pokazuju da do oslobaĎanja relativno retko i dolazi u praksi. Uzrok se prepoznaje u nedovoljnoj informisanosti stranaka o ovoj zakonskoj mogućnosti i ignorisanju zahteva od strane sudova, koji su posledica nedostatka sredstava iz kojih bi se troškovi predujmili.84 78 Petrušić, N., Pravo na pristup pravdi u svetlu novog ZPP, u: Pristup pravosuđu - instrumenti za implementaciju evropskih standarda u pravni sistem RS, Knj. 2, Zbornik radova, Niš, 2007, str. 167. 79 Zakon o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći RH, NN, 143/13, dostupno na: http://www.zakon.hr/z/286/Zakon-o-besplatnoj-pravnoj-pomoći, 13. 03. 2015; Zakon o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći CG, Službeni list CG, br. 20/2011, dostupno na: http://www.sluybenilist.me/PravniAktDetalji.aspx?tag={7AE2D296-5FF0-4907-9A65AF3A97D0BD4, 13. 03. 2015; Zakon o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći Republike Srpske, Službeni glasnik Republike Srpske, br. 120/13, 63/14 80 Nacrt Zakona u RS, dostupno na: http://www.mpravde.gov.rs/sekcija/53/radne-verzijepropisa.php, 13. 03. 2015; 81 Čl. 170, u vezi čl. 168 i 169 ZPP RS, videti o tome kod Petrušić, N., op. cit, str. 167. 82 Čl. 168 ZPP RS 83 Čl. 169 st. 3 ZPP RS 84 Petrušić, N, Konstantinović-Vilić, S., op. cit, str. 33. 148 �6. Zaključak Značaj ostvarenje prava na zakonsko izdržavanje ne treba posebno potencirati, posebno u uslovima sve većeg siromaštva, pa i porodičnog i ličnog. Često iznosi koje sud dodeljuje za izdržavanje jedina sredstva i način da se obezbedi egzistencija izdržavanog lica. U odnosu na decu, specifičan problem čini to da se pomenutim sredstvima, uz životni egzistenciju, moraju obezbediti i ona koja imaju za cilj razvoj deteta - fizički, mentalni, duhovni, moralni i socijalni. Obaveze u ovom smislu imaju, primarno, roditelji i druga lica odreĎena nacionalnim zakonodavstvima, ali i država. sam sudski postupak, pak, mora biti efikasan, a procesni mehanizmi adekvatni pravnoj prirodi prava na izdržavanje i opštem cilju, odnosno odgovornosti delovanja u najboljem interesu deteta. Primena istražnog načela u najširem smislu čini se, stoga, kao neophodnost posebno pri utvrĎivanju ukupnih potreba deteta, ali i mogućnosti dužnika izdržavanja, a ovda, u slučaju da primarni dužnici nisu u mogućnosti da obezbede takva sredstva, neophodno je predvideti čvrste dopunske procesne mehanizme za obezbeĎenje iz budžeta države i olakšan način isplate. Analiza porodičnih zakona jednog broja država regiona ukazuje na razlike u pristupu načelu dispozicije, posebno u odnosu na dispozitivne presude i sudsko poravnanje. Povoljnosti, ali i mane ovih instrumenata su brojne, stoga je neophodno analizirati ih sa aspekta dopustivosti u alimentacionim parnicama i izričito normirati prihvatljivu varijantu koja omogućava zaštitu prava deteta na najvišem nivou, odnosno uz proveru sa aspekta najboljeg interesa deteta. Postoje i značajne razlike, dileme i problemi u primeni niza drugih procesnih instituta, od koji je ograničen broj pomenut i analiziran u radu. Sa aspekta pravnog sitema Srbije, moglo bi se zaključtiti da postojeća rešenja Porodičnog zakona nisu u dovoljnoj meri garantija efikasne zaštite dece u postupcima za zakonsko izdržaavnje pa je nužno, u postupku izrade GraĎanskog zakonika, koja je u toku, predvideti niz novih ili postojeća prilagodi ovim ciljevima. 149 �Dr sc. Dušica Palačković, full professor Law Faculty, University of Kragujevac Republic of Serbia RESUME Realization of the right to legal child alimony is often the only way for providing the means necessary for existence, as well as for the development of the child – physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social. The obligations in this regard have, primarily, parents and other parties determined by national legislations, but also the state. Judicial proceedings, in circumstances where the necessary resources are not provided spontaneously by the primary debtors of the obligation, must be efficient, and the procedural mechanisms must comply with the legal nature of the right to child support and the goal - the best interest of the child. Therefore, by applying inquisitorial procedure in the broadest sense, it is necessary to determine the overall needs of the child, and then, in the event that the primary debtors are not able to provide such resources, provide additional protection mechanisms - securing funds from the state budget and easier method of payment.. The analysis of family law in a number of countries in the region indicates differences in the approach to the disposition principle, particularly in relation to the dispositive judgments and the court settlement. The advantages, but also disadvantages of these instruments are numerous, therefore it is necessary to analyze them in terms of admissibility in alimony lawsuits and specifically standardize the acceptable option that enables the protection of the rights of the child at the highest level, with the verification from the point of the child’s best interest. There are considerable differences, dilemmas and problems in the application of a numer of other procedural institutes, out of which a limited numer was analized in this paper. From the aspect of the Serbian legal system, it could be concluded that the existing solutions of the Family Law do not sufficiently guarantee effective protection of children in proceedings for legal child alimony, so it is necessary, in the drafting of the Civil Code, which is in progress, to predict a series of new, or to adapt the existing solutions to these goals. Key words: civil proceedings for child alimony, inquisitorial procedure, еx officio, public hearing within a reasonable time, urgency of action 150 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2993 Title A name given to the resource PROCESNI INSTRUMENTI U FUNKCIJI ZAŠTITE PRAVA NA ZAKONSKO IZDRŽAVANJE DETETA Author Author PALAČKOVIĆ, Dušica Abstract A summary of the resource. Autorka u radu, polazeći od značaja procesnih rešenja za ostvarenje svakog supstancijalnog prava, pa i prava dece na zakonsko izdržavanje, analizira zakonodavna rešenje jednog broja država regiona i iznosi teorijske stavove o specifičnim načelima koja se u parnicama za zakonsko izdržavanje prihvataju i primenjuju. Prati način regulisanja i primenu, putem konkretnih procesnih instituta, pre svega istražnog i načela oficijelnog postupanja sudova, kao i prava na pristup pravosuđu, posebno principa suđenja u razumnom roku. Pri tome, pokušava da odgovori na pitanja koliko su, i da li su, adekvatni usvojeni procesni instrumenti koji se primenjuju u postupcima za izdržavanje, a pre svega da omoguće brzu, efikasnu, a onda i potpunu zaštitu dece kojima je izdržavanje neophodan, a često i jedini, izvor sredstava za egzistenciju i razvoj. Takođe, nastoji da prepozna nedostatke regulative i predlaže izvesne smernice za izmenu propisa koji regulišu ovu oblast. Ključne reči: parnični postupci za izdržavanje, istražno načelo, oficijelnost, suđenje u razumnom roku, hitnost postupanja Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Law faculty of University Džemal Bijedić Mostar Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),K Law (General)